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Your brain doesn't need complex stuff to learn basic Biology. It needs logic, organized
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Table of Contents
Foreword......................................................................................................................................... 3
Disclaimer........................................................................................................................................ 3
Biochemistry.................................................................................................................................... 9
Biochemistry Introduction.......................................................................................................... 11
Water and Mineral Salts............................................................................................................ 13
Carbohydrates........................................................................................................................... 18
Lipids......................................................................................................................................... 20
Proteins..................................................................................................................................... 22
Enzymes................................................................................................................................... 29
Nucleic Acids............................................................................................................................. 35
Cell Biology.................................................................................................................................... 43
Cell Structure............................................................................................................................ 45
Cell Membrane.......................................................................................................................... 54
Cytoskeleton and Cell Movement.............................................................................................. 63
Cell Secretion............................................................................................................................ 65
Cell Digestion............................................................................................................................ 66
Cell Nucleus.............................................................................................................................. 68
Cell Division.............................................................................................................................. 73
Photosynthesis.......................................................................................................................... 84
Cell Respiration......................................................................................................................... 91
Protein Synthesis...................................................................................................................... 99
Microbiology................................................................................................................................ 107
Bacteria................................................................................................................................... 109
Protists.................................................................................................................................... 113
Fungi....................................................................................................................................... 117
Viruses.................................................................................................................................... 120
Zoology........................................................................................................................................ 123
Life Kingdoms......................................................................................................................... 125
Poriferans................................................................................................................................ 128
Cnidarians............................................................................................................................... 131
Platyhelminthes....................................................................................................................... 135
Nematodes.............................................................................................................................. 139
Annelids.................................................................................................................................. 142
Arthropods.............................................................................................................................. 147
Molluscs.................................................................................................................................. 154
Echinoderms........................................................................................................................... 158
Chordates............................................................................................................................... 161
Fishes..................................................................................................................................... 164
Amphibians............................................................................................................................. 167
Reptiles................................................................................................................................... 170
Birds........................................................................................................................................ 173
Mammals................................................................................................................................ 176
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Embryology.................................................................................................................................. 301
Embryonic Development......................................................................................................... 303
Extraembryonic Membranes................................................................................................... 308
Botany......................................................................................................................................... 311
Plant Classification.................................................................................................................. 313
Bryophytes.............................................................................................................................. 316
Pteridophytes.......................................................................................................................... 317
Gymnosperms......................................................................................................................... 320
Angiosperms........................................................................................................................... 323
Plant Tissues........................................................................................................................... 328
Plant Physiology...................................................................................................................... 334
Genetics...................................................................................................................................... 345
Genetic Concepts.................................................................................................................... 347
Mendel's Laws........................................................................................................................ 352
Non-mendelian Inheritance..................................................................................................... 357
Linkage and Crossing Over..................................................................................................... 362
Sex Determination and Sex-Linked Inheritance...................................................................... 365
Blood Types............................................................................................................................ 370
Karyotype and Genetic Diseases............................................................................................ 375
The Hardy-Weinberg Principle................................................................................................ 379
Genetic Engineering................................................................................................................ 382
Evolution...................................................................................................................................... 387
Origin of Life............................................................................................................................ 389
Theory of Evolution................................................................................................................. 395
Ecology........................................................................................................................................ 403
Concepts of Ecology............................................................................................................... 405
Earth's Biomes........................................................................................................................ 407
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Diseases...................................................................................................................................... 439
Concepts of Parasitism........................................................................................................... 441
Bacterial Infections.................................................................................................................. 443
Protozoan Diseases............................................................................................................... 446
Fungal Infections..................................................................................................................... 452
Viral Infections......................................................................................................................... 453
Worm Diseases....................................................................................................................... 461
Prion Diseases........................................................................................................................ 467
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Biochemistry
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The water properties that make water The main anions found in living beings
biologically important are molecular are the chlorine anion (Cl-), the
polarity, thermal stability (elevated phosphate anion (PO4--), the bicarbonate
specific heat), fusion and ebullition anion (HCO3-), the nitrate anion (NO3-)
points that allow water to be liquid in and the sulfate anion (SO4-).
most environments, acid-base
neutrality, small molecular size and low
chemical reactivity. (Compared to other
substances, like ethanol or hydrogen 12. How do mineral salts
sulfide.) participate in osmotic
regulation?
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Benzene and the ethers are molecules The terms saturated or unsaturated
without electrically charged portions and refer then to the saturation of the
thus they are non-polar substances. carbonic chain by hydrogen atoms.
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12. What is the binding Yes. The nitrogen of the amine group of
between two amino acids one amino acid binds to the carbon of
called? the carboxyl group of the other amino
acid. The water molecule liberated from
the formation of the peptide bond thus
The chemical bond between two amino
has a hydrogen from the amine and an
acids is called a peptide bond.
oxygen and another hydrogen from the
carboxyl.
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The quaternary protein structure is the 27. What are some factors
spatial conformation due to interactions that can lead to protein
among polypeptide chains that form the denaturation?
protein.
Protein denaturation can be caused by
Only those proteins made of two or
temperature variation, pH change,
more polypeptide chains have
changes in the concentration of
quaternary structure. Insulin (two
surrounding solutes and by other
chains), hemoglobin (four chains) and
processes. Most proteins denature after
the immunoglobulins (antibodies, four
certain elevation of temperature or
chains) are some examples of protein
when in very acid or very basic
having quaternary structure.
solutions. This is one of the main
reasons that it is necessary for the
organisms to keep stable temperature
and pH.
25. What is protein
denaturation? Is there any
change in the primary
structure when a protein is
denatured?
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Catalysts are substances that reduce Enzymes are highly specific to the
the activation energy of a chemical reactions they catalyze. They are of vital
reaction, facilitating it or making it importance for life because most
energetically viable. The catalyst chemical reactions of the cells and
increases the speed of the chemical tissues are catalyzed by enzymes.
reaction. Without enzymatic action those
reactions would not occur or would not
happen in the required speed for the
biological processes in which they
2. What amount of catalyst is participate.
consumed in the reaction it
catalyzes?
5. What is meant by
Catalysts are not consumed in the substrates of enzymatic
reactions they catalyze. reactions?
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13. How does the substrate The curve of variation of speed of the
concentration affect the speed enzymatic reaction as a function of
of enzymatic reactions? growing substrate concentration is a
growing curve until the point where it
stabilizes due to the saturation of the
Initially as substrate concentration
activation centers of the enzymes.
increases, the speed of the reaction
increases; this happens because free
The curve of variation of speed of the
activation centers of the enzyme bind to
enzymatic reaction as a function of
free substrates. Once all activation
growing temperature has a crescent
centers of the available enzymes
portion and reaches a peak (the
become bound to their substrates new
optimum temperature) then it decreases
increments of the substrate
and reaches zero in the point of
concentration will have no effect on the
inactivity of the enzymes by
speed of the reaction.
denaturation.
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Cell Biology
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37. What is the path followed 40. What are plant cell
by the energy absorbed by vacuoles? What are their
plants to be used in functions? What is the
photosynthesis? covering membrane of the
vacuoles called?
The energy source of photosynthesis is
the sun, the unique and central star of Plant cell vacuoles are cell structures
our planetary system. In photosynthesis delimited by membranes within which
the solar energy is transformed into there is an aqueous solution made of
chemical energy, the energy of the various substances like carbohydrates
chemical bonds of the produced glucose and proteins. In young plant cells many
molecules (and of the released small vacuoles can be seen; within adult
molecular oxygen). The energy of cells the most part of the internal area
glucose is then stored as starch (a of the cell is occupied by a central
glucose polymer) or it is used in the vacuole.
cellular respiration process and
transferred to ATP molecules. ATP is The main function of the vacuoles is the
consumed in metabolic processes that osmotic balance of the intracellular
spend energy (for example, in active space. They act as “an external space”
transport across membranes). inside the cell. Vacuoles absorb or
release water in response to the cellular
metabolic necessities by increasing or
lowering the concentration of osmotic
38. Of what substance is the particles dissolved in the cytosol.
plant cell wall made? Of which Vacuoles also serve as a storage place
monomer is it made? for some substances.
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25. What is mass The plant cell wall (the covering of the
cell external to the cell membrane) is
transportation across the cell made of cellulose, a polymer of glucose.
membrane?
When the cell is put under hypotonic
Mass transportation is the entrance or medium it absorbs too much water
the exiting of substances in or from the through osmosis. In that situation the
cell engulfed by portions of membrane. cell wall pressure acts to compensate
The fusion of internal substance- the osmotic pressure thus forbidding
containing membranous vesicles with excessive increase of the cellular
the cell membrane is called exocytosis. volume and the cell lysis.
The entrance of substances into the cell
after they have been engulfed by
projections of the membrane is called
endocytosis. 28. What is meant by suction
force of the plant cell? Does
the suction force facilitate or
26. What are the two main make difficult the entrance of
types of endocytosis? water into the cell?
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Autophagic intracellular digestion is the In tadpoles the tail regresses while the
cellular internal digestion of waste and organism develops into an adult frog.
residual materials. In general it is done This tissue destruction is a digestion of
by lysosomes. the tail's own cells and extracellular
materials and it is made by lysosomes
Autophagic intracellular digestion is and their enzymes. The complete
intensified in situations of starvation digestion of a cell by its own
because in such condition the cell tries mechanisms is called autolysis, a type
to obtain from its own constituent of apoptosis (cell suicide).
materials the nutrients necessary to
stay alive.
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The second mitotic period is metaphase. The final mitotic phase is telophase. In
In metaphase the following events telophase the following events occur:
occur: condensed chromosomes bind (in decondensation of chromosomes, each
their centromere region) to the spindle set located in opposite cell poles;
fibers and get concentrated in the karyotecha formation around each set of
middle of the cell; the formation of the chromosomes forming two nuclei;
mitotic apparatus is completed. destruction of the mitotic apparatus;
Metaphase ends with the breaking of reappearing of the nucleoli; beginning of
the binding of identical chromatids and cytokinesis (the division of cytoplasm to
then anaphase begins. ultimately separate the new cells).
22. What are the main events 25. What is the name of the
of the third mitotic period? cytoplasm division in the end
of mitosis? What are the
The third mitotic period is anaphase. In differences in this process
anaphase the following events occur: between animal and plant
duplication and breaking of centromeres
cells?
with separation of identical chromatids;
traction (by the spindle fibers) of
identical chromatids each to opposite Cytoplasm division occurs after
cell poles; beginning of chromosome telophase and it is called cytokinesis. In
decondensation. animal cells an invagination of the
plasma membrane toward the cell
center appears in the equator of the
parent cell and then the cell is
23. During mitotic anaphase is strangulated in that region and divided
into two daughter cells. This type of
there separation of
division is called centripetal cytokinesis
homologous chromosomes or (from outside).
separation of identical
chromatids? In plant cells the cytokinesis is not
centripetal since the division happens
In the anaphase of mitosis the identical from the inside. Membranous sacs full of
chromatids separate and complete pairs pectin concentrate in the internal central
of homologous chromosomes continue region of the cell and propagate to the
to exist in each daughter cell. The periphery toward the plasma
separation of the homologous membrane. The pectin-containing sacs
chromosomes occurs in the anaphase of fuse themselves and form a central
the cell division by meiosis. structure called phragmoplast. On the
phragmoplast cellulose deposition
occurs and a true cell wall is created to
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27. What are the roles of Water molecules are also produced in
NADPH and ATP in the the chemical stage of photosynthesis as
chemical stage of the following complete equation reveals:
photosynthesis?
6 CO2 + 12 H2O + light --> C6H12O6 +
6 H2O + 6 O2
NADPH acts as reductant of carbon
dioxide, it delivers highly energetic Water molecules are present in the
hydrogens to precursor molecules reagent side as well in the product side
during the glucose formation process. of the equation. Pure mathematical
ATP is an energy source for the simplification of stoichiometric
reactions of chemical stage. coefficients however leads to elimination
of water from the product side and it
then seems that 6 molecules of
molecular oxygen (O2), i.e., 12 atoms of
28. Why is the nickname “dark oxygen, are made for each 6 molecules
reactions” not entirely correct of water, i.e., 6 oxygen atoms, in the
for the chemical stage of reagent side. Thus a false impression
photosynthesis? that 6 other oxygens come from carbon
dioxide is created.
“Dark reactions” is not a correct name
for the chemical stage of photosynthesis
since the reactions of the chemical
stage also occur in the presence of light.
30. What are the three main
limiting factors of
photosynthesis?
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The two main types of fermentation are 9. Why in cake and bread
alcoholic fermentation and lactic manufacture are alcoholic
fermentation.
fermenting organisms used
In alcoholic fermentation pyruvic acid, and not lactic fermenting
an intermediate molecule, is converted organisms?
into ethanol with liberation of carbon
dioxide. The alcoholic fermentation Fermentation has the function of
equation is as follows: making cakes and breads grow. This is
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The three phases of aerobic cell 18. How many ATP molecules
respiration are glycolysis, Krebs cycle
are made after glycolysis?
and respiratory chain (also known as
the electron transport chain).
Glycolysis is a process similar to glucose
degradation in fermentation. It produces
(final balance) two molecules of ATP for
16. What is glycolysis? What each broken glucose.
are the products of this
process?
19. What is NAD? What is the
Glycolysis, the first stage of the aerobic role of the NAD molecule in
cell respiration, is a process in which
glycolysis?
glucose is degraded (broken) to form
two pyruvic acid molecules along with
the formation of two ATP and two NAD (nicotinamide adenine
NADH. dinucleotide) is a hydrogen acceptor
necessary as reductant (to receive
Glycolysis is a complex reaction hydrogen) in some reactions in which it
implying the formation of several is reduced and converted into NADH2.
intermediate molecules until pyruvic During glycolysis two NAD molecules
acid molecules are made. Although two retrieve hydrogens liberated after an
ATP molecules are consumed in the intermediate reaction thus forming
reaction, there is also production of four NADH2.
molecules of ATP, thus a positive
balance of two ATP molecules is
obtained. Two NADH molecules are also
produced. In glycolysis the 6-carbon 20. What happens during
structure of glucose is broken and two aerobic respiration to the
organic chains of three carbons each are pyruvic acid molecules made
made; these chains give birth to two by glycolysis? What is the
pyruvic acid molecules.
sequence of reactions that
then follows?
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23. Why is the Krebs cycle 25. How many carbon dioxide
also called the final common molecules are liberated after
pathway of the degradation of each cycle of the Krebs cycle?
organic compounds? For a single glucose how many
carbon dioxide molecules
The Krebs cycle is called the final were already liberated by the
common pathway of the degradation of aerobic respiration at that
organic compounds because it is also
possible to generate acetyl CoA from
point?
the degradation of lipids and proteins.
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Not all 64 codons however codify amino 17. How are amino acids
acids. Three of them, UAA, UGA and brought to the cellular site
UAG, work on information that the last where translation takes place?
amino acid of a polypeptide chain under What is an anticodon?
productions was already bound, i.e.,
they signal the end of the polypeptide
Amino acids are brought to ribosomes
synthesis. These codons are called
by RNA molecules known as transfer
terminal codons. The codon AUG
RNA, or tRNA. One tRNA associated to
codifies the amino acid methionine and
its specific amino acid binds by a special
at the same time it signals the
sequence of three nucleotides to a
beginning of the synthesis of a
mRNA codon exposed in the ribosome.
polypeptide chain (it is an initialization
This sequence in the tRNA is known as
codon).
anticodon. The tRNA anticodon must be
complementary to the mRNA codon to
In prokaryotic cells there is a sequence
which it binds, according to the rule A-
called Shine-Dalgarno sequence (in
U, CG. The ribosome then slides along
general AGGAGG) in the position that
the mRNA molecule (a process called
antecedes the initialization codon AUG.
translocation) to expose the following
The function of this sequence is
codon to the binding of other tRNA.
distinctness between the initialization
When amino acids corresponding to
AUG and other AUG codons of the RNA.
neighboring codons bind by peptide
bond the first tRNa is liberated.
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Microbiology
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10. How are bacteria classified The bacterial cell wall is made of
peptidoglycans.
according to their need for
oxygen?
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1. What are the main cellular The main structures of pluricellular fungi
are the hyphae (threadlike filaments
features of fungi?
made of contiguous uni or
multinucleated cells) and the mycelium
There are unicellular and pluricellular (a set of hyphae).
fungi. All fungi are eukaryotes and
heterotrophs.
Fungi have cells with cell wall made of 5. What are the types of
chitin, the same substance that
reproduction that occur in
constitutes the exoskeleton of
arthropods. Fungi, likewise animals, fungi?
characterize for storing glucose in the
form of its polymer glycogen. In fungi there are asexual and sexual
reproduction. Fungi reproduce asexually
by fragmentation, gemmation and
sporulation. Some species can
2. Are there photosynthetic reproduce sexually by fusion of hyphae
fungi? How do fungi nourish from different individuals, even with
metagenesis (alternation of
themselves?
generations).
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9. What are lichens? How do Fungi are also responsible for many
fungi participate in this dermatologic diseases
(dermatomycosis) that affect the skin,
ecological interaction?
the nails, the scalp, etc.
Lichens are formed by mutualist On the other hand, many fungi are able
ecological interaction between fungi and to produce antibacterial substances that
algae or between fungi and combat diseases. In the second world
cyanobacteria. In this ecological war, in German jails, Russian prisoners
interaction, the fungi absorb water that that accepted to eat moldy bread had
is then used by algae (or less skin infection than those that
cyanobacteria), and algae (or refused the food. In China, moldy soy
cyanobacteria), as autotrophs, produce sauce has millennial past use against
organic material in excess to serve as infections. Penicillin, a potent antibiotic,
food for the fungi. was discovered in 1928 by Alexander
Fleming when he observed the
antibacterial activity of fungi from the
genus Penicillium.
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Zoology
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These animals have a digestive cavity They present asexual and sexual
and they make extracellular and reproduction.
intracellular digestion. The extracellular
digestion takes place within the
digestive cavity.
10. What is the type of
asexual reproduction that
occurs in hydras?
7. What are cnidocytes? What
is the name of the capsule Hydras reproduce asexually by budding.
inside the cnidocyte? What are
the biological functions of this
structure?
11. What is metagenesis?
Cnidocytes are specialized cells present What are the other names of
in coelenterates. They are found in the this process?
epidermis and contain toxic substances
that can hurt, paralyze or even kill other Metagenesis is the type of life cycle in
animals. which there are two different forms of
individuals of the same species, one
Each cnidocyte has an internal capsule haploid and the other diploid. In one of
know as nematocyst where the actual these stages gametogenesis occurs and
urticating substance is stored. When a fecundated gametes give birth to the
cnidocyte is excited it causes the zygote that then develops into the other
nematocyst to expose a filament form. Metagenesis is also known as
containing the toxic chemical. alternation of generations or as
diplobiont life cycle. (All plants, for
Cnidocytes and their nematocysts have example, present metagenesis.)
the biological functions of defending the
individual from external aggression and
of helping to capture their prey.
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13. How can the presence, Annelids have a nervous system made
localization and function of of two ventral chords and one relatively
muscular tissue in beings of big nervous cell concentration in its
anterior portion resembling a primitive
the phylum Annelida be brain.
explained?
Nematodes have an anterior neural ring
In these beings there are a longitudinal connected to two neural chords, a
muscular layer under the epidermis and, ventral and a dorsal one, while in
internally juxtaposed and perpendicular planarias (platyhelminthes) there are
to it, another circular (radial to the axis) only two small anterior “cerebral”
muscular layer. The circular muscle ganglia from which neural chords split.
layer has the function of elongating the Cephalization in annelids thus is more
body while the longitudinal shortens it. outstanding than in nematodes or in
By alternating actions both promote flatworms.
movement.
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The word “mollusc” means “soft thing”. The phylum Mollusca is divided into five
Molluscs have soft bodies and this main classes: pelecypods, or bivalves
feature explains the name of the (Pelecypoda, or Bivalvia), includes
phylum. oysters, clams, mussels; gastropods
(Gastropoda), snails, sea slugs;
cephalopods (Cephalopoda), squids,
octopuses; scaphopods (Scaphopoda),
4. What are the biological tooth shells; Polyplacophora, chitons.
troubles that molluscs face There are a few other mollusc classes.
due to their soft body?
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All beings of the phylum Chordata have The tubular and dorsal nervous system
branchial clefts in the pharynx (in some of chordates is related to the
species present only in the embryo), cephalization in these animals and to
notochord (substituted by the spinal bilateral symmetry.
column in vertebrates) and dorsal
neural tube. The presence of neural integrating
centers with concentration of neurons in
the brains and the spinal cord (central
nervous system, CNS) allowed the
3. What is the destination of increase of the interaction complexity
between these animals and the
the branchial clefts in
environment. Receptor (afferent
humans? conduction) and efferent (motor,
regulatory and behavioral reactions)
In humans the branchial clefts located functions come out more sophisticated
in the anterior region of the pharynx in chordates due to the presence of
(also known as pharyngeal clefts) are more well-developed neural networks.
present only in the embryonic stage and These features have been preserved by
disappear later. evolution as they provide adaptive
advantage to their owners.
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In chondrichthyes fecundation is
internal by means of copulation. In
osteichthyes fecundation generally is
external and the gametes are released
in the water, where they can fecundate
their counterpart and form the zygote.
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The amphibians are totally aquatic in In fishes gas exchange is done by direct
the larval stage and partially terrestrial contact of water with the branchiae
animals as adults and for these facts (gills). Gases gain and exit the
they are considered intermediate beings circulation through the gills.
in the evolutionary passage of
vertebrates from the aquatic to the dry In adult amphibians gas exchange is
land habitat. Amphibians are also the done through the moist and permeable
first tetrapod animals, i.e., the first with skin (cutaneous respiration) and also
two pair of limbs, a typical feature of through the lungs, a set of tiny airway
terrestrial vertebrates. The name terminations associated to a highly
“amphibian” comes from the double life vascularized tissue specialized in gas
(aquatic as larvae and partially exchange.
terrestrial as adults) of these animals.
The axolotl is an exotic amphibian found
in Mexico that lives in water and
“breathes” through gills even as an
2. What are the amphibian adult.
features that make them
dependent on water to
survive? 5. How is respiration
performed by the larva of
Permeable skin, body subject to amphibians?
dehydration, external fecundation, eggs
without shells and larval stage with
The larva of amphibians has exclusively
branchial respiration are features that
branchial respiration. This is one of the
make amphibians dependent on water
reasons why it depends on water to
to survive.
survive.
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Birds are animals that present Like reptiles and mammals, they make
aerodynamic bodies covered with gas exchange through lungs.
feathers, anterior limbs transformed
into wings, pneumatic bones and horny
(corneous) beaks.
6. How is the circulatory
system of birds characterized?
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Physiology
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The function of the nervous tissue is to This function is related to the great
receive and to transmit neural impulses capability of the cells of the connective
(reception and transmission of tissue to secrete substances that
information). This function justifies the constitute extracellular material, like
characteristic morphology of neurons, collagen and elastic fibers, creating a
with membrane projections (dendrites) significant spacing between these cells.
to get information and an elongated
membrane projection (axon, or nerve (There are other important biological
fiber) to transmit information at features of the connective tissues, such
distance. In their turn, the glial cells as substance transportation, defense of
support the neurons and facilitate their the organism, etc.)
work (sometimes acting as insulators).
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The main functions of the connective The matrix of the connective tissue
tissues are: supporting and filling of proper is made of collagen fibers, elastic
spaces; cellular nutrition; energetic fibers and reticular fibers.
storage (fats); hematopoiesis
(formation of blood, blood cells and
blood components); immune defense
(specialized cells). 14. What is the function of the
collagen fibers of the
connective tissue?
11. What is connective tissue
There are different collagen types. The
proper? main function of these proteins is to
keep the shape and the structural
The name connective tissue proper is rigidity of the tissue. (Collagen is the
used to designate the connective tissue most abundant protein of the human
that fills interstitial spaces as opposed body.)
to the specialized connective tissues
(blood, bones, cartilage, adipose tissue,
etc.). The connective tissue proper
secretes collagen, elastin and reticular 15. Of which substance do
fibers.
elastic fibers of the connective
tissue are made? What are
some functions of these
12. What are the main cells of fibers?
the connective tissue proper?
What is the name given to the The elastic fibers are made of a protein
intercellular material that called elastin.
surround these cells? Elastic fibers abound in artery walls,
helping the maintenance of the arterial
The main cells of the connective tissue blood pressure in these vessels. They
proper are the fibroblasts, cells that are also present in the lungs, providing
secrete the intercellular material. These them with elasticity (some respiratory
cells are the majority of cells of the diseases are caused by destruction of
tissue. Fibroblasts later are transformed these fibers). In many other organs and
into fibrocytes, mature cells with tissues the elastic fibers are found in the
restricted secretory role. interstitial matrix.
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The four main types of anemia are the Leukocytes are cells specialized in the
nutrient-deficiency anemia, anemia defense of the body against strange
caused by blood loss, hemolytic anemia agents and they are part of the immune
and aplastic anemia. system.
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6. What is an example of
positive feedback of the
homeostatic regulation?
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Fat-soluble vitamins, since they are not In folic acid deficiency precursor cells
soluble in water, cannot easily be (reticulocytes) that would originate
excreted by the body. So they tend to erythrocytes (red blood cells) begin cell
accumulate in tissues with toxic effect division but the process is very slow
when they are ingested in amounts over while the cytoplasm growth is normal.
what is necessary. So the cells became abnormally large, a
typical feature of this kind of anemia
called megaloblastic anemia.
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Scurvy is the disease caused by a lack The lack of vitamin D causes the disease
of vitamin C. It is characterized by known as rickets (rachitis),
tissue lesions in the skin, lips, nose and characterized by decalcification of bones
joints. Scurvy, or scorbutus, was also and bone deformities. Vitamin D is
known as sailors' disease because in fundamental for absorption of calcium
maritime voyages of the past it was not and thus it is related to the osseous
common to get on board food that tissue health.
contained vitamin C, like citric fruits. So
the sailors became ill with scurvy.
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15. What are the functions of 18. What are some examples
biotin and pantothenic acid for of mineral salts from the diet
the body? How are these that act as coenzymes?
vitamins obtained?
Magnesium, zinc and copper are
Biotin (also know as vitamin B8) is a examples of biological coenzymes.
vitamin that acts in the metabolism of
amino acids and other acids.
Pantothenic acid (also known as vitamin
B5) is important for the aerobic cellular 19. What is the disease
respiration since it acts in the transport caused by dietary iodine
of acetyl and acyl radicals.
deficiency?
Biotin is made by bacteria that live in
the human digestive tube (under
interspecific harmonious ecological Iodine deficiency causes
interaction) and this supply in general is hypothyroidism, an abnormally lower
enough for the body. Biotin and production of thyroid hormones that
pantothenic acid are found in need iodine to be synthesized.
vegetables, cereals, eggs, fish, milk and
lean meat.
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From the internal surface to the external Saliva lubricates the food bolus and
surface, the digestive tube wall is made initiates the enzymatic extracellular
of mucosa (epithelial tissue responsible digestion of food. It also works as a
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It is necessary for the gastric pH to be The digestive enzyme that acts in the
kept acid for the activation of stomach is pepsin. Pepsin has the
pepsinogen (a proenzyme secreted by function of breaking proteins into
the gastric chief cells) into pepsin, the smaller peptides. The gastric cells that
digestive enzyme that acts only under produce pepsinogen (the zymogen
low pH. This pH level is attained by the precursor of pepsin) are the chief cells.
secretion of hydrochloric acid (HCl) by
the parietal cells.
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Evolution tried to solve this problem in 40. From the intestinal lumen
two ways. The simplest is the long and through to the tissues - what
tubular shape of the bowels is the route of nutrients after
(approximately eight meters in
digestion?
extension), making possible that
numerous small intestine loops fold
closely. More efficient solutions are the
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Bacteria that live inside the gut have The presence of food in the stomach
great importance in digestion. Some stimulates the secretion of gastrin that
polysaccharides like cellulose, in its turn triggers the releasing of the
hemicellulose and pectin are not gastric juice.
digested by the digestive enzymes
secreted by the body, instead, they are
broken by enzymes released by bacteria
of the gastrointestinal tract. The 47. Where is it produced and
intestinal bacterial flora also make vital what is the function of
substances for the functioning of the
secretin in the digestive
bowels facilitating or blocking the
absorption of nutrients and stimulating process?
or reducing peristalsis. Some gut
bacteria are the main source of vitamin Secretin is made in the duodenum. The
K for the body and so they are essential chyme acidity causes the duodenum to
for the blood clotting process. release this hormone that in its turn
stimulates the secretion of the
In the intestinal flora there are utile but pancreatic juice.
also potentially harmful bacteria. It is
estimated that more than 100 trillion
bacteria live in a human gut. Some
bacteria are useful too because they
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Larger animals with cells without direct In the circulatory system of insects the
contact with the environment or far blood only transports nutrients; gases
from it need special gas transportation are independently transported by the
systems. In these animals the tracheal system.
respiratory and the circulatory systems
play this role.
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Not all animals have a circulatory Open circulatory system is the one in
system. which blood does not circulate only
inside blood vessels but it also falls in
Poriferans, cnidarians, platyhelminthes cavities that irrigate tissues. In the open
and nematodes (in these there are the circulatory system the blood pressure is
pseudocoelom fluid but no vessels) are low and generally the blood (called
avascular animals. Echinoderms do not hemolymph) has low cellularity.
have true circulatory systems either.
Arthropods, molluscs (the cephalopods
are exception) and protochordates have
open circulatory system.
3. What is the alternative
means for transport of
substances in animals without
a circulatory system? Why is 6. What is a closed circulatory
blood important for larger system?
animals?
A closed circulatory system is one in
which blood circulates only inside blood
In animals that do not present the vessels. For this reason the blood
circulatory system the transport of pressure is higher in animals with closed
substances occurs by cell to cell circulatory system. The cellularity of the
diffusion. blood is also higher with many specific
blood cells.
The blood is a fundamental means of
substance transport for larger animals The closed circulatory system is a
since in these animals there are tissues feature of annelids, cephalopod molluscs
distant from each other and from the and vertebrates.
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18. What are the valves of the Varices are more common in the veins
venous system? What is their of the inferior limbs since the fluid
function? column above these vessels is higher.
This is the reason why people that
The valves of the venous system are spend much time standing (e.g.,
structures inside the veins that permit surgeons) are more susceptible to
blood to flow only in the normal way varices.
(from the tissues to the heart) and
forbid it to return in the reverse way in In general varices are not the apparent
superficial veins that appear in the leg
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The three main cell types of the osseous The Haversian canals are longitudinal
tissue are the osteoblasts, the canals present in the osseous tissue
osteocytes and the osteoclasts. within which blood vessels and nerves
pass. The osseous tissue distributes
Osteoblasts are known as bone-forming itself in a concentric manner around
cells since they are the cells that secrete these canals. The Volkmann’s canals are
the proteinaceous part of the bone communications between the Harvesian
matrix (collagen, glycoproteins and canals.
proteoglycans). The bone matrix is the
intercellular space where the mineral The osseous tissue is highly
substances of the bones are deposited. vascularized in its interior.
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The integrative systems are the nervous 4. What are the functional
system and the endocrine system. The differences between neurons
designation is justified since both and glial cells?
systems control and regulate biological
functions and act at distance receiving Glial cells and neurons are the cells that
information from organs and tissues and form the nervous system. Neurons are
sending effector commands (nervous cells that have the function of receiving
impulses or hormones) to organs and and transmitting the neural impulses
tissues thus integrating the body. and glial cells (astrocytes,
microgliacytes, ependymal cells and
oligodendrocytes) are the cells that
support, feed and insulate (electrically)
2. Which are the structures the neurons. The Schwann cells that
that are part of the nervous produce the myelin sheath of the
system? peripheral nervous system can also be
considered glial cells.
The structures that form the nervous
system can be divided into the central
nervous system (CNS) and the
peripheral nervous system (PNS). 5. What are the three main
parts into which a neuron can
The organs of the CNS are the brain be divided? What are their
(cerebrum, brainstem and cerebellum) respective functions?
and spinal cord. The PNS is made of
nerves and neural ganglia. Besides
The three mains parts into which a
these organs the meninges (dura-
neuron can be didactically divided are:
mater, arachnoid and pia-mater) are
dendrites, cell body and axon.
part of the nervous system too since
they cover and protect the encephalon
Dendrites are projections of the plasma
and the spinal cord.
membrane that receive the neural
impulse from other neurons. The cell
body is where the nucleus and the main
cellular organelles are located. Axon is
the long membrane projection that
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28. What are the respective The arch reflex depends only on the
constituents of the gray integrity of the fibers at a single spinal
matter and of the white level. In the arch reflex the motor
matter of the spinal cord? response to the stimulus is automatic
and involuntary and does not depend
upon the passage of information to the
The gray matter, or gray substance, of
brain. So it happens even if the spinal
the spinal cord contains predominantly
cord is damaged at other levels.
neuron bodies (inferior motor neurons,
secondary sensory neurons and
interneurons). The white matter is
mainly made of axons that connect
neurons of the brain with spinal
31. How does poliomyelitis
neurons. affect the neural transmission
in the spinal cord?
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The hypophysis is divided into two The hypothalamic cells produce the
portions: the adenohypophysis, or hormones released by the
anterior hypophysis, and the neurohypophysis. These hormones are
neurohypophysis, or posterior transported by their axons to the
hypophysis. hypophysis and then released in the
circulation.
In the adenohypophysis two hormones
that act directly, the growth hormone
(GH) and the prolactin, and four tropic
hormones, i.e., hormones that regulate 14. What are the hormones
other endocrine glands, the
secreted by the
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH),
the thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), adenohypophysis? What are
the luteinizing hormone (LH) and the their respective functions?
follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) are
produced. The adenohypophisys secretes GH
(growth hormone), prolactin, ACTH
The neurohypohysis stores and releases (adrenocorticotropic hormone), TSH
two hormones produced in the (thyroid-stimulating hormone), FSH
hypothalamus, oxytocin and the (follicle-stimulating hormone) and LH
antidiuretic hormone (ADH, or (luteinizing hormone).
vasopressin).
GH, also known as somatotropic
hormone (STH), acts upon bones,
cartilages and muscles promoting the
13. What is the relation growth of these tissues. Prolactin is the
between the hypothalamus hormone that in women stimulates the
and the hypophysis? production and secretion of milk by the
mammary glands. The ACTH is the
hormone that stimulates the cortical
The hypothalamus is a part of the brain portion of the adrenal gland to produce
situated just above the hypophysis. The and secrete the cortical hormones
hypothalamus gets peripheral and (glucocorticoids). The TSH is the
central neural impulses that trigger hormone that stimulates the activity of
response of its neurosecretory cells. The the thyroid gland increasing the
axons of these cells go down to the production and secretion of its
adenohypophysis to regulate the hormones T3 and T4. The FSH is a
hipophyseal secretions by means of gonadotropic hormone, i.e., it
negative feedback. When the plasma stimulates the gonads and in women it
levels of adenohypophyseal hormones acts upon the ovaries inducing the
are too high the hypothalamus detects growth of follicles, in men it stimulates
this information and commands the spermatogenesis. The LH is also a
interruption of the production of the
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Diabetes mellitus is the disease caused 22. Where in the body is the
by deficient insulin secretion by the thyroid gland located?
pancreas or by impaired capturing of
this hormone by the cells. Diabetes The thyroid is located in the anterior
insipidus is the disease caused by cervical region (frontal neck), in front of
deficient ADH secretion by the pituitary the trachea and just below the larynx. It
(hypophysis) or also by impaired is a bilobated mass below the Adam’s
sensitivity of the kidneys to this apple.
hormone.
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46. What are the hormones The cortical portion of the adrenals
secreted by the adrenal secretes hormones of the corticoid (or
corticosteroid) group, derived from
medulla? What are their cholesterol: glucocorticoid,
respective functions? mineralocorticoids and cortical sex
hormones.
The medullary portion of the adrenals
secretes hormones of the catecholamine The glucocorticoids are cortisol and
group: adrenaline (also known as cortisone. The glucocorticoids stimulate
epinephrine) and noradrenaline (also the formation of glucose from the
known as norepinephrine). Besides their degradation of proteins of the muscle
hormonal function, adrenaline and tissue (gluconeogenesis) and so they
noradrenaline act as neurotransmitters help to increase glycemia. These
too. The neurons that use them as hormones play an important
neurotransmitters are called adrenergic immunosuppressant role, i.e., they
neurons. reduce the action of the immune system
and for this reason they are used as
Adrenaline increases the glycogen medicine to treat inflammatory and
breaking into glucose (glycogenolysis) autoimmune diseases and rejection of
thus increasing glycemia and the basal transplanted organs.
metabolic rate of the body. Adrenaline
and noradrenaline are released during The mineralocorticoids aldosterone and
situations of danger (fightfight or flight deoxycorticosterone regulate the
response) and they intensify the sodium and potassium blood
strength and rate of the heartbeat and concentration and thus they control the
selectively modulate the blood irrigation water level of the extracellular space.
in some tissues by selective vasodilation Aldosterone increases the sodium
and selective vasoconstriction. By resorption and thus the water resorption
vasodilation they increase the blood in the renal tubules and it also
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The body has many defense When some tissue injury occurs
mechanisms against foreign pathogenic histamine and other vasoactive
agents. These mechanisms are divided substances (called mediators of
into two groups: the specific inflammation) are released, they cause
mechanisms and the unspecific vasodilation and the blood flow to the
mechanisms. The specific mechanisms affected site increases. Granulocyte
are part of the immune system and leukocytes present in the blood are
comprehend the humoral immune attracted to the site of the injury by
response and the cellular immune substances known as chemotactic
response that respectively produce factors also released by the injured
antibodies and defense cells against tissue and by the active granulocytes in
specific antigens. The unspecific the area. The granulocytes exit the
mechanisms fight in a general manner capillaries by diapedesis, i.e., using
any type of antigen (they do not have pseudopods. Macrophages present in
specificity) and in them a series of the region are activated too. These cells
defense means are included, like the flood the extracellular space of the
skin barrier against foreign agents, the affected area trying to kill or eliminate
mucous and ciliated epithelium of the harmful agents, to prevent tissue
airway, inflammation (the inflammatory
response) and the action of unspecific
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The IgE antibodies that cause allergy The lymphocytes that participate in the
bind to receptors of leukocytes called cellular immune response are the T
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Gametes are cells specialized in sexual The cells that form gametes are the
reproduction. They contain half of the germ cells as opposed to the somatic
maximum number of chromosomes of cells. The ploidy (number of
the species and unite with another chromosomes) of the germ cells is the
gamete giving birth to a zygote with same as the somatic cells (only during
double of the number of chromosomes the formation of gametes meiosis occurs
of the gametic cells. and the number of chromosomes is
reduced to half).
In humans gametes are formed by
meiosis; the male gametes are the
sperm cells and the female gametes are
the egg cells. 4. What are gonads? What are
the male and the female
gonads in humans?
2. What is the type of cell Gonads are the organs that produce
division that allows sexual gametes. They contain the germ cells
reproduction? What is that undergo division and generate
gametogenesis? gametes. In males the gonads are the
testicles. In females the gonads are the
Meiosis is the type of cell division that ovaries.
allows sexual reproduction since it
reduces to a half the number of
chromosomes of the species making
possible the combination of two 5. Indicating the name and
gametes to form a new individual. (In respective ploidy of each
some beings meiosis creates haploid involved cell how can the
gametophytes that by means of mitosis formation of sperm cells from
generate gametes. Even in this case the germ cells be described?
function of meiosis is the same: to
provide cells with half of the number of
chromosomes of the species with The formation of sperm cells, or
separation of the homologous.) spermatogenesis, begins with a germ
cell called spermatogonium (2n) that
Gametogenesis is the name given to the suffers mitosis and gives birth to the
process of gamete production. spermatocyte I (2n). The spermatocyte
I undergoes meiosis I and generates
two spermatocyte II (n) that then
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The reduced cytoplasm of sperm cells The formation of egg cells begins with a
decreases the cell weight and provides a germ cell called oogonium (2n) that
more hydrodynamic shape for the undergoes mitosis and gives birth to the
locomotion in fluids. oocyte I (2n). The oocyte I undergoes
meiosis I that however is interrupted at
The high concentration of mitochondria prophase. After puberty during each
at the base of the flagellum of the menstrual cycle an oocyte I finishes the
sperm cell is necessary for the energetic meiosis I and generate one oocyte II (n)
supply of the flagellum (for it to beat and the first polar body (n). With
and move the sperm cell). fecundation the oocyte II then
undergoes meiosis II and produces the
mature egg cell (n) and the second
polar body (n).
13. Concerning events during
the periods of life how
different is the gametogenesis
15. What is the first polar
in women and in men?
body? How different is it from
The formation of spermatogonia in men
the oocyte II?
takes place during the embryonic
period. The formation of sperm cells In oogenesis the oogonium
however is a continuous process that differentiates into oocyte I (2n) and this
begins in puberty and goes on until old cell enters meiosis. After finishing the
age and sometimes during all the first meiotic division (meiosis I) the
remaining life of the man. oocyte I forms two cells: the oocyte II
(n) and the first polar body. The oocyte
In women all oogonia are formed before II is bigger because it gets almost all
birth. The oogonia turn into oocytes I the cytoplasm and the cytoplasmic
that enter the first division of meiosis structures of the oocyte I as a strategy
(meiosis I). This division however is for metabolite and nutrient storage. The
interrupted at prophase and continues oocyte II cell goes then to the second
only in puberty. After the beginning of meiotic division. The first polar body is
menses an egg cell is released during very small and almost lacks cytoplasm;
each period and, if fecundated, it it disintegrates or stays attached to the
finishes the meiotic division. The oocyte II.
oogenesis stops after menopause
(cessation of the menstrual activity) and
the climacteric period of life begins.
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After ovulation the estrogen and 24. Which are the phases of
progesterone secretions from the corpus the menstrual cycle?
luteum inhibit the hypophyseal FSH and
LH secretions (this happens by inhibition The menstrual cycle is divided into two
of GnRH, gonadotropin-releasing main phases: the follicular (or
hormone, a hypothalamic hormone). menstrual) phase and the luteal (or
The blood concentration of these secretory) phase.
adenohypophyseal hormones falls to
basal levels again. As LH lowers the The menstrual phase begins at the first
corpus luteum (luteum means “yellow”) day of menses and lasts until ovulation
becomes atrophic and turns into the (around the 14th day). The luteal phase
corpus albicans (“white”). With the begins after ovulation and ends when
regression of the corpus luteum the menses begins (around the 28th day).
production of estrogen and
progesterone ceases.
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The fertile period of the women however 29. What is nidation? In which
is considered the period from 7 days phase of the menstrual cycle
before ovulation to 7 days after does nidation occur?
ovulation.
Nidation is the implantantion of the
embryo in the uterus. Nidation occurs
around the 7th day after fecundation,
i.e., 7 to 8 days after ovulation
(obviously, it occurs only if fecundation
also occurs). Since it occurs in the luteal
phase the progesterone level is high and
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Embryology
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14. How does the embryo turn Besides coelomate animals, there are
from gastrula into neurula? acoelomate animals, like
platyhelminthes, and pseudocoelomate
How is the neural tube animals, like nematodes.
formed? What is the
embryonic origin of the
nervous system in
vertebrates? 17. What is the germ layer
from which the coeloms
The neurula stage is characterized by originate?
the appearance of the neural tube along
the dorsal region of the embryo. The The coeloms are originated from
growth of mesoderm in that region mesoderm.
induces the differentiation of ectodermal
cells just above. These cells then
differentiate forming the neural tube. So
the origin of the nervous system is the 18. What are pleura,
ectoderm (the same germ layer that pericardium and peritoneum?
gives birth to the skin).
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5. Which is the
2. What are the
extraembryonic membrane
extraembryonic membranes
whose function is to store
present in vertebrates?
nitrogen wastes of the
embryo? Is this function
The extraembryonic membranes that
may be present in vertebrates are the present in placental
yolk sac, the amnion, the chorion, the mammalian embryos?
allantois and the placenta.
The allantois is the extraembryonic
membrane whose function is to store
the excreted matter of the embryo.
3. Are the extraembryonic
membranes the same in all In placental mammals the allantois is
vertebrates? present but it does not exert that
function since the embryonic wastes are
collected by the mother’s body through
The presence of each extraembryonic the placenta.
membrane varies according to the
vertebrate class.
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Botany
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1. What are the main cellular The kingdom Plantae is divided into two
big subkingdoms: the bryophytes and
features of the beings of the
the tracheophytes (pteridophytes,
plant kingdom? gymnosperms and angiosperms). The
criterion for the division is the presence
The typical plant cells are eukaryotic or not of conductive (vascular) tissue.
(have nucleus), autotrophic (produce
their own food) and photosynthetic (use
light to make food). Plant cells also
have chloroplasts and a cell wall (a 5. What is the difference
structure exterior to the plasma between bryophytes and
membrane) made of cellulose.
tracheophytes?
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The evolutionary importance of the seed Pollen grains are the male
is related to the plant capability of gametophytes of the phanerogamic
distant colonization and to the (flowering) plants. Therefore within the
protection of the embryo. Embryo- pollen grains the male gametes of these
containing seeds can be carried by plants are formed by mitosis.
water, wind and animals and germinate
in different environments. This fact
contributes to the exploration of a
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After pollination one of the sperm nuclei Dichogamy is the phenomenon of the
from the pollen tube unites with the maturation of female reproductive
oosphere of the embryonic sac forming structures of the plant in a different
the diploid (2n) zygote. The other period to the maturation of the male
sperm nucleus fuses with the polar reproductive structures. Dichogamy
nuclei of the embryonic sac originating a prevents self pollination and makes
triploid (3n) cell that by mitosis will turn cross pollination almost obligatory so
into the secondary endosperm of the assisting in an evolutionary strategy to
seed. The synergids and the antipodal promote genetic recombination.
cells degenerate after the fecundation
process.
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Seeds of monocots have a single The edible part of the onion is the stem
of the plant and not the fruit.
cotyledon. Seeds of dicots have two
cotyledons.
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Water, mineral salts and sugar are 14. What are the cell types
transported throughout the plant that form the phloem? What
through conductive vessels formed by
specialized tissues.
are the main features of those
cells?
13. What are the cell types Vascular cambium is the secondary
that form the xylem? What are meristematic tissue that in roots and in
the stem forms the vascular tissues
the main features of those
(xylem and phloem) of the plant.
cells? Usually the outer side of the vascular
cambium produces a layer of phloem
The main cells of the xylem are the and the inner (more central) side of the
tracheids and the vessel elements tissue produces a layer of xylem.
(these only in angiosperms). The
tracheids and the vessel elements are
dead cells that have lost their cytoplasm
and only their cell wall impregnated with
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Vascular bundles are segments of xylem 19. What are the plant tissues
and associated phloem that run that constitute the functional
longitudinally within the stem. In dicots structures of the leaf veins?
the vascular bundles are organized side-
by-side forming concentric rings. In Leaf veins are made of vascular tissues.
monocots the vascular bundles are They are constituted by xylem and
scattered and do not form rings. phloem that respectively conduct water
and mineral nutrients (xylem) and sugar
(phloem).
For the growth of the tree it is 21. Which are the plant
necessary to have formation of new
vessels within the stem, a task
tissues that cover the stem
performed by the vascular cambium. and the leaves?
The vascular cambium is more active in
hot seasons (summer and spring) The stem may be covered by epidermis
generating a lighter band made of large (having stomata, cuticle and
calibered vessels. During winter and fall photosynthetic cells) as in monocots or,
the vascular cambium produces the alternatively, the epidermis is
opposite, so small calibered vessels and substituted by the periderm
a darker band appears outside the
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Phellogen, also known as cork cambium, The leaf cuticle is a thin waxy layer
is the meristematic plant tissue made of cutin and waxes on the outer
responsible for the formation of the surface of the leaf epidermis. Its
periderm (the covering of the stem, function is to control the cellular
shoots and roots). The inner side of the transpiration.
phellogen layer forms the phelloderm
and its outer side forms the cork
(suber). The suber secretes suberin, an
impermeable substance that 27. Which are the plant
impregnates the tissue. tissues that form the plant
roots?
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Water enters and goes out the stomata During the day in dry habitats the guard
by osmosis. cells become flaccid and the stomata
close; concurrently carbon dioxide is
Other factors like light intensity and disallowed to pass to participate in
carbon dioxide concentration in the diurnal photosynthesis. Some plants
leaves influence the opening and the from dry regions solve this problem
closing of the stomata. When luminosity through the method of nocturnal carbon
is high the photosynthesis rate dioxide fixation. At night, when water
increases and the stomata open to loss by transpiration is lower, the
absorb more carbon dioxide from the stomata open, carbon dioxide enters
environment and release heat; when and it is stored within the parenchymal
luminosity is low the stomata tend to tissues. During the day the stored gas is
close. When the carbon dioxide mobilized to be used in photosynthesis.
concentration in the photosynthetic
parenchyma is low the stomata open to
absorb more of the gas and make
photosynthesis possible; when such 9. How has the position of the
concentration is high the stomata tend stomata changed in some
to close.
plants to prevent excessive
water loss by transpiration?
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Auxins (the best known natural auxin is 25. What are synthetic auxins
IAA, indoleacetic acid): their function is and what are their uses?
to promote plant growth, distension and
cellular differentiation. Gibberellins: Synthetic auxins, like indolebutyric acid
have action similar to auxins (growth (IBA) and naphthalenic acid (NAA) are
and distension), stimulate flowering and substances similar to IAA (a natural
fruit formation and activate seed auxin) but artificially made. Some are
germination. Cytokinins: increase used to accelerate methods of asexual
cellular division rate and together with reproduction (like grafting or budding)
auxins help growth and tissue and others are even used as herbicides
differentiation, slow the plant aging. since they selectively kill some plants
Ethylene (ethene): a gas released by (mainly dicots).
plants that participates in the growth
process and has noteworthy role in fruit
ripening and in leaf abscission.
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Some fruit processing industries use Whenever one side of a stem, branch or
ethylene to accelerate fruit ripening. On root grows more than the other side the
the other hand, if the intensification or structure curves towards the side that
acceleration of fruit ripening is not grows less. (This is an important
desirable care must be taken to prevent concept for plant tropism problems.)
the mixture of ripe fruits that release
ethylene with the others.
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Genetics
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1. What is a gene?
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6. What is recombination
frequency? 9. How can the concept of
recombination frequency be
Recombination frequency, or crossing used in genetic mapping?
over rate, is the percentage of
recombinant gametes made by crossing
over (in relation to the number of Genetic mapping is the determination of
the location of the genes in a
parental gametes made). It always
refers to two genes located in the same chromosome.
chromosome.
By determining the recombination
frequency between several different
linked genes it is possible to estimate
the distance between them in the
chromosome. For example, if a gene A
has a recombination frequency of 20%
with the gene B, this gene B has
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1. What are the main human The antigens A and B are agglutinogens
blood group systems? and the antibodies anti-A and anti-B are
agglutinins.
In humans the main blood group
systems are the ABO system, the Rh
system and the MN system.
4. What are the blood types of
the ABO blood system?
Red blood cells have different antigens 5. What are the antigens and
in the outer surface of their plasma antibodies of each blood type
membrane; for example, the antigens A
of the ABO blood system?
and B of the ABO system are
glycoproteins of the membrane. If a
donor has red blood cells with antigens Type A: antigen A, antibody anti-B.
not present in the red blood cells of the Type B: antigen B, antibody anti-A.
recipient (lacking of transfusion Type AB: antigens A and B, does not
compatibility) the immune system of the produce antibody A neither antibody B.
recipient recognizes these molecules as Type O: does not have antigen A neither
actual antigens (i.e., foreign antigen B, has antibodies anti-A and
substances) and triggers a defense anti-B.
response producing specific antibodies
against those antigens. The transfused (Obviously antibodies are made by B
red blood cells then are destroyed by lymphocytes not by red blood cells.)
these antibodies and the recipient
individual may even die.
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RH factor is a protein of the red blood 15. How is the blood typing
cell plasma membrane that behaves as concerning the ABO system
antigen in blood transfusions triggering and the Rh usually done?
a humoral (antibody-based) immune
response. Most people present the
In the blood typing for the ABO system
protein in their red blood cells and are
and the Rh system a blood sample is
part of the Rh+ group. People that do
collected from the person and three
not have the protein classify as Rh-.
small volumes of the sample are
separated and dispersed on glass
laminae (slides). On the first lamina
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There are other methods of blood The hemolytic disease of the new born
typing. Blood typing must be performed is also known as erythroblastosis fetalis.
by qualified technicians.
The inheritance pattern of the Rh blood In the hemolytic disease of the newborn
system is autosomal dominant, i.e., the the mother has Rh- blood. This mother
heterozygous manifests as Rh+. The when generating her first Rh+ child
dominance is complete (R is dominant makes contact, possibly during delivery,
over r). The possible genotypes are RR, with Rh+ red blood cells of the child and
Rr (both Rh+) and rr (Rh-). her immune system triggers the primary
immune response against the Rh factor.
Curiosity: the Rh factor is codified by a In the next gestation in which the fetus
gene containing 2790 DNA nucleotides is Rh+ the mother will already have
situated in the human chromosome 1. much more anti-Rh antibodies in her
circulation; these antibodies cross the
placental barrier and gain the fetal
circulation causing fetal hemolysis
17. What is the logic of the (destruction of the red blood cells of the
transfusional compatibility fetus).
concerning the Rh blood group
system?
20. How can the hemolytic
An Rh+ donor can only donate blood to
disease of the newborn be
an Rh+ recipient. A person that lacks
the Rh factor (Rh-) can donate to prevented?
individuals of the Rh+ and Rh- groups.
Erythroblastosis fetalis can be prevented
if in the first delivery of a Rh+ child
from a Rh- mother serum containing
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6. Why is a balanced
frequency of different alleles
of a gene in a population more
useful for the survival of that
population facing
environmental changes?
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Evolution
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(The original name of the most famous One of the classic examples of natural
book written by Darwin was “On the selection is regarding the moths of
Origin of Species by Means of Natural industrial zones of England in the end of
Selection”.) the 19th century and the beginning of
the 20th century. As the industrial
revolution advanced the bark of the
trees that moths landed on became
11. What is the mechanism darker due to the soot released from
factories. The population of light moths
described by Darwin that then decreased and was substituted by
eliminates species less a population of dark moths since the
adapted to environmental mimicry of the dark moths in the new
conditions? environment protected them from
predators, i.e., they had an adaptive
The mentioned mechanism is the advantage in that new environment.
natural selection. Light moths in their turn suffered the
negative effect of natural selection for
becoming more visible to predators and
were almost eliminated. In the open
forest far from factories however it was
12. How did Darwin reach the
experimentally verified that light moths
principle of natural selection maintained their adaptive advantage
from the observation of and the dark moths continued to be
differences among individuals more easily found by predators.
of the same species?
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Ecology
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3. What is a population?
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8. What is an ecosystem?
9. What is a biosphere?
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1. What is a biome?
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In the vegetation of the tropical forests In tropical forests tall trees of several
broadleaf evergreen trees predominate. species have their crowns forming a
On the top of the trees epiphytes and superior layer under which diverse other
lianas grow. Many varieties of trees and plants develop forming other
pteridophytes can be found in these inferior layers. From the upper layer to
forests. Regarding the fauna, the the inferior layers the penetration of
abundance and diversity is also great: light lowers gradually and the exposition
there are monkeys, rodents, bats, to wind and rain, the moisture and the
insectivores, felines, reptiles, birds, temperature also vary. Different
amphibians and invertebrates, mainly compositions of abiotic factors condition
insects. the prevailing of different vegetation in
each layer.
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Diseases
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Ectoparasites are parasites that explore Vectors of a parasite are organisms able
the external surface of the host (like, for to transport the parasite during stages
example, mites that parasite the skin). of its life cycle mediating the infection of
Endoparasites are parasites that live other hosts. For example, the mosquito
within the body of the host (like the Aedes aegypti is the vector of the
taenias). dengue virus; triatomine bugs are
vectors of the Trypanosoma cruzi,
protozoan that causes Chagas’ disease;
mice are vectors of leptospira, bacteria
that cause leptospirosis.
3. Concerning the number of
hosts how are parasites
classified?
6. What is an etiological agent
Parasites that require only one host are of disease?
called monoxenous parasites. Parasites
that need more than one host for their
An etiological agent of disease is the
life cycle are called heteroxenous
agent that causes the disease. It may
parasites.
be a living being, substance or
environmental fact.
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9. What is an antibiogram?
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11. What are the human In the life cycle of the plasmodium
tissues affected by malaria? humans are the intermediate hosts
What are the main clinical (where asexual reproduction takes
place) and the vector mosquito is the
manifestations of the disease?
definitive host (where sexual
reproduction occurs).
The plasmodium infects the human
blood causing destruction of red blood
cells and it also affects the liver. Malaria
characterizes by periodical episodes of 14. What is the life cycle of
fever, chills and sweating that can be
accompanied by headache, nausea,
Plasmodium vivax?
vomiting and jaundice. The destruction
of red blood cells may lead to anemia The vector mosquito bites a
and hypoxemia. contaminated person and ingests female
and male gametocytes of the parasite.
The infection by Plasmodium falciparum Within the insect gut the gametocytes
if not treated can cause other differentiate into gametes and
complications and even death. fecundation occurs, forming zygotes.
Each plasmodium zygote by mitosis
(sporogony) generates numerous
infective sporozoites that migrate to the
salivary glands of the mosquito. When
the mosquito bites a person the
sporozoites enter the human circulation
and when in the liver they undergo the
first asexual reproduction (tissue
schizogony), releasing several
merozoites into the blood. The
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Other important worm infections caused Schistosomes are dioecious, i.e., the
by platyhelminthes are: fascioliasis, species has separated sexes, male and
caused by Fasciola hepatica, which female individuals.
attacks the liver and the bile ducts;
hydatid disease, also known as
echinococcosis, caused by a taenia-like
parasite and transmitted by feces of 5. What is the intermediate
dogs in contact with sheep, with a host of Schistosoma mansoni?
clinical picture similar to cysticercosis.
Other important infections caused by
Where does that host live?
roundworms are: strongyloidiasis, agent
Strongyloides stercoralis, a common The intermediate host of the
opportunistic disease in AIDS; filariasis, schistosome is a gastropod mollusc, a
also known as elephantiasis, snail of the Planorbidae family and
transmitted by mosquitoes of the Culex Biomphalaria genus. The snail vector of
genus, caused by Wuchereria bancrofti schistosomiasis lives in freshwater, as in
and other thread-like worms and lagoons and creeks.
manifested by obstruction and fibrosis
of lymphatic vessels that cause swelling
(lymphedema) of limbs; enterobiasis
(pinworm infection), caused by
Enterobius vermicularis, a worm that
parasites the colon and the human
perianal region; cutaneous larva
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Tapeworms have hooks and sucking 15. What is the life cycle of a
structures on their heads (scolex) that tapeworm?
fixate the parasite in the gut wall; these
structures often do not injure the host Pregnant proglottids with taenia eggs
tissue. The parasite obtains food and are released together with human feces.
makes gas exchange through absorption If ingested by the intermediate hosts,
and diffusion across its skin; since it is a swine or bovine, the eggs break inside
platyhelminth it does not have a their intestines and the larva trespass
digestive system or a circulatory the mucosa and gains the circulation to
system. settle on muscles, heart, brain and
other organs of these animals and then
differentiate into cystic larvae called
cysticerci. Humans become infected
13. What are the segments when eating raw or badly cooked swine
that form the body of the or bovine meat contaminated by
tapeworm called? What is cysticerci. In the human intestines the
cysticerci develop into adult worms and
their function? the cycle goes on.
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Taeniasis is the parasitic disease caused 18. How does self infection by
by the adult tapeworm installed within
tapeworms occur?
the human intestine.
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Prion Diseases
1. What is a prion?
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Transaction ID: 4KS71350WY6468607
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Buyer: Victoria Proctor (vicproc6@gmail.com)
Transaction ID: 4KS71350WY6468607
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Buyer: Victoria Proctor (vicproc6@gmail.com)
Transaction ID: 4KS71350WY6468607
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Buyer: Victoria Proctor (vicproc6@gmail.com)
Transaction ID: 4KS71350WY6468607
15. How do malign neoplasias 18. What are the main types
appear? of cancer that affect humans?
Neoplasias appear due to DNA Excluding skin cancer, that are the more
mutations in genes that regulate the easily detected and so cases are
cellular proliferation thus making the registered in larger number, the main
cell lose its capacity to control and limit types of cancer in men are prostate
its division by mitosis. The cell then cancer, lung cancer, stomach cancer; in
divides continuously and uncontrollably women, breast cancer, colon and rectal
and this defect is transmitted to its cancer and lung cancer are of great
daughter cells. incidence. Other common cancers are
ovarian cancer, pancreatic cancer, liver
cancer, esophageal cancer, brain cancer
and the leukemias and lymphomas
16. What are carcinogens? (blood cancers).
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Transaction ID: 4KS71350WY6468607
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