Buchla Ch02 Res Lecture

Renewable Energy 2
Systems
Buchla, Kissell, Floyd
Renewable Energy Systems Copyright © 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc.

David Buchla | Thomas Kissell | Thomas Floyd All Rights Reserved
Chapter Outline
Electrical Fundamentals 2
Renewable Energy Systems
Buchla, Kissell, Floyd
2-1 ENERGY, CHARGE, AND VOLTAGE

2-2 ELECTRICAL CURRENT
2-3 RESISTANCE AND OHM'S LAW
2-4 POWER AND WATT'S LAW
2-5 SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS
2-6 CONDUCTORS, INSULATORS, AND SEMICONDUCTORS
2-7 MAGNETISM AND ELECTROMAGNETIC DEVICES
2-8 CAPACITORS , INDUCTORS, AND TRANSFORMERS
2-9 PROTECTIVE DEVICES
2-10 BASIC ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS
2-1 Energy, Charge and Voltage
Work is done when a force is applied over a distance. To

do work, you must have both force and distance.
d
The work to move the box was done against friction

and is the product of force, F, and distance, d.
You can also do work in lifting the box; in this case
the work would be the force exerted against gravity
multiplied by the height, h, it is lifted.
3
Energy is the ability or capacity for doing work; it comes

in three major forms; potential, kinetic, and rest.
Potential energy is stored energy. An example is the
water stored behind a dam because it can do work.
The equation for gravitational
potential energy is WPE = mgh
Kinetic energy is the energy of
motion. An example is the motion
of wind or water. The equation for
kinetic energy is WKE = ½ mv2.
© tonisalado/Fotolia
Rest energy is the equivalent energy
of mass as expressed by E = mc2.
Energy is measured in units of the joule. A

joule is a small amount of energy; it is the 1n
work done in lifting a 1 newton (n) weight

(about 3.6 oz) 1 meter (m).
How much energy is expended in lifting

an 8000 n piano a height of 0.5 m? 1m
The energy is the product of the force and

distance. In this case, the distance moved
is the height, h. W = Fh = (8000 n)(0.5 m) =
4000 J.
The basic unit of electrical charge is the coulomb,

symbolized by the letter Q.
Voltage, symbolized by V, is defined as energy per unit
charge. The volt is the unit of voltage symbolized by V.
The formula for voltage is V = W/Q where W = energy in
joules and Q = charge in coulombs.
a) Battery (b) Graph of voltage versus time (c) Symbol
6
AC is alternating current and follows a sinusoidal pattern.

In North America, the utility frequency, f, is 60 Hz,
meaning there are 60 cycles in one second. In many
countries, the frequency is 50 Hz. The period, T is 1/f.
T
What is the period if f = 60 Hz?
T = 1/f = 1/60 Hz = 16.7 ms

7
2-2 Electrical Current
Current is symbolized by I and its unit is the ampere (A).

Conventional current is based on the assumption that
charge moved from positive to negative by definition.
Electron flow is just opposite to this definition and is
negative to positive. Either can be used, but it is
important in some cases to know which is referred to.
The basic formula for current is I = Q/t, where Q is the
charge in coulombs and t is the time in seconds.

2-2 Electrical Current
AC can be compared to dc by their equivalent heating

value (power). If the ac is specified as rms current or rms
voltage, the result is equivalent to a direct current or
direct voltage.
AC voltage of 1 Vrms
DC voltage
of 1 V
Note that the peak is 1.41 times higher than the

rms value for the ac waveform.
9
2-3 Resistance and Ohm’s Law
Resistance is the opposition to current. Except for

superconductors, all materials have resistance.
Fixed resistors are components that have resistance
that cannot be altered:
Fixed resistor Symbol
Variable resistors are components with resistance

that can be altered:
Variable resistor Symbol

Current
Wire size and resistance capacity
Resistance
Resistance
Wire size per 1000
is related to the current AWG
copper
feet
per km
wire
carrying capacity of (amps)
(ohms)
(ohms)
wires. 16 15 4.016 13.176

14 20 2.525 8.284
12 25 1.588 5.210
10 30 0.9989 3.277
What is resistance of 15 km 8 40 0.6282 2.061
of 1/0 wire? 6 55 0.3951 1.296
4 70 0.2485 0.815
3 85 0.187 0.614
2 95 0.1563 0.513
1 110 0.1239 0.406
R = 0.323 W/km. 1/0 125 0.0983 0.323
(0.323 W/km)(15 km) = 4.9 W 2/0 145 0.0779 0.256
3/0 165 0.0618 0.203
4/0 195 0.049 0.161

Ohm’s law is the most important law in electronics. It

indicates the relationship between voltage, current
and resistance.
Three forms are illustrated:
To solve for current,
To solve for voltage, V = IR
To solve for resistance,

2-4 Power and Watt’s Law
Power (P) is the rate at which energy is

expended. Rate always involves time
(t), so power is expressed as
where P = power in joules when W is in

newton-meters and t in is in seconds
Two identical weights are lifted the same

distance but in different times. Compare the
energy required and the power expended.
1 2
The energy expended is the same; the one lifted

in the shortest time requires the greater power.
In the electrical field, power is often expressed in units of

kilowatts (1000 watts) and megawatts (1,000,000 watts).
The power company does not charge for
power, but for energy. In the electrical
field, energy is expressed as kilowatt-hours
(kWh) or megawatt-hours (MWh)
What is the energy used if five 60 W bulbs

are on for three hours?
© Viktor Gmyria/Fotolia
The total power is 300 W. The energy used
is (300 W)(3 h) = 900 Wh = 0.90 kWh.
Watt’s law formulates the relationship between power

voltage and current. Three forms of Watt’s law are:
(a) What is the power used in a heater if

120 V is applied and the current is 8 A?
(b) What is the resistance of the heater?
(a) The power is P = VI = (120 V)(8 A) = 960 W.

V 2 120 V 
2
(b) The resistance is R =   15 W

P 960 W
2-5 Series and Parallel Circuits
In a series circuit, there is only one path for current, so

current is the same everywhere in the circuit.
The reading on the first ammeter is 2.0 mA,

What do the other meters read?
2.0 mA 2.0 mA
2.0 mA 2.0 mA

The total resistance in series is the sum of the individual

resistances: RT = R1 + R2 + R3 +......+ Rn and the total
voltage is the sum of the individual voltages:
VS = V1 + V2 + V3 +......+ Vn
(a) What is the total resistance?

(b) What are the voltage drops?
(a) RT = R1 + R2 + R3 = 6 W + 6 W + 12 W  24 W
(b) From Ohm’s law, I = 0.5 A and VS = 12 V.
VS = V1 + V2 + V3
= IR1 + IR2 + IR3
= (0.5 A)(6 W) + (0.5 A)(6 W) + (0.5 A)(12 W)
V1 = 3 V, V2= 3 V, V3 = 6 V
The total voltage from solar modules or batteries is

the sum of the individual voltages. If six modules are
wired in series and each module has 18 V output,
what is the total output voltage?
VT = 6 (18 V) = 108 V
When you need to increase the output voltage, connect

sources in series, but be aware of safety issues.
The total resistance in parallel is the reciprocal of the

sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistances:
1
RT =
1 1 1 1
+ + + ...+
R1 R2 R3 Rn
(a) What is the total resistance?

(b) What is the current in each
resistor?
(a) RT = 1 1
  2.76 W
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
+ + + ...+ + +
R1 R2 R3 Rn 5.0 W 16 W 10 W
(b) From Ohm’s law, I1 = 2.0 A, I2 = 0.625 A, I3 = 1.0 A,
If equal sources are wired in parallel, the total output

voltage is the same as any one source. The advantage
to parallel wiring is an increase in ability to supply
current.
Assume six 18 V solar modules are wired in parallel. What is

the output voltage? How will the ability to supply current
change?
The output voltage is 18 V,

but taken together, the
ability to supply current
has increased by a factor
of six over a single module.
2-6 Conductors, Insulators and Semiconductors
Conductors are materials that allow the free movement

of charge. Metals tend to be good conductors
because many electrons can move freely in the
metallic crystal. These electrons are called conduction
electrons and they are not bound to a particular atom.
In liquids, the moving charge is composed of positive

and negative ions, never electrons. Materials known
as electrolytes form ions in water solution and are
good conductors.
Insulators are materials that prevent the free movement

of charge. The outer shell electrons that are normally
involved in chemical bonds are called valence
electrons. These electrons are generally not involved in
conducting charge in the solid.
Comparing the energy
diagrams of conductors and
insulators reveals that the
electrons must acquire much
more energy to be in the
conduction band of insulators
than in conductors. In metals,
electrons can easily acquire
sufficient energy to become
Conductor Insulator
conduction electrons.
Cables and wire are examples

where high quality conductors
and insulators are needed.
Insulators are used as a
protective covering for cables
and wires. Coaxial cable is an
example; it has an inner
conductor, an insulation layer,
an outer braided conductor
that normally is connected to
© shutswis/Fotolia
ground, and a outer insulator.

A semiconductor is a crystalline material that has

properties between those of conductors (metals) and
insulators (nonmetals). For electronics, silicon (Si) is the
most widely used semiconductor. For semiconductors
to be useful, impurities are added creating two
important classes of materials: p-materials (positive)
and n-materials (negative).
An important semiconductor
device is a diode, which has a
p-material on one side and an
n-material on the other side in
one crystal. A few
representative diodes are
shown.
Diodes allow current in one direction only, so are

important in converting ac to dc.
There are several types of specialized

diodes. A PV cell is a special diode
that converts sunlight to electricity.
PV cells form the basis of larger
modules, which are connected
together in many solar energy
systems.
Source: David Buchla

Symbol for a PV cell
David
© 2015 by Pearson Higher Buchla | Thomas
Education, Inc. Kissell | Thomas Floyd All Rights Reserved
An important semiconductor is the

transistor. A basic bipolar transistor
is a sandwich of alternating n-and
p-material. It can amplify signals or
is often used in switching
applications.
Another important semiconductor is the thyristor.

These are generally four-layer devices that are used to
control power. In renewable energy systems, they are
frequently used in charging circuits.

2-7 Magnetism and Electromagnetic Devices
All magnetic fields have their origin in moving

charge, which in solid materials is caused by moving
electrons. In certain materials, such as iron, atoms
can be aligned so that the electron motion is
reinforced, creating an observable field that extends
in three dimensions.
Magnetic fields are
described by flux lines.
Here the lines surrounding
two magnets are

visualized with iron filings
and tend to reinforce.

A magnetic field surrounds current carrying wire,

forming a circular pattern. It can be visualized with
iron filings. Here the wire goes through a paper plate
with iron filings in it.
By forming the wire into

a coil, and placing it
into a magnetic
material, useful devices
can be formed.

Generators are electromagnetic devices of great

importance in renewable energy systems, so will be
covered in Chapter 13. Generators are spun by an
energy source and produce electricity.
Generators produce
electricity when a conductor
moves perpendicularly to a
magnetic field. A common
type of generator rotates a
coil in a magnetic field to
produce a sine wave. © tomalu/Fotolia
Generators at Hoover Dam

2-8 Capacitors, Inductors, and Transformers
A capacitor is an electrical device that stores energy

in the form of an electric field established by electrical
charge. In its most basic form, the capacitor is
constructed of two conductive plates placed
physically in parallel and separated by an insulating
material called the dielectric.
A representative capacitor is shown. This is a mica
capacitor consisting of alternating conductive and
dielectric layers.

The amount of charge that a capacitor can store per

unit of voltage across its plates is its capacitance (C).
C = Q/V
where C is capacitance in farads, Q is charge in
coulombs, and V is voltage in volts.
The energy stored is
W = (1/2)CV2
where C is capacitance in farads, V is voltage in volts
and W is energy in joules.
Currently, there is research on supercapacitors for

energy storage; they have significant advantages
over batteries, with much longer lifespans.
Supercapacitors (AKA ultracapacitors) can be

thought of as two nonreactive porous carbon
electrodes suspended within
an electrolyte. The electrodes are
made from porous carbon
separated by about 1 nm!
Researchers at Vanderbilt University

have reported they have found a novel
way to construct silicon-based
supercapacitors. The supercapacitors might be integrated into
solar cells along with the microelectronic circuitry that it powers
them. This could lead solar cells that can store energy.

Inductance is the property of a wire conductor to

oppose a change in current. An inductor is basically a
length of insulated wire formed into a coil that
intensifies the magnetic field.
When the current through a

coil changes, an induced
voltage is created across
the coil in a direction that
always opposes the change
in the current.
© zigzagmtart/Fotolia

A transformer is a device formed by two or more coils

(windings) magnetically coupled to each other to
provide for transfer of ac power electromagnetically
from one winding to the other.
In power applications,
transformers are used
to change ac voltage
levels from one value
to another.
Source: NREL
2-9 Protective Devices
Fuses and circuit breakers are placed in series with

circuits and are used to create an open (break in the
circuit) when the current exceeds a specified number
of amperes.
A fuse is a one-time device that must be
replaced when it overheats and “blows”.
Fuses come in a large variety of sizes.
A circuit breaker will “trip” when

excess current is detected. After the
condition is corrected, the circuit
breaker can be reset manually.

A GFCI (ground fault circuit interrupter) is a circuit

breaker that is used to protect from severe or fatal
electric shock.
The GFCI monitors the difference

between the hot and neutral
currents and trips the breaker if
they differ because the current is
returning to the source via a

ground connection.

A switch is a device that controls a circuit by opening

or closing contacts. A pole is a contact and a throw is
the movable part. Switches are classified by the
number of poles and throws. Pushbutton switches are
either normally open (NO) or normally closed (NC).
From the definition, determine what each type of

switch in terms of poles and throws:
SPST SPDT DPST
DPDT NOPB NCPB

2-10 Basic Electrical Measurements
The DMM is the most widely used electronic-measuring

instrument. It can be used to measure voltage, current
and resistance. Many DMMs can measure other
quantities as well. To use a DMM. first select the quantity
to be measured. For current or voltage, select ac or dc.
To measure voltage, connect the meter in
parallel with the voltage to be measured.
To measure current, connect the meter in series

with the component to be measured.
To measure resistance,
disconnect the resistor from the
circuit and place the leads in
parallel with the resistor.
2-10 Basic Electrical Measurements
The clamp meter is a type of DMM that does not require

that the circuit is opened for current measurements. The
sensing element is a set of jaws that are opened or
closed around a single conductor.
As in the case of a standard DMM, the

quantity to be measured is selected.
For current or voltage measurements,
either ac or dc is selected.
Source: Fluke Corp .

Selected Key Terms
Ampere The unit of current symbolized by I.
Current The flow of electrical charge past a specified

point in a circuit.
Digital multimeter An instrument that can measure voltage, current,

(DMM) and resistance.
Energy The ability or capacity for doing work.
Joule The SI unit of energy. The work done when 1

newton of mechanical force is applied over a
distance of 1 meter.

Selected Key Terms
Kilowatt-hour A unit energy. The energy used when one

thousand watts of power are expended in one
hour.
magnetic flux The amount of flux, f, per unit area (A)
density perpendicular to the magnetic field.
Ohm The unit of resistance.
Ohm's law A circuit law that specifies the relationship

between voltage, current and resistance as a
mathematical formula.
Parallel circuit A type of circuit connection where two or more

components or loads are connected across a
common voltage source.

Selected Key Terms
Power The rate at which energy is expended.
Resistance The opposition to current.
Series circuit A type of circuit connection in which there is a

single complete path (forming a string) from the
voltage source and through the load (or loads)
and back.
Sinusoidal The cyclic pattern of ac voltage or current. Also
wave known as a sine wave.
Voltage Energy per unit charge
Watt’s law A circuit law that expresses the relationship of

voltage, current, resistance, and power as a
formula.

true/false quiz
1. You are doing work if you push on a

car, but it won’t budge.

true/false quiz
2. Three forms of energy are potential,

kinetic, and rest.

true/false quiz
3. The unit of current is the coulomb.

true/false quiz
4. One form of Watt’s law can be

expressed as W = IR2.

true/false quiz
5. AWG #6 wire is smaller than AWG #4

wire.

true/false quiz
6. Ohm’s law can be written as V= IR.

true/false quiz
7. The current in a parallel circuit is the

same everywhere.

true/false quiz
8. Diodes allow current in one direction

only.

true/false quiz
9. When there is current in a wire, there

is always a magnetic field present.

true/false quiz
10. A capacitor can store more charge

if it is charged to higher voltage.

true/false quiz
Answers:
1.F 6.T
2.T 7.F
3.F 8.T
4.F 9.T
5.T 10. T


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Renewable Energy 2

Renewable Energy Systems Copyright © 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc.

2-1 ENERGY, CHARGE, AND VOLTAGE

Work is done when a force is applied over a distance. To

The work to move the box was done against friction

Energy is the ability or capacity for doing work; it comes

Energy is measured in units of the joule. A

work done in lifting a 1 newton (n) weight

How much energy is expended in lifting

The energy is the product of the force and

The basic unit of electrical charge is the coulomb,

a) Battery (b) Graph of voltage versus time (c) Symbol

AC is alternating current and follows a sinusoidal pattern.

What is the period if f = 60 Hz?

T = 1/f = 1/60 Hz = 16.7 ms

Current is symbolized by I and its unit is the ampere (A).

Renewable Energy Systems Copyright © 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc.

AC can be compared to dc by their equivalent heating

Note that the peak is 1.41 times higher than the

Resistance is the opposition to current. Except for

Fixed resistor Symbol

Variable resistors are components with resistance

Variable resistor Symbol

wires. 16 15 4.016 13.176

Renewable Energy Systems Copyright © 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Ohm’s law is the most important law in electronics. It

To solve for current,

To solve for voltage, V = IR

To solve for resistance,

Renewable Energy Systems Copyright © 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Power (P) is the rate at which energy is

where P = power in joules when W is in

Two identical weights are lifted the same

The energy expended is the same; the one lifted

In the electrical field, power is often expressed in units of

What is the energy used if five 60 W bulbs

Watt’s law formulates the relationship between power

(a) What is the power used in a heater if

(a) The power is P = VI = (120 V)(8 A) = 960 W.

(b) The resistance is R =   15 W

In a series circuit, there is only one path for current, so

The reading on the first ammeter is 2.0 mA,

Renewable Energy Systems Copyright © 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc.

The total resistance in series is the sum of the individual

(a) What is the total resistance?

The total voltage from solar modules or batteries is

When you need to increase the output voltage, connect

The total resistance in parallel is the reciprocal of the

(a) What is the total resistance?

If equal sources are wired in parallel, the total output

Assume six 18 V solar modules are wired in parallel. What is

The output voltage is 18 V,

Conductors are materials that allow the free movement

In liquids, the moving charge is composed of positive

Insulators are materials that prevent the free movement

Cables and wire are examples

ground, and a outer insulator.

Renewable Energy Systems Copyright © 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc.

A semiconductor is a crystalline material that has

Diodes allow current in one direction only, so are

There are several types of specialized

Source: David Buchla

An important semiconductor is the

Another important semiconductor is the thyristor.