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B.E. / B.Tech. DEGREE EXAMINATION, APRIL 2015 (R 2013)

PART A – (10 X 2 = 20 marks)
1.What do you mean by static calibration?
Some applications involve the measurement of quantity that are either constant
or vary slowly with time. Under these circumstances it is possible to define a set
of criteria that gives a meaningful description of quantity of measurement.These
criteria are called as static characteristics
2.Define fundamental and derived units.
Units which are fundamental to most other physical quantities are called
“fundamental units”.
Physical Quantities like length, mass and time are called as “Primary
fundamental units”.
Physical quantities in the electrical, thermal, illumination fields are called as
“Auxiliary fundamental units”.
All other units which can be expressed in terms of the fundamental units with
the help of physical equation are called “Derived units”.
3.Differentiate range and span.

Range: It is defined as the maximum and minimum value between which the
instrument can provide output values.
Span: It is defined as the difference between maximum and minimum value of the
quantity that the instrument is designed to measure.

4.When a step input is given to a second order system, the measurements revealed
that the system had an overshoot of 12 percent. Determine the damping ratio.

5.A platinum resistance thermometer has a resistance of 120  at 25oC. Determine

the resistance at 65oC. The temperature coefficient of resistance is 0.00392 at 25oC.

Resistance at 65°C is, R65 = 120[1+0.0392(65-25)] = 115.68Ω

6.Write the principle of resistance type humidity sensor.

The Principle of Resistive type humidity sensor is based on change in resistivity. The
resistance of element changes when it is exposed to variations in humidity.

7.How an E1 pick up is working?

This transducers works on the principle of production of eddy currents.The armature
is subjected to displacements transverse to the direction of electromagnetic pull, the
fore required being much smaller.

8.Sketch the frequency response of a typical capacitor microphone.

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9.List out any four materials by which piezoelectric transducers are made off.
Quartz, Roschelle salt, ceramics A & B, ammonium dihydrogen sulphate.

10.Draw the block diagram of the architecture of smart sensor.

PART B – (5 x 16 = 80 marks)

11.(a) (i) Discuss about the measurement standards in detail. (8)

A standard is a physical representation of unit of measurement.The term
standard is applied to a piece of equipment having a known measure of physical
quantity.

Classification of standards:

 International standard
 Primary standard
 Secondary standards
 Working standards

International standards:
The International standards are defined on the basis of international agreement.
They represent the units of measurements which are closed to the possible to the
possible accuracy attainable with present day technological and scientific
methods.
International standards are checked and evaluated regularly against absolute
measurements.

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International standards are maintained at the International Bureau of weight and

measures.
Primary standards:
Primary standards are absolute standards of such high accuracy.
They can be used as ultimate reference standards.
These standards are maintained by national standards laboratories in different parts
of the world.
One of the main functions of primary standards is the verifications and calibration of
secondary standards.
Secondary standards:
The secondary standards are the basic reference standards used in Industrial
measurement laboratories.
The responsibility of maintenance and calibration of these standards lies with the
particular industry involved.
These standards are checked locally against reference standards available in the area.
Secondary standards are normally sent periodically to the national standard
laboratories for calibration and comparison against primary standards.
Working standards:
The working standards are the major tools of a measurement laboratory.
These standards are used to check general laboratory instruments for their accuracy
and performance.
11.(a) (ii) While measuring temperature in a system, following ten
measurements have been recorded.
Temperature oC 39.6 39.9 39.7 39.9 40.0 39.8 39.9 39.8 40.4 39.7
Calculate the mean, the standard deviation, the probable error of one reading and
range. (8)

Solution:
i) mean
39.6  39.9  39.7  39.9  40  39.8  39.9  39.8  40.4  39.7 398.7
X   39.870 C
10 10

ii) The standard deviation

d1  x1  X

 d2

n1
0.272  0.032  0.172  0.032  0.132  0.072  0..032  0.072  0.532  0.172
  0.221V
9

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iii) Probable error of one reading r1  0.6745 S

 0.6745  0.22  0.15V
r1 r1 0.15
iv) Probable error of mean     0.05V
n 1 9 9
v) Range = 40.4 –39.6 = 0.8V

11.(b) (i) Describe the classification of errors in measuring instruments. (8)

Types of errors :

The static error is defined earlier as the difference between the true value of the
variable and the value indicated by the instrument. The static error may arise due to
number of reasons. The static errors are classified as :

1. Gross errors
2. Systematic errors
3. Random errors
Gross errors : The gross errors mainly occur due to carelessness or lack of experience
of a human being. These cover human mistakes in readings, recordings and
calculating results. These errors also occur due to incorrect adjustments of the
instruments. These errors cannot be treated mathematically. These errors are also
called personal errors.
Remedies:

Great care should be taken in reading and recording the data.

Three or even more reading should be taken in the quantity under measurement.

Systematic error:

A) Instrumental errors: These errors are due to the shortcoming of the

instruments such as friction in bearings of moving parts, spring tensions, hysteresis,
vibration in air gap etc. These errors are caused due to misuse of the instrument such
as improper zero setting, poor initial adjustment, using leads of high resistance etc. If
the instrument is used improperly such that loading effect takes place, then
instrumental errors are caused.

B) Environmental errors: These errors are due to the conditions external to the
measuring instrument. The various factors resulting these environmental errors are
temperature changes, pressure changes, thermal e.m.f., stray capacitance, cross
capacitance, effect of external fields, ageing of equipment and frequency sensitivity
of an instrument.

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C) Observation errors: These are the errors introduced by the observer. These are
many sources of observational errors such as parallax error while reading a meter,
wrong scale selection, the habits of individual observers etc.

To eliminate such observational errors, one should use the instruments with
mirrors, knife edged pointers, etc. The instruments with digital display can largely
eliminate such observational errors.

Random errors are statistical fluctuations (in either direction) in the measured data
due to the precision limitations of the measurement device. Random errors usually
result from the experimenter's inability to take the same measurement in exactly the
same way to get exact the same number.

11.(b) (ii) Discuss about the classification of transducers based on different

characteristics. (8)
The transducers can be classified as follows:

i. On the basis of transduction form used.

ii. As primary and secondary transducers.
iii. As passive and active transducers.
iv. As analog and digital transducer.
v. As transducer and inverse transducer.
Classification based upon principle of Transduction:

The transducers can be classified on the basis of principle of transduction as

resistive, Inductive, captive etc, depending upon how they convert the input
quantity into resistance, inductance or capacitance respectively.

Resistance Transducers:

Potentiometer device – Positioning of the slider by an external force varies to

resistance in a potentiometer or a bridge circuit.
Strain Gauge - Resistance of a wire or semiconductor is changed by elongation or
compression due to externally applied stress.
Resistance Thermometer –Resistance of metal varies with temperature
Photo conductive cell - Resistance of a cell as a circuit element varies with light.
Capacitance Transducers:

Variable Capacitance transducer-Distance between two parallel plates is varied

by an externally applied force.
Capacitor Microphone - Sound pressure varies the capacitance between a fixed plate
and a movable diaphragm.
Dielectric gauge -Variation in Capacitance by changes in the dielectric or dielectric
Constant.

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Inductance Transducers:
i.Magnetic circuit transducer - Self inductance or mutual inductance of
A.C. excited coil is varied by changes ing the magnetic circuit.
ii.Differential transformer - The differential voltage of two secondary windings
of a transformer is varied by positioning the magnetic core through a externally
applied force.
Thermocouple:An emf is generated across the junction of two dissimilar metals or
semi conductors when that junction is heated.
Hall Effect transducer:A potential difference is generated across a semiconductor
plate when negative flux interacts with an applied current.
Primary and secondary Transducer:
The tranducers which senses the measurement and converts them into another
variable like displacement, strain and whose output forms the input of another
transducer is called the primary tranducer.
The tranducers which converts the output of the primary transducer into an
electrical signal is called the secondary tranducer.
Example: The Bourdon tube is called as “Primary Transducer”and L.V.T.D is called
as “Secondary Transducer”.

Passive and Active transducers:

Passive Transducers derive the power required for transduction from an

auxillary power source. Example: Linear pot, Strain guage.
Active transducers are those which do not require an auxillary power source to
produce their output. They are also known as “self – generating type”.
Example: Thermocouple, Photovoltaic cell, Piezoelectric crystals.

Analog and digital Transducers:

Analog transducers: These transducers convert the input quantity into analog
output which is a continuous function of time.

Example:L.V.D.T, Thermocouple or a thermistor may be called as Analog

transducer as they give an output is a continuous function of time.

Digital transducers: These transducers convert the input quantity int9o electrical
output which is in the form of pulses.

Transducers and inverse transducers:

Transducers:Transducers can be broadly defined as a device which converts the non

electrical quantity into an electrical quantity.
Inverse transducers: An inverse transducer is defined as a device which converts an
electrical quantity into non – electrical quantity.

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Example:- Piezo electric crystals, Analog ammeter (or) Voltmeter.

12.(a) Explain the static characteristics Accuracy, Precision, Sensitivity and Linearity
with respect to measuring instruments. (16)
Sensitivity: It is defined as the ratio of the changes in the output of an instrument to
a change in the value of the quantity to be measured.

Mathematically it is expressed as,

Accuracy : It is the degree of closeness with which the instrument reading

approached the true value of the quantity to be measured. It indicates the ability of
an instrument to indicate the true value of the quantity.

It can be expressed in the following ways.

1. Point accuracy
2. Accuracy “as Percentage of scale Range”
3. Accuracy “as Percentage of true value”
Point accuracy:
 This is the accuracy of the instrument only at one point on its scale.
 The specification of this accuracy does not give any information about the
accuracy at all other points.
Accuracy as “Percentage of scale Range”:
 When an instrument has uniform scale, its accuracy may be expressed in
terms of scale range.
 For Example: The accuracy of a thermometer having a range of 500°C may be
expressed as ±0.5 percent of scale reading (or) range.
 This means that the accuracy of the thermometer when the reading is 500°C is
±0.5 percent which is negligible.
 But when the reading is 25°C, it is the 20% of the scale range, the error is high
500
as  0.5  10% and therefore specification of accuracy in this manner is highly
25
misleading.
Accuracy as “Percentage of True value”:-
 The best way to conceive the idea of accuracy is to specify it in terms of the true
value of the quantity being measured. (i.e.) within ±0.5 percent of true value.
 This statement means thus as the readings get smaller so do the errors.

Precision: It is a measure of the degree of agreement within a group of

measurements.

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It composed of two characteristics:(i) Conformity and (ii) Number of significant

figures.

Linearity: It is normally desirable that the output reading of an instrument is lineraly

proportional to the quantity being measured.

% of Nonlinearity =

12.b.(i) A temperature sensor when subjected to sudden change in temperature

takes 10 secs to reach equilibrium. Calculate the time taken by the transducer to
read half of the temperature difference. (6)

Solution:
Time to reach equilibrium conditions = 5 = 10s

Now we have,
θ = θO
The time to read half of the temperature difference can be calculated as
0.5 =
t = 1.39s.
12.b.(ii)Derive the step response of a second order-damped instrument system. (10)
Let the closed loop transfer function of the second order system is,

C ( s)  2

 n
R( s) S 2  2 S   2
n n
1
For a unit step input, R( s ) 
S
 2

C ( s)  n  1

S S  2 S  
2
n n
2


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2 2
2  4  2  4  2 
S  n n n       1  
1, 2 2 n   n
 
For an under damped system   1 , and the roots are
2
S    j 1      j
1, 2 n n n d
2
where,  d  n 1  
  damped frequency of oscillation.
d
Applying partial fraction expansion to equation (1)
 2
A BS  C
n   2

S S 2  2 S   2
n n  S S  2 S   2
n n

n n 
 2  A s2  2 s   2   Bs  C  s
n 
Comparing the co efficient of like powers of ‘S’
S 2 terms ;0  A  B
S terms ;0  2 A  C
n
Constant terms,  2  A 2
n n
A  1; B  1; C  2
n

C ( s) 
1

 S n  

n
S  S n  jd  S n  jd   S n  jd  S n  jd 
1 S    d 
C (S )   n  n
 
 S n  d  S n  d 
2 2
S 2 2
 d 
 t   t
C (t )  1  e n cos d t  n e n sin d t
d

 t  

C (t )  1  e n cos d t  sin d t 
 1 2 
 
 t
e n  1
 1
2 
C (t )  1  sin   t  tan  
 d
 
 
2
1 

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 t
n  1  2 
e
  where,   tan 
1
C (t )  1  sin d t  
  
1
2  

13.(a) (i) Explain the principle of operation of strain gauge. Also explain the
construction of bonded type strain gauge. (8)

Strain Gauge is a passive transducer that converts a mechanical elongation or

displacement produced due to a force into its corresponding change in resistance R,
inductance L, or capacitance C. A strain gauge is basically used to measure the strain
in a work piece. If a metal piece is subjected to a tensile stress, the metal length will
increase and thus will increase the electrical resistance of the material. Similarly, if
the metal is subjected to compressive stress, the length will decrease, but the breadth
will increase. This will also change the electrical resistance of the conductor. In the
bonded type strain gauge, the element is fixed on a backing material, which is
permanentally fixed over a structure whose strain has to be measured with adhesive.
Most commonly used bonded strain gauges are metal type. It is manufactured by
photo etching technique. Here the thin strips of the foil are the active elements of the
strain gage, while the thick ones are for providing electrical connections. Because of
large area of the thick portion, their resistance is small and they do not contribute to
any change in resistance due to strain, but increase the heat dissipation area. The
strain gage shown in Fig can measure strain in one direction only.
Bonded Metal Foil Strain Gauges:

This class of strain gauges is only an extension of the bonded metal wire strain
gauges. The bonded metal wire strain gauges have been completely superseded by
bonded metal foil strain gauges.

The spreading of wire permits a uniform distribution of stress over the grid. The
carrier is bonded with an adhesive material to file specimen under study. This
permits a good transfer of strain from carrier to grid of wires. The wires cannot
buckle as they are embedded in a matrix of cement and hence faithfully follow both
the tensile and compressive strains of the specimen.

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13.a.(ii) Explain the construction and operation of hot-wire anemometer. (8)

The hot-wire anemometer measures the instantaneous velocity at a point. It consists

of a small sensing element that is placed in the flow field at the point where the
velocity is to be measured. The sensing element is a short, thin wire, which is
generally of platinum or tungsten, connected to a suitable electronic circuit. The
operation depends on the fact that the electrical resistance of the wire is a function of
its temperature; that the temperature, in turn, depends on the heat transfer to the
surrounding fluid; and that the rate of heat transfer increases with increasing
velocity of flow past the wire.

In one type of hot-wire anemometer the wire is maintained at a constant

temperature by a variable voltage, which changes the current through the wire.
Thus, when an increase in velocity tends to cool the wire, a balancing device creates
an increase in voltage to increase the current through the wire. This tends to heat up
the wire to counteract the cooling and thus maintain it at constant temperature. The
voltage provides a measure of the velocity of the fluid.

The potentiometer resistance, R3, is adjusted until the Wheatstone bridge is balanced,
i.e., there is no current or voltage reading across BD (i.e., IBD = 0 and VBD = 0). The
fact that VBD is zero means that the voltage drop across the elements must be the
same for both sides of the bridge, VAB = VAD and VBC = VDC (if VAB ≠ VAD, then VB ≠
VD, and that would violate VBD being equal to zero). Using Ohm’s law (V = IR), this
condition gives IAB (RI + RW) = IADR3 and IBCR2 = IDCR4. The zero current condition
(IBD= 0) also means that IAB = IBC and IAD = IDC. This sets up the Wheatstone resistance
relationship for the HWA wire resistance.

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Rw  R1 R3
R2 = R4

13.(b) (i) Describe the principle of operation, Construction details of resistance

thermometers. Also Explain the characteristics of different metals for
resistance thermometers. (10)

The resistance of a conductor changes when its temperature is changed. This

property is utilized for the measurement of temperature. The resistance thermometer
is an instrument used to measure electrical resistance in terms of temperature, i.e. it
uses the change in the electrical resistance of the conductor to determine the
temperature.

The main part of a resistance thermometer is its sensing element. The

characteristic of the sensing element determines the sensitivity and operating
temperature range of the instrument.

(There are three common types of temperature sensitive resistive elements in use,
the wire wound resistance, the thermistor and the PTC semiconductor resistance.)

The sensing element may be any material that exhibits a relatively large
resistance change with change in temperature. Also, the material used should be
stable in its characteristics, i.e. neither its resistance nor its temperature coefficient of
resistance should undergo permanent change with use or age.

The temperature sensing element used in this thermometer should exhibit a

relatively large change in resistance for a given change in temperature. Also the
sensing element should not undergo permanent change with use or age. Another
desirable characteristic for the sensing element is the linear change in resistance with
change in temperature. When the sensing element is smaller in size, less heat is

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required to raise its temperature. This is suitable for measurement of rapid variations
in temperature. Platinum, nickel, and copper are the metals most commonly used to
measure temperature. The relationship between temperature and resistance of
conductor is given by equation :

Rt = Rref [ 1 + α ∆t ]

Where
Rt : resistance of the conductor at temperature toC,
Rref : resistance of the conductor at the reference temperature, usually 0oC,
α : temperature coefficient of the resistance,
∆t : difference between the temperature to be measured & reference temperature.
Construction

These elements nearly always require insulated leads attached. At temperatures

below about 250 °C PVC, silicone rubber or PTFE insulators are used. Above this,
glass fibre or ceramic are used. The measuring point, and usually most of the leads,
require a housing or protective sleeve, often made of a metal alloy which is
chemically inert to the process being monitored. Selecting and designing protection
sheaths can require more care than the actual sensor, as the sheath must withstand
chemical or physical attack and provide convenient attachment points.

Metals used for Resistance Thermometers:

Resistance Temp. Temperature Range

Metal
Co-efficient /°C Minimum Maximum
Platinum 0.39 -260 110
Copper 0.39 0 180
Nickel 0.62 -220 300
Tungsten 0.45 -200 1000

13.(b) (ii) Mention the applications of DC potentiometer. Explain the current

measurement by potentiometer. (6)

Applications of DC potentiometer :

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14.(a) (i) Explain the principle of operation and construction of variable

reluctance transducer. (8)

A transducer of the variable type consists of a coil wound on a ferromagnetic core.

The displacement which is to be measured is applied to a ferromagnetic target. The
target does not have any physical contact with the core on which it is mounted. The
core and the target are separated by an air gap, as shown in Fig. (a).

The reluctance of the magnetic path is determined by the size of the air gap. The
inductance of the coil depends on the reluctance of the magnetic circuits.
The self inductance of the coil is given by

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N2
L 
Ri  Rg
Where N = number of turns
Ri = reluctance of iron parts
Rg = reluctance of air gap
The reluctance of the iron part is negligible compared to that of the air gap.
Therfore L = N2/Rg
lg
Rg 
0 XAg

Where l g = length of the air gap

Ag = area of the flux path through air

 0 = permeability

Rg is proportional to l g , as  0 and Ag are constants.

Hence L is proportional to I/ l g , i.e. the self inductance of the coil is inversely
proportional to the length of the air gap.

When the target is near the core, the length is small and therfore the self
inductance large. But when the target is away from the core the reluctance is large,
resulting in a smaller self inductance value. Hence the inductance of the coil is a
function of the distance of the target from the core, i.e. the length of the air gap.

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A separate coil is wound on each outside leg of an E core and an iron bar is
pivoted on the centre leg. A magnet extends from each outside leg through an air
gap and through the iron bar to the centre leg.

The moving member is attached to one end of the iron bar and and causes the bar
to wobble back and forth, thereby varying the size of each air gap.

The bridge consists of two transducer coils and a tapped secondary of the input
power transformers. It is balanced only when the inductance of the two transducer
coils are equal, i.e. when the iron bar in a nearly exact horizontal position and the air
gaps are equal.

Whenever the iron bar at point A moves and alters the air gap, the bridge
becomes unbalanced by an amount proportional to the change in inductance, which
in turn is proportional to the displacement of the moving member.

The increase and decrease of the inductance with varying air gap sized is non-
linear, and so is the output. Also, the flux density within the air gaps is easily
affected by external fields.

14.(a) (ii) Describe the principle of operation of capacitive transducer and how
pressure is measured using capacitive transducer. (8)

Capacitive transducers: The principle of operation of capacitive transducer is based

upon the familiar equation for capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor.

Capacitance
Where,
A = Overlapping area of plates ; m2
d = distance between two plates ‘ m
permittivity of medium ; F/m
= relative permittivity
= permittivity of free space ; 8.85 X 10-12 F/m

The figure shows the schematic diagram of a parallel plate capacitive transducer.

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The capacitive transducer work on the principle of change of capacitance which

may be caused by :-
i. Change in overlapping Area A:
ii. Change in distance d between the plates.
iii. Change in dielectric constant.
These changes are caused by physical variables like displacement, force and
pressure in must of the cases.
The capacitive transducers are commonly used for measurement of linear
displacement.
Thus transducers use the following effects:
i. Change in capacitance due to change in a overlapping area of plates.
ii.Change in capacitance due to change in distance between the plates.
Pressure measurement:

14.(b) Describe the principle of operation, Construction details, characteristics and

applications of LVDT. Discuss about the advantages and disadvantages.

Linear Variable Differential Transforms: (LVDT)

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The most widely used inductive transducer to translate the linear motion into
electrical signals is the linear variable differential transformer.

Construction:

The transformer consists of single primary winding P and two secondary windings
S1 and S2, wound on a cylindrical former.The secondary windings have equal
number of turns and are identically placed on either side of primary winding.The
primary winding is connected to an alternating current source.
A movable soft iron core is placed inside the former.The displacement to be
measured is applied to the arm attached to soft iron core.In practice the core is made
of high permeability, nickel iron, gives low harmonics, low null voltage and a high
sensitivity.The assembly is placed in stainless steel housing and the end coils provide
electrostatic and electromagnetic shielding.The frequency of AC applied to primary
windings may be between 50Hz to 20KHz.
The primary winding is excited by an AC source, it produces an alternating magnetic
field which in turn alternating current voltages in the two secondary windings.The
output voltage of secondary S1 is ES1 and that of secondary S2 is ES2
In order to convert the output from S1 and S2 into single voltage signal, two
secondary’s S1 and S2 are connected in series.
Thus the output voltage of the transducer is the difference of two voltages.
Differential output voltage EO = ES1 - ES2

Operation of LVDT:
When the core is at its normal (NULL) position, the flux linking with both the
secondary windings are equal and hence equal emf’s are induced in them.Thus at
null position: ES1 = ES2 since the output voltage of the transducer is the difference of
the two voltages, the output voltage EO is zero at null position.
Now if the core is moved to the left of the null position, the more flux links with
winding S1 and less with S2.Accordingly output voltage ES1 of the secondary winding
S1 is more than ES2, output voltage of secondary winding S2.The magnitude of output

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voltage is thus, EO = ES1 - ES2 and the output voltage is in phase with primary
voltage.

Similarly, if the core is moved to the right of the null position, the flux inking with
winding S2 becomes more than that linking with S1.This result in ES2 becoming larger
than ES1. The output voltage in this case EO = ES1 - ES2, and is 180° out of phase with
primary voltage.
The amount of voltage change in either secondary winding is proportional to the
amount of movement of the core.The difference of the two voltages appears across
the output terminals of the transducer and gives measure of the physical position of
core and hence the displacement.The amount of output voltage may be measured to
determine the displacement.

Characteristics of LVDT:

The output voltage of an LVDT is a linear function of core displacement within a

limited range of motion.The curve is practically linear for small displacement (upto
about 5mm).The above figure shows the variation of output voltage various
displacement for various positions of core.The curve is practically linear for a limited
range of displacement from the null position. Beyond this range of displacement the
curve starts to device from a straight line.

Advantages of LVDT:

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High range for measurement of displacement. [1.25mm to 250mm]

Friction and Electrical isolation [there is no physical contact between the movable
core and coil structure.
Immunity from External effects.
High input and High sensitivity.
Ruggedness.
Low hysteresis and low power consumption.

Disadvantages of LVDT:

Relatively large displacements are required for appreciable differential output.

The transducer performance is affected by vibrations.
Sensitive to stay magnetic fields.
The Receiving instrument must be selected to operate on AC signals or a
demodulator network must be used if a DC output is required.
The dynamic Response is limited and temperature affects the performance of
transducer.

Applications of LVDT:

The LVDT can be used in all applications where displacements ranging from fraction
of a mm to a few cm have to be measured.
Acting as a secondary transducer it can be used as a device to measure force, weight
and pressure etc.
It can be used for measurement of weight or pressure existed by liquid in a tank.

15.(a)(i)Describe the principle of piezoelectric sensor. What are the applications of it ?

(8)

Piezo-electric transducers:
Piezoelectric transducers are a type of electroacoustic transducer that convert the electrical
charges produced by some forms of solid materials into energy.
A piezo-electric materials is one in which an electric potential appears across certain
surfaces of a crystals if the dimension of the crystal are changed by the application of
mechanical force.The potential is produced by the displacement of charges.
The effect is reversible, i.e. Conversely, if a varying potential is applied to the
proper axis of the crystal, it will change the dimension of the crystals there by
deforming it.This effect is known as “PIEZO-ELECTRIC EFFECT”.
Elements exhibiting piezo-electric qualities are called as electro resistive elements.
Common piezo-electric materials include, Rochelle salt, quartz, ceramics A & B,
ammonium dihydrogen sulphate, potassium dihydrogen, sulphate, dipotassium
tartarate, lithium sulphate.

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These materials are divided into two categories:-

I) natural group and II) synthetic group.
Quartz and Rochelle salt belong to nature group while materials like lithium
sulphate, ethylene diamine tartarate belong to synthetic group.
The magnitude and polarity of induced surface changes are proportional to the
magnitude and direction of the applied to polarity.
A tensile force produces a voltage of one polarity while a compressive force
produces a voltage of opposite polarity.
Modes of operation of piezoelectric crystals:
The piezo-electric crystals are used in many modes.
These are:
1. Thickness shear
2. Face shear
3. Thickness expansion
4. Transverse expansion
These modes are shown in figure below:
(a) Thickness Shear: (b) Face Shear:

(c) Thickness Expansion: (d) Transverse Expansion:

Properties of piezo-electric crystals:

 Stability
 High output
 Insensitivity to temperature
 Humidity
 Ability to be formed into most desirable shape.

Use of Piezo-electric Transducers:

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 It can be used in the measurement of surface roughness and vibration

pickups.
 Piezo-electric materials can be used as stabilizing electronic oscillators and
ultrasonic generator.
 The piezoelectric transducers are used for studying high speed phenomenon like blast
waves and explosions .
 Other application of Peizoelectric materials include their use in aerodynamic shock
tube work and seismograph (Here these are used for measurement of acceleration and
vibrations .)
 These are used for the measurement of Displacement .
 Piezoelectric crystal are also used for measurement of force ,pressure or acceleration .
 Piezoelectric transducers are very useful in medical treatment and sonochemistry .
 In automotive companies piezoelectric transducers are used for the detection of
detonations in engine blocks.
15.(a) (ii) Explain the principle of Fibre Optic Sensor. Also discuss about the
applications. (8)
Fibre optic sensors could be classified as a separate group of sensors, as although
such sensors are in their prime. These are considered for sensing different types
of variable such as temperature, liquid level, fluid flow, acoustic parameter and
so on.
Optical fibres are divided into two groups:
 Active - The fibre is exposed to energy source that affects the measurement
and a consequent change in optical propagation in the fibre is detected and
related to measured.
 Passive - Light transmitted through a fibre called input fibre, is first
modulated by conventional optical sensor an this intensity – modulated light
is propagated through a second fibre called the output fibre and then
detected and corrected with the measured.

Temperature Sensors:

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 When two identical optical fibres are used to propagate radiation from a source
say a laser source.
 If one of these fibres is in a medium with temperature different than in fibre of
other.
 The optical output’s from two fibres would have a phase difference which is a
function of difference of temperature.
 This phase difference is due to optical path length variations in two paths
occurring due to temperature difference and is so small that it can only be
measured by producing interference patterns.

Liquid Level Sensing:

 Usually, light propagates through a fibre by total internal reflection with

appropriate cladding.
 This is because the refractive index of air is such with respect to fibre, that no
refraction can take place.
 It, however the fibre is placed in liquid medium of a different refractive index, it
is possible that light refracts into liquid and total internal reflection inside the
fibre stops, stopping light propagation in it.
 This principle is utilized in measuring liquid level.
 The bottom end of the fibre is shaped like a prism so that large difference in
refractive indices of the fibre and medium like air, there is internal reflection and
the light travels to be detected as shown in figure (a).
 When liquid level rise to cover the bottom of the fibre light refracts into liquid
and detector fails to show any output as shown in figure (b).

Fluid flow sensing:

 Fluid flow rate has been sensed by an optical fibre mounted transversely in a
pipeline through which it flows.
 Because of the fibre, mounted across the flow, vortex shedding occurring the
channel and the fibre vibrates.

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 This vibration causes phase modulation of the optical carrier wave

propagation through the fibre.
 The vibration frequency is proportional to the flow – rate.
 The figure shows the scheme to since fluid.
 The fibre is kept under tension by a tension adjusting system and a fibre
clamp.
 Flexible fillers are often used for small adjustment of tension.

OR
15.(b) (i) Briefly discuss the working and principle and applications of hall effect
sensor. (8)

Principle of Hall – Effect Transducers:

 The principle of working of a Hall – effect transducer is that a strip of

conducting material carries a current in the presence of transverse magnetic
field a difference in potential is produced between the opposite edges of the
conductor.
 The magnitude of the voltage depends upon the current, the strength of
magnetic field and property of conductor called “HALL EFFECT”.

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 The hall effect is present in metals and semi conductors in varying amounts
depending upon densities and motilities of carriers.
 When the transverse magnetic field pases through the strip an output voltage
appears across the output leads. This voltage is proportional to current and
field strength.
The output voltage is
Where, KH = Hall effect co-efficient;
t = thickness of strip; m.
I & B are respectively the current in ampere and flux density in .
 Thus the voltage produced may be used for measurement of either the current
I or the magnetic field strength B.
 The Hall Effect emf is very small in conductors compared to the semi
conductors such as germanium, silicon etc.
Applications of Hall – effect transducer:
1. The Hall-effect transducer can be used as “Magnetic to Electric “ transducer.
2. The Hall-effect element can be used for the measurement of the location or
displacement of a structural element i.e. It can serve as a indirect acting position
displacement or proximity transducer in case where a change of geometry of a
magnetic structure causes a change of magnetic field strength.
3. The Hall-effect transducer can used for measurement of current.
4. It can be used for the measurement of power.

15.(b).(ii) Describe about MEMS technology. Explain different manufacturing,

processes for MEMS. (8)

Micro electromechanical systems(MEMS):

 MEMs are basically miniature devices on silicon chip which have found a
major use in sensors.
 It uses materials such as semiconductors, metal, glass, polymer – based
materials and so on.
 Micro systems and miniaturization are gaining ground because of the
contention that Transistor work faster with shorter gate length.
Micro – machining can be done in many ways.
a. Bulk Machining:
it is now well known that there are differences in etch rates between the
crystallographic direction of silicon with particular etchants and using this
property, features can be fabricated in particular crystal plans.
b. Surface Micro Machining:
Differences between the etch properties of polysilicon and SiO2 are
used for feature development. The process is based on CMOS technology.

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c. LIGA – Lithographic Galvano forming Abformung:

It uses the Lithographic exposure of thick photo resist and then
electroplating is carried out for building mechanical parts.
This process fabricates thicker structure that that by surface micromachining.
d. BSOI – Bonded Silicon – on insulator:
Where silicon wafer is thermally bonded to an oxidized SiO2 substrate. The
bonded wafer is polished to a desired thickness and the etching is done by deep
reactive can etching (DRIE). The technique uses an inductively coupled plasma
etcher with special etching techniques to achieve high etch rates.

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