BIOLOGY AND GEOLOGY

TEACHER’S MATERIALS: SAMPLES

Real learning

On the following pages you will find a sample of both the

Teacher’s Book and the extra worksheets.

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 3 The Geosphere

3 THE GEOSPHERE

I 
n this unit, students will learn about the solid part of the Earth. It Suggested Timing
is very important to highlight the link between the origin of our
This unit can be worked on over a period of four weeks
planet and its layers, as well as the importance that minerals and
(approximately twelve sessions). The number of sessions should be
rocks have for humans and in our daily lives.
determined by the interest that students show for the content, and
Competences and Objectives how the general unit planning takes place.

Sections N.° of sessions

KEY COMPETENCES
Linguistic communication (LC)
Mathematical competence and
key competence in science and
technology (MCST)
Learning to learn (LL)
Digital competence (DC)
Social and civic competence
(SCC)
Cultural awareness and
expression (CAE)
Sense of initiative and
entrepreneurship (SIE)
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Warmer 1
❚ Understand the origins of the
1. The Earth: origin and composition 1
Earth.
2. Minerals 2
❚ Differentiate between the
layers of the Earth and 3. Rocks 3
describe the characteristics 4. The use of rocks 1/2
of the materials they are 5. Extraction of minerals and rocks 1/2
composed of.
Consolidation 1
❚ Identify minerals and their
Work and experimentation techniques 1
properties.
Final task 1
❚ Identify and classify rocks.
Self-assessment 1
❚ Value the importance of
minerals and rocks for humans Mixed-ability needs
and of managing these
resources in a sustainable way. In order to meet the needs of different students, a wide variety of
resources are offered as complements or alternatives to the work in
❚ Carry out a research task. the unit: worksheets, lesson summaries and slide presentations with
core content and curricular adaptations.
It is at the discretion of the teacher that these resources are used,
although suggestions are given in every lesson.

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Contents
The Earth: origin and composition
❚ The origin of the Earth
❚ Studying the Earth’s interior
❚ Layers of the geosphere
Minerals
❚ Properties of minerals
❚ The importance of minerals
❚ Sustainable management of mineral resources
Rocks
❚ Igneous or magmatic rocks
❚ Sedimentary rocks
❚ Metamorphic rocks
❚ The rock cycle
The use of rocks
Extraction of minerals and rocks
GEOLOGY_1ESO_Ud03_LP.indd 101
UNIT LESSON PLAN
Assessment criteria
1. Understand the origins of the Earth.
2. Relate the layers of the geosphere and its
formation processes.
3. Differentiate between the layers of the Earth and
its characteristics.
4. Understand the concept of mineral and apply it to
recognise if certain substances are minerals or not.
5. Differentiate minerals according to their properties.
6. Highlight the importance of minerals.
7. Understand the concept of rocks and their
classification.
8. Differentiate rocks according to their origin.
9. Describe the most frequent use of rocks in our
daily life.
10. Value the importance of minerals and rocks
for humans and of managing these resources in a
sustainable way.
101
The Geosphere 3
Learning outcomes
1.1. Describe the formation process of the Earth.
(LC, MCST)
2.1. Relate the layers of the geosphere and its
formation processes. (MCST, LL)
3.1. Describe the main characteristics of the most
frequent materials in the external areas of the
planet and explain their distribution according to the
density. (LC, MCST, LL)
3.3. Describe the main characteristics of the crust,
the mantle and the core and the materials that
formed them. (LC, MCST, LL)
4.1. Understand the concept of mineral. (LC, MCST)
4.2. Apply the concept of mineral to recognise if
certain substances are minerals or not.
(LC, MCST, SCC)
5.1. Identify minerals using information that could
differentiate them. (LC, MCST, DC, SCC)
6.1. Describe some of the most frequent uses of
minerals in our daily life. ( MCST, DC, SCC)
7.1. Understand the concept of rock. (LC, MCST)
7.2. Recognise the three types of rock according to
their origin and identify the main characteristics of
each one. (LC, MCST)
8.1. Identify rocks using information that could
differentiate them. (MCST, SIE)
9.1. Describe some of the most frequent uses of
rocks in our daily life. (MCST, DC, CLL)
10.1. Recognise the importance of minerals and
rocks for humans and of managing these resources
in a sustainable way. (LC, MCST, DC)
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 3 The Geosphere
UNIT CONTENT MAP
Oxford investigation
Interactive activities
STUDENT RESOURCES
Talking book
Video: The origin of the
Earth
Reading
comprehension:
The core of the Earth
rotates much slower
than you think
Video: Lithium
for petroleum
Unit 3. The Geosphere
1. The Earth: origin
and composition
1.1. The origin of the
Earth
1.2. Studying the
Earth’s interior
1.3. Layers of the
geosphere
1.3.1. The Crust
1.3.2. The Mantle
1.3.3. The Core
TEACHER RESOURCES
Conceptual map
Presentation
Reinforcement activities
Curricular adaptation worksheets
GEOLOGY_1ESO_Ud03_LP.indd 102
>>>>>>
>>>>>>
>>>>>>
Web page: The quarry Reading comprehension:
Video: A Day without The rock of ages
minerals Web page: Identifying rocks
2. Minerals 3. Rocks 4. The use of rocks
2.1. Physical properties of minerals 3.1. Igneous or magmatic
2.1.1. Optical properties rocks
2.1.2. Mechanical properties 3.2. Sedimentary rocks
2.1.3. Magnetic properties 3.2.1. Formation of
2.1.4. other properties of sedimentary rocks
materials 3.2.2. Classification of
2.2. The importance of minerals sedimentary rocks
2.2.1. Metal ores 3.3. Metamorphic rocks
2.2.2. Raw materials for industries 3.4. The rock cycle
2.2.3. Gems or precious stones
2.3. Sustainable management of
mineral resources
Science practical:
The hardness of minerals
>>>>>>
>>>>>>
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 The Geosphere 3

>>>>>> Oxford investigation

>>>>>> Interactive activities

>>>>>> Talking book

Web page: Gold extraction Web page: The crust and its
and its use matter.

5. Extraction of minerals and Consolidation Work and laboratory Final task

rocks practical techniques

Conceptual map Extension activities Reinforcement activities

Presentation Curricular adaptation assessment Extension activities
Reinforcement activities Assessment Curricular adaptation worksheet

>>>>>> Reinforcement activities

>>>>>> Curricular adaptation worksheets

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 3 The Geosphere

TEACHING SUGGESTIONS

3 THE GEOSPHERE

YOU WILL LEARN TO…

● Understand the origins of the Earth.

● Differentiate between the layers

of the geosphere and describe
the characteristics of the materials
they are composed of.
● Identify minerals and their
properties.
● Identify and classify rocks.

● Value the importance of minerals

and rocks for humans and of
managing these resources in a
sustainable way.
● Carry out a research task.

Final task +
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bg1e900 The environmental impact of mineral extraction

What do you think the Earth is like in its interior? Could we
travel there?
What qualities make some minerals so appreciated by people?
Rocks are used in construction. What else can rocks be used for?
Minerals are extremely useful to us. Minerals have great economic
value and are often obtained without thinking about the
environmental and social impact of their extraction.
Mineral extraction in third world countries is directly related to
smuggling, poor work conditions and child labour.

Why do you think it’s important to manage mineral resources One of the most sought after minerals is coltan, which is used to
responsibly? the make parts of electronic devices. In this unit, you will research
this mineral and create a slideshow presentation.
What can you see in the photo? Where do you think it is?

3. The geosphere 47

A
t the beginning of the unit, the objectives are already
established and they should be linked to the learning
outcomes. Students will have a clear idea about the topics
as well as what they will learn throughout the unit.
Before playing the video, ask questions so that the students can
think about them while watching it. It is a very useful way to
check if students understood the explanations that appear in the
video.
Video: LITHIUM FOR PETROLEUM
The video is about the materials extracted from the geosphere
and the use of them nowadays in developed countries. Play until
minute 4:50.
After watching the video, discuss the following and elicit answers
from the students.
Jules Verne, in his book called Journey to the centre of the Earth,
explains how the interior of the Earth was.
❚ What do you think the Earth is like in its interior? Could
we travel there?
No, because the temperature and the pressure in the interior of
the Earth are unbearable to humans.
Minerals are widely used for jewelry as precious stones after a
process of cutting and polishing.
❚ What qualities make some minerals so appreciated by
people?
The main qualities are the hardness, the lustre and the colour as
well as the transparency.
Rocks are used for construction.
❚ What else can rocks be used for?
Rocks also have ornamental uses and can be used as fossil fuels
or as a source of minerals for technological uses.
Superficial extractions are more profitable than subterranean
extractions.
❚ Why do you think it’s important to manage mineral
resources responsibly?
Because superficial extractions have a great impact on the
environment, killing all living things in the area.
❚ What can you see in the photo? Where do you think it is?
PRESENTATION
Use the slideshow presentation to show the different sections in
the unit and to evaluate student’s prior knowledge. This tool can
also be used as revision at the end. The slides can stimulate student
participation, as they can be asked about certain topics before they
study them.
Point out the Final task to the students: The environmental impact
of mineral extraction. Explain what the task is: an oral presentation
with slideshows and in groups.

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Read the task with students and explain that the steps to carry out
the final task are on page 65.
By carrying out the final task you will be working the following
key competences:
❚ Linguistic communication (LC). In the oral presentation that
will take place in the classroom.
❚ Mathematical competence and basic competences in
science and technology (MCST). Throughout the unit.
❚ Digital competence (DC). When searching for information.
❚ Learning to learn (LL). When following a study technique
which helps the learning process.
❚ Sense of initiative and entrepreneurship (SIE). When
students decide by themselves which information is useful for
their work.
❚ Social and civic competences (SCC). When participating in
group work.
In the first session you could introduce the vocabulary suggested
in the section Study skills on page 63. Students search for the
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The Geosphere 3
meaning of the words and write them down in their notebook
in alphabetical order, thus creating a scientific glossary. Thus
students will have exposure to the vocabulary and will be more
prepared to start the unit.
CONCEPTUAL MAP
To introduce the contents of the unit, you could show an
incomplete conceptual map and ask them to complete the gaps
in their notebook or orally with the whole group. This will help
students to visualise the links between the different contents of
the unit.
OXFORD INVESTIGATION
It starts with an introduction of the unit with some preliminary
questions and the final task that should be carried out after
finishing the activities. The final task is normally a practical problem
whose solution demands a variety of learning skills and research.
Students will be given the idea that in particular activities they will
learn concepts and/or the procedures that will be used to sort out
the practical problem.
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1. THE EARTH: ORIGIN AND COMPOSITION 1.3. Layers of the geosphere

The Earth is the third closest planet to the Sun. It is a rocky planet and the only planet
that has water in all three states. As a result, it is the only planet with living things.
The Earth can be divided into four layers: the geosphere or solid layer; the
atmosphere or gaseous layer; the hydrosphere which contains water in all three
states and the biosphere where life exists.
1.1. The origin of the Earth
According to the latest studies, 4 600
billion years ago the Sun formed from
chemical reactions in a giant cloud of
dust and gas, called a nebula. In the
cloud of matter that surrounded the
Sun, smaller dust particles collided and
grew in size. This process which formed
the planets is called accretion of
planetesimals.
The solid part of the Earth is divided into different layers separated by areas
known as discontinuities. In these areas the seismic waves change velocity. This
allows us to identify where each layer ends.
1.3.1. The crust
This is a thin layer covering the Earth’s surface and it
is the least dense layer. There are two types of crust:
❚ The continental crust is more than 1 000 million
years old and it is between 10 and 70 km thick.
The continental shelf, continents and islands are all
part of the continental crust. It is composed of rocks
such as granite, clay and slate.
❚ The oceanic crust is 200 million years old and it is
between 6 and 10 km thick. It forms the seafloor
and is composed mainly of basaltic rock.
1.3.2. The mantle

For 1 000 million years the Earth was
incredibly hot. Due to the immense
heat stored in the Earth’s interior, there
was a lot of volcanic activity during
this period. As the Earth’s temperature
decreased, gravity pushed denser
materials, such as iron, towards the
Earth’ s interior. Less dense materials,
such as oxygen, moved towards the
Earth’ s surface. This process is called
density differentiation. As the Earth
cooled, it maintained this structure of
layers.
Formation of the Solar System
1.2. Studying the Earth’ s interior
The density of this layer varies. It is composed
mainly of a type of rock called peridot. The mantle
has two parts.
❚ The upper mantle has a higher density than
the crust and it is solid. However, scientists have
discovered some areas of liquid or molten rock.
❚ The lower mantle is the densest layer of the
mantle and contains materials in a solid state.
1.3.3. The core
This is the most internal and densest layer of the
geosphere. It is composed mostly of iron, although
other metals such as nickel can be found. It is divided
into two layers.

1
drill hole: a perforation in the
ground in order to study the rocks
under the Earth’ s surface
The Earth’s is 6 370 km at the Equator but we only have direct knowledge of the ❚ The outer core is not as dense as other layers. It is
most superficial layers under the Earth’s surface. Mines or drill holes1 have allowed composed of molten materials and it is constantly
us to reach depths of 8-12 km. moving.
Layers of the geosphere and discontinuities that separate them

To understand the composition of the Earth’s interior, scientists have to use indirect ❚ The inner core has the densest materials. It is the
methods. The most common method is the study of earthquakes called the seismic hottest layer. Even though the temperatures are so
method. This method analyses the energy generated by earthquakes. hot, the materials in this layer are in a solid state due Key concepts
to the immense pressure found in it.
When you throw a pebble into water, the water moves across the surface in ❚ The Earth formed by the
all directions in waves. Similarly, when an earthquake occurs, the movement process of accretion of
Understand planetesimals. The materials
generates waves of energy that travel to the interior of the Earth, called seismic
that make up the Earth
waves. These waves can be detected by an apparatus called a seismograph. were distributed in layers
1. Explain in your own words the meaning of accretion of planetesimals.
This shows us that the speed of the waves vary as they pass from one layer to according to their density.
another. 2. Listen and find the parts of the geosphere on the diagram.
❚ There are three layers in
The study of the data obtained from seismographs has allowed scientists to deduce Create the geosphere: the crust
the composition of the Earth’s interior. This information has been used to create a (continental and oceanic),
3. Find out about the density of the layers of the geosphere. Make a table mantle (upper and lower)
model of the Earth’s structure. It is divided into three layers: the crust, mantle and
with the information in the order of least dense to densest materials. and the core (outer and inner).
Seismograph core.

48 3. The geosphere 49

1. The Earth: origin and composition water as well as in its interior and the same process happen to the
waves produced by the earthquakes. Light waves are deflected when
Before or after reading each section, listen to the Talking book. they pass from air to water and it makes us see a stick in the water
1.1. The origin of the Earth as if it was crooked. The same happens to the seismic waves when
they are deflected from one place to the other. Those deflections
Before starting this section, remind students about the concepts affect the speed of the wave transmission through the interior of the
of density and gravity. It will help them to understand clearly the layer. This way, and also because of the seismographs, we are able to
origin of our planet. know the internal structure of the planet.
It is important that students differentiate the concepts of density On the planet there are lots of network seismographs to detect any
and mass. Otherwise, they will not be able to understand the earthquakes that could happen in the crust. At least three seismographs
process of density differentiation. You can take a scale to the are needed to precisely detect the epicenter of an earthquake.
classroom, a small pebble and a big cork. Make sure the cork
weighs more than the pebble. Put the cork and the pebble in a 1.3. Layers of the geosphere
bow with water and ask them to observe what happens. The cork
A practical way to explain the layers of the geosphere is to make
will float and the pebble will sink. This is a practical and visual way
a chart where students can compare depth, density, state of the
to understand the difference between these two concepts.
materials and its composition. This chart will help students to easily
Show the video. follow the explanations and understand the contents

Video: THE ORIGIN OF THE EARTH Layers of the

Depth Density Physical state Composition
geosphere
This video is about how the planets were formed. The presenta-
Crust
tion of the video and the answers to the questions will help stu-
dents to deepen their understanding of the following question: Continental crust Up to 70 km 2,7 g/cm3 Solid Granite, clay...
After hearing about the Big Bang theory about the formation of Oceanic crust Up to 10 km 3 g/cm 3
Solid Basalt
the universe, how do you think the Earth was formed?
Mantle
Upper mantle Up to 670 km 3,3 g/cm3 Solid Peridot
1.2. Studying the Earth’s interior Lower mantle Up to 2900 km 5,5 g/cm3 Solid Peridot
For students it is always a mystery to know the interior of the Core
Earth without being there. They should understand that the waves
Outer core Up to 5120 km 10,6 g/cm3 Liquid Iron
produced by an earthquake are the same as the ones when you
throw a pebble into a pond. Those waves travel on the surface of the Inner core Up to 6370 km 13 g/cm 3
Solid Iron

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 The Geosphere 3

The seismographs detect the variations of the seismic wave’s 2. Listen and find the parts of the geosphere on the
velocity that are related to the discontinuities. These discontinuities diagram.
are named according to the person who discovered them. Only
the outer core is liquid, although by analysing how the seismic
waves move, we can deduce that in the mantle there are materials
partially molten that reduce the velocity of the waves. In the chart
we only see the main materials but students must know that
there are other materials, especially in the crust. They will study
those in this unit
The layers of the geosphere are divided according to their
composition. There is another division according to their conduct
or dynamism. It says that the geosphere is divided into: lithosphere
(the crust and part of the upper mantle), sub-lithospheric mantle
(rest of the upper mantle), lower mantle, outer core and inner core.
When explaining the mantle, highlight that the materials partially
molten and the high temperatures generate movements called
convection currents. Those movements move the lithospheric
plates.
The core generates a magnetic field that allows us to find
directions using a compass and also protects us from harmful
solar radiations.
Finish the section by asking them to do questions 1 to 3 and then
review the Key concepts at the end of the section.
Tips: Question 1 should be done with the whole class. Before
question 2 give the students time to look at the diagram first, then
play the audio twice. Ask students to do question 3 individually
and then ask them to compare their answers. Correct with the
whole class.
a) The crust.
Reading comprehension: THE CORE OF THE EARTH b) The oceanic crust.
ROTATES MUCH SLOWER THAN YOU THINK c) The upper and lower mantle.
This text is to emphasise the impact that the core movements d) The core.
have on the rest of the planet. The core is not a static or cons-
tant layer; it moves and grows slowly but continuously. The core Audio script:
movements are very important for the planet, for example, in the a) This is the least dense layer.
creation of a magnetic field.
b) This is 200 million years old.
c) The mantle has two parts, what are they?
Curricular adaptation: 1. LAYERS OF THE GEOSPHERE d) This is the densest layer of the geosphere.
Section adapted according to the curriculum.
Create
3. Find out about the density of the layers of the
Answer key geosphere. Make a table with the information in the
order of least dense to densest materials.
Understand
The continental crust has an average density of 2.7 g/cm3,
1. Explain in your own words the meaning of accretion while the oceanic crust has a higher density, with an average
of planetesimals. of 3.0 g/cm3. Consequently, the layers of the geosphere from
the least to the more dense are:
Process which formed the planets. Billions of years ago the
Sun formed from chemical reactions in a giant cloud of dust Continental crust (2.7 g/cm3) - Oceanic crust (3.0 g/cm3)
and gas (nebula) and in the cloud of matter that surrounded - Upper mantle (3.5 g/cm3) - Lower mantle (5.6 g/cm3) - Outer
the Sun, smaller dust particles collided and grew in size. core (9.9 g/cm3) - Inner core (13.0 g/cm3).

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2. MINERALS 2.1. Physical properties of minerals

Minerals and rocks form part of the Earth’s crust. Since ancient times, humans In nature there are more than 4 000 known minerals. We can identify some minerals
have used minerals obtained from the Earth. by studying their physical properties, without analysing their chemical composition.

Physical properties are classified into optical, mechanical and magnetic.

Minerals are solid, inorganic, natural materials. They have a definite chemical
composition and usually have a crystalline structure. 2.1.1. Optical properties

In order to understand the definition of minerals we will analyse the description A mineral’s optical properties relate to how a mineral reacts to light.
term by term.
❚ Minerals are solid substances. They cannot be liquid or gaseous at room ❚ Habit: some minerals have very characteristic shapes ❚ Streak: is the colour of the powder produced when a
temperature. This is why mercury is not considered a mineral. that reflect their crystalline structure. For example, mineral is scratched. The colour of the streak does not
❚ They are inorganic. They have not been produced by living things, unlike pearls, pyrite has cubic shapes and aragonite has hexagonal have to be the same as the mineral. For example, solid
shells or amber. shapes. quartz can be many different colours, but its streak is
always white.
❚ They are natural. This means they have not been made by humans, like plastic or glass.
❚ They have a definite chemical composition. They are composed of chemical
elements that are always combined in the same proportion to create the same
mineral. For example, galena, is a mineral formed by two chemical elements:
sulphur and lead.
galena
❚ They have a crystalline structure. This means that the particles are arranged to
form a geometric structure that is repeated constantly. For example, the atoms
of galena are structured to form a cubic shape.
Pyrite Aragonite Galena and its streak
If the arrangement of the mineral particles are visible, we call this a crystal.
Crystals need enough time and space to form. In a crystal we can identify the ❚ Colour: some minerals have a very characteristic ❚ Lustre: describes how the mineral reflects light. It can
edges, flat faces and the vertices of its geometrical shape. colour. Galena is rusty grey and sulphur is bright be metallic if it shines like metals, glassy if it is like
yellow. Other minerals, like quartz, can be found in glass, pearly, if it shines like a pearl, diamond-like, or
different colours, as seen in the images below. dull if it doesn’t shine.

Crystallisation of minerals

Crystalline structure of minerals

Remember
Blue quartz Transparent quartz Metalic: magnetite Glassy: fluorite Pearly: gypsum
4. Write a list of the characteristics of minerals in your notebook.
Understand

5. Look at the two pink quartz roses above. Explain which one had more
space and time to form.
6. Look at the photo of galena above. Can you say that it is a crystal?
7. Explain why amber is not a mineral.
8. Would you classify factory-made diamonds as minerals?
Pink quartz Sulphur Diamond-like: rutile Dull: limonite
9. Is water a mineral? Explain your answer.
Create
Understand
10. Look for the definition of mineraloide. Decide if the glass in a window
is a mineral or a mineraloide and explain your answer. 11. Explain the difference between the colour and the streak of a mineral.

50 3. The geosphere 51

2. Minerals 10. Ask students to do this individually, then pick up a few

of their notebooks and randomly read the definitions out
Ask the students: How do you differentiate a mineral from a rock? loud. Students can vote on the most accurate definition.
At this stage, students tend to mix up the concepts of mineral and Include the answer as one of the possibilities. The diagram
rock. Highlight that minerals are the materials that make up rocks. in the margin on page 50 should help them understand.
Show them a granite rock. Explain that granite is a rock but the
different colors on it are the minerals that actually formed it. Ask
2.1. Physical properties of minerals
them again the meaning of mineral and rock and make sure they Ask students How can we distinguish one mineral from the
all understand the difference between these two concepts. other? Explain that the physical properties of minerals help us to
distinguish one from the other. Tell them to read the text and look
When you talk about the definite chemical composition, emphasise
at the images. Then ask them to do question 11.
that there are some minerals that are formed by only one single
chemical element such as sulphur, gold and silver. These are called 11. Do this activity with the whole class, then write the answer
native minerals. Students should now do activities 4 to 10. Below on the board and ask students to copy it.
you will find suggestions for each activity.

4. Ask students to do this on their own and then compare Answer key
answers.
Remember
5. Ask students to compare the two images in groups and
then write the answers on the board. 4. Write a list of the characteristics of minerals in your
notebook.
6. Do this as a whole group activity. Minerals are solid, inorganic, natural minerals. They have a
7. Write various possible answers on the board and ask definite chemical composition and usually have a crystalline
students to choose the correct one. structure.

8. Ask students to do this quickly in groups of three and elicit

answers.

9. Ask students to do this in pairs and then to compare their

answers with another pair before asking a spokesperson
from each group to answer.

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Understand
5. Look at the two pink quartz roses. Explain which one
had more space and time to form.
The pink quartz on the left was probably developed with
more space and time as we can appreciate with a naked eye
that it is more compact. The crystal has edges, vertices and
more defined and appreciable flat faces.
6. Look at the photo of the galena above. Can you say
that it is a crystal?
Yes, because it has a crystalline structure and a cubic shape.
7. Explain why amber is not a mineral.
Basically, amber is not a mineral because it is not inorganic.
That means that it was produced by a living thing and
consequently is a petrified or fossilised vegetal resin.
8. Would you classify factory-made diamonds as mineral?
Factory-made diamonds do not have a natural origin, they
are made by human beings and are not minerals.
9. Is water a mineral? Explain your answer.
Water in liquid state is not a mineral. But in solid state, as in
ice cubes, and with the condition that a human being has not
intervened in its formation, it is considered a mineral by the
majority of scientists, although there is always a controversy
about this theory.
Create
10. Look for the definition of mineraloide. Decide if the
glass in a window is a mineral or a mineraloide and
explain your answer.
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The Geosphere 3
A mineraloide is a solid substance, natural material, and
inorganic. It has a definite chemical composition and similar
mineral characteristics but without a crystalline structure.
Its particles are not organised as they are in minerals and a
mineraloide does not have a geometrical shape. It is so called
non-crystalline. The glass in a window is a mineraloide or an
amorphous substance.
Understand
11. Explain the difference between the colour and the
streak of a mineral?
A streak is the colour that is produced when a mineral is
scratched, it does not have to be the colour of the mineral.
Laboratory practical: THE HARDNESS OF MATERIALS
This laboratory practical is a good way to motivate students and
it will probably make them more interested in the contents that
will be seen during this unit. By doing it, students will become
familiarized with a couple of minerals and also will have a clear
idea of the concept of hardness.
Web page: THE QUARRY
Minerals are solid and part of the rocks. These are extracted from
the interior of the crust. On this web page, students will learn
more about the properties of minerals and also identify some of
them.
Curricular adaptation: 2. MINERALS
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2.1.2. Mechanical properties 2.2. The importance of minerals

Hardness Mineral
1 Talc
2 Gypsum
3 Calcite
4 Fluorite
5 Apatite
6 Orthoclase
7 Quartz
8 Topaz
9 Corundum
10 Diamond
Gypsum
Throughout history, the ability to identify minerals and to obtain raw materials has
The mechanical properties of minerals refer to how the mineral behaves been essential to the success of civilizations.
when a force is applied to its surface.
Today, minerals are used mainly as metal ores, as raw materials for industry, or sold
❚ Hardness describes a mineral’s as gems or precious stones.
Mohs scale
resistance to scratching. To check if
Characteristics a mineral is harder than another, we 2.2.1. Metal ores
Very soft, because it can be scratched by another can scratch one with the other. The These are minerals that metals are extracted from (see table on the right). Other Ore Metal
mineral. mineral that is scratched is softer than minerals known as native or noble minerals are found in nature in their pure
the mineral that scratches it. Bauxite Aluminium
state. Examples of these minerals are gold, silver or platinum, admired since ancient
Soft minerals that can be scratched by the point of times for their colour, beauty, easiness to mould and durability. Blende Zinc
We can use minerals that are listed on
a knife. Chalcopyrite Tin
the Mohs scale to identify hardness. 2.2.2. Raw materials for industry
This scale grades the hardness of 10 Cinnabar Mercury
Hard minerals. Orthoclase can be scratched with minerals from 1 to 10. The softest These are the most abundant minerals found in the Earth’s crust. Some examples are: Galena Lead
sandpaper and quartz scratches glass. mineral, Talc (1) can be scratched by uraninite which provides us with uranium used as fuel in nuclear power stations; Hematite Iron
all the others. At the other end of the quartz, which is very important for manufacturing glass, computer components,
Main ores of some metals
Very hard, cannot be scratched by any other scale, diamond (10) can scratch all parts and solar panels; and gypsum, which is used for manufacturing plaster,
mineral. the other minerals and can only be alabaster, fertilisers and explosives.
scratched by another diamond.
2.2.3. Gems or precious stones
❚ Cleavage describes the way a mineral breaks. Many minerals break to show flat
surfaces, maintaining the crystalline structure. For example, galena breaks into These are beautiful and rare minerals which have a great economic value. They are
cubic shapes and gypsum breaks into sheets. used for jewellery, usually after a process of cutting and polishing to bring out their
lustre. Some of the most well-known gems are diamonds, rubies, sapphires and
❚ Tenacity describes how easily a mineral breaks. A fragile mineral breaks easily, emeralds.
such as talc.
Some minerals can be pulled into thin threads. This is the case of copper threads
that conduct electricity. This is called ductile tenacity.

2.1.3. Magnetic properties

Some minerals, such as magnetite, behave like a magnet. They attract objects
that contain iron and nickel.
Diamond Ruby Sapphire Emerald
2.1.4. Other properties of materials
Magnetite

Quartz
❚ Transparency describes how a mineral reacts to light. A mineral can be 2.3. Sustainable management of mineral resources
transparent, such as diamond, when light can pass through it; translucent,
like quartz, when light passes through it but is distorted; or opaque, like Uncontrolled mining has an impact on the environment such as contamination of
galena, when no light can pass through. water and land contamination with metals. It can also cause health problems for Key concepts
miners: headaches, blood poisoning with lead and mercury, and breathing problems.
❚ Density is the relation between the mass and volume of a mineral (density ❚ Minerals are solid, inorganic
= mass/volume). Density is usually measured in grams per cubic centimetre Responsible use of minerals is essential to avoid or reduce this negative impact. We substances of natural origin.
(g/cm3). This property is specific to each mineral and is independent of size. can help by recycling minerals and electronic devices made with minerals such as They have a definite chemical
Galena So, the density of a mineral is important information for identifying minerals. mobile phones and computers. composition and most have a
crystalline structure.
❚ They have properties that
Understand Analyse allow us to identify them
12. Explain in your own words what the Mohs scale is? What is it used for? such as hardness, lustre,
15. Find out about the use of the metals extracted from these mineral
streak or density.
13. A crystal is hit and breaks into small cubes. What property does this describe? ores: bauxite and cinnabar. Write a short report in your notebook.
❚ They are used as metal ores,
16. Find out about the hardness of the gems in the photos above. Do you as raw materials for industry
Analyse
think their economic value is related to their hardness? Explain your and as gems or precious
14. Listen and say which mineral properties are being described. answer. stones.

52 3. The geosphere 53

2.1.2. Mechanical properties Video: A DAY WITHOUT MINERALS

Ask students to read the text and look at the table illustrating
This video shows some daily objects that are manufactured with
Mohs Scale.
minerals. After watching the video twice, ask the students to
Ask the students to re-read the text and identify three mechanical answer the questions given in the worksheet. To finish the activity,
properties (hardness, cleavage, tenacity). Then ask them what the ask students: What do we use minerals for nowadays?
other properties are: magnetic (not all minerals), transparency and
density.
Finish the section revising the Key concepts at the end of
Students should now do questions 12 to 14. the section and also remind them about the Final task that
Tips: For question 12, ask the students to look at the scale they should do about the environmental impact of mineral
in pairs, and to decide not only what it is measuring but why extraction.
this would be useful: Brainstorm ideas on the board. For
question 13, do this activity quickly with the whole class, then
Curricular adaptation: 3. PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
ask students to think of other quiz-type questions to identify
another property. Section adapted according to the curriculum.
For question 14, play the audio at least twice. The second time,
stop after each sentence and elicit the answer.
Now ask students to do questions 15 and 16. They can do this Answer key
as homework, or if they access to reference material (digital or
otherwise), they could do it in class. Ask them to discuss their Remember
findings before handing in their report. 12. Explain in your own words what the Mohs scale is?
2.2. The importance of minerals What is it used for?
Once students internalise the definition and the properties It is a scale that measures the hardness of minerals. Hardness
of minerals, it should be easier for them to understand their is not a quantitative property so that is the reason the Mohs
importance and the sustainable management of mineral scale is so useful to classify minerals and their uses.
resources.

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13. A crystal is hit and breaks into small cubes. What
property does this describe?
In this case, we are talking about cleavage, because it keep
the crystal shape. To be precise, we call it cubic cleavage.
14. Listen and say which mineral properties are being
described.
Audio script and answers:
a) This is how easily a mineral breaks. (tenacity)
b) This is the relation between mass and volume.(density)
c) This is the way a mineral breaks.(cleavage)
d) This is how a mineral reacts to light.(transparency)
Metals extracted from these minerals are, in the following
order: aluminium, mercury and zinc. Aluminium and zinc are
very useful to produce metal tools and utensils. Mercury is
used to make thermometers because of its high capacity of
dilation.
16. Find out about the hardness of the gems in the photos
above. Do you think their economic value is related to
their hardness? Explain your answer.

Diamond Ruby Sapphire Emerald

Analyse
15. Find out about the use of metals extracted from these The hardness of these gems or precious stones are equal or
mineral ores: bauxite and cinnabar. Write a short report superior to 8. Their economic value is related to their colour,
brightness, natural beauty and also their hardness and
in your notebook.
durability over time.

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3. ROCKS 3.1. Igneous rocks

In some areas of the upper mantle, minerals melt due to high temperatures.
Rocks are natural aggregates made up of one or various different minerals.
Magma is a substance made up of melted materials mixed with gases and
Rocks, like minerals, have properties that allow us to identify them, for example, water, formed in the Earth’s interior.
composition and texture.

❚ The composition of a rock refers to the minerals that make up the rock.
Some rocks only have one mineral. For example, limestone is composed only
of calcite. These rocks are called simple or homogeneous rocks. Others are
made up of a variety of minerals. For example, granite is made up of quartz,
feldspar and mica. These rocks are called complex or heterogeneous
rocks.
There are exceptions such as petroleum and coal, which are not of mineral
origin as they come from animal remains and so do not contain minerals.
❚ Texture refers to the size and arrangement of the minerals in the rock. It is not
always possible to observe the texture of a rock without using a magnifying
glass or even a microscope.
When magma rises to the surface it can remain in the crust or it can exit to the
exterior. In both cases, away from the source of heat, magma cools until it becomes
solid and forms igneous rocks or magmatic rocks.
These rocks are made up of one or several minerals compressed together, so they
are extremely compact. The resistance of igneous rocks to pressure makes them a
perfect material to construct buildings.
Igneous rocks are classified as volcanic or plutonic depending on where they were
formed.
❚ Volcanic igneous rocks or extrusive rocks are formed when magma rises and
leaves the Earth’s crust as lava. Lava cools quickly and forms volcanic rocks.

These instruments allow us to identify the minerals that make up rocks. For
example, without a magnifying glass granite appears to have different colours:
greys, whites and blacks. With a magnifying glass we can see that it is made up
of crystals of quartz (greys), feldspar (whites) and mica (blacks).

Understand
17. Explain the difference
between homogeneous
and heterogeneous rocks.
Why are coal and petroleum
exceptions?
18. Listen and identify the
rocks: igneous, sedimentary
or metamorphic.
quartz
Obsidian is shiny black
and originates in the
mica continental crust. It has a
glassy texture. The crystals
have not had time to
form.
feldspar
Composition and texture of granite
Pumice or pumice stone
is a continental rock. It is
easily recognised because
of the many small holes
in the surface. These were
formed by gases that
were in the rock before it
solidified.
Basalt originates in
submarine volcanoes.
It contains very small
minerals due to its rapid
cooling. It is the most
abundant rock found in
the Canary Islands and
the ocean floor.

Analyse
19. Study the photo. What
type of rock is a
conglomerate?
Is it homogeneous or
heterogeneous? Explain
your answer.
There are many ways of classifying rocks, but geologists prefer to classify
them according to their origin. Rocks can be metamorphic, igneous or ❚ Plutonic igneous rocks or intrusive rocks are formed when rising magma
cools slowly inside the Earth’s crust. The mineral crystals are easily visible as they
sedimentary.
had more time to form.
Types of rocks
Igneous Sedimentary Metamorphic

Sediments are Formed by the Understand

fragments of other transformation of other
These originate when 20. Explain why crystals in
rocks, minerals and rocks subjected to high the minerals that make
magma from the
organic remains. pressure conditions Granite is the most Syenite is a continental Gabbro is a plutonic rock up plutonic rocks are
Earth’ s interior cools
Sedimentary rocks and/or temperatures, abundant plutonic rock on plutonic rock. found in the ocean’s crust. visible, but are not visible
and solidifies.
form when sediments without reaching a the continental crust. in the minerals of volcanic
Conglomerate consolidate. melting state. rocks.

54 3. The geosphere 55

3. Rocks Curricular adaptation: 4. ROCKS

Start this section by showing the different types of rocks. This
is a good opportunity to review the differences between rocks
and minerals just to make sure all the students understood these
concepts. Students can look for the variations between the
different types of rocks. To help them you could use the following
chart by copying it on the board and filling it in with the whole
class:
Rock Density Visible
sediments
Ask students about the concepts of composition and texture of rocks.
You can add two more columns to the chart (one for composition
and one for texture) and students should copy it in their notebook
and complete it as they work through the unit.
The practical activity about The texture of rocks on page 64 will help
students to clearly understand these concepts.
There are many ways of classifying rocks, but geologists prefer to
classify them according to their origin. Rocks can be metamorphic,
igneous or sedimentary.
Now students could de questions 17 to 20.
Tips: Before doing question 17, check that students understand
the meaning of homogeneous and heterogeneous in other
contexts. For question 18, play the audio at least twice. The
second time, stop after each sentence and elicit the answer. For
question 19, ask students to do this in pairs.
Section adapted according to the curriculum.
3.1. Igneous or magmatic rocks
Igneous or magmatic rocks are the ones that originated from the
solid magma, in the interior or the exterior of the crust. At this
point, you can highlight the difference between magma and lava.
Visible Aligned Magma is formed in the Earth’s interior while the lava is in the
minerals minerals Earth’s exterior.
Now students can do question 20. Ask students to do this in-
dividually, and then write various answers on the board ( some
incorrect), then ask the students in groups to choose the correct
answers.
Curricular adaptation: 5. TYPES OF ROCKS
Section adapted according to the curriculum.
Answer key
Understand
17. Explain the difference between homogeneous and
heterogeneous rocks. Why are coal and petroleum
exceptions?
Homogeneous rocks only have one mineral, for example,
limestone that is composed only of calcite. On the other

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hand, heterogeneous rocks are made up of a variety on A conglomerate is a sedimentary rock that is clearly visible. It
minerals. For example, granite is made up of quartz, feldspar is made up of other rocks as well as sediments. Fragments of
and mica. Coal and petroleum are exceptions because they a heterogeneous rock are visible and distinguishable with the
are not of mineral origin. naked eye.

18. Listen and identify the rocks: igneous, sedimentary or

metamorphic.
Understand
Audio script and answers:
a) These are formed when rocks are subjected to high 20. Explain why crystals in the minerals that make up
pressure conditions. (metamorphic) plutonic rocks are visible, but are not visible in the
volcanic rocks?
b) These originate when the magma cools. (igneous)
Because plutonic rocks are formed during a very slow process
c) These form when sediments consolidate. (sedimentary) so mineral crystals have more time to form. On the other
hand, volcanic rocks are formed when magma rises and
Analyse leaves the Earth’s crust as lava. And lava cools quickly so there
is no time for the crystallisation.
19. Study the photo. What type of rock is a conglomerate?
Is it homogeneous or heterogeneous? Explain your
answer.

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3.2. Sedimentary rocks 3.2.2. Classification of sedimentary rocks

Rocks found on the Earth’s surface are changed by the action of the wind, sea,
rivers, rain or ice. The elements wear down rocks in a process of erosion. The rock
fragments are deposited in the lowest areas of the Earth’s surface.
❚ Sediments are fragments of rock and organic material that have been
transported and deposited by water and wind.
❚ The places where sediments are deposited are called sedimentary basins.
These rocks are classified by looking at the origin of the sediments that compose
them. Sedimentary rocks can be detrital or non-detrital.
❚ Detrital sedimentary rocks are made up of other rocks. Depending on the
size of the fragments or grains that compose them, we can distinguish various
types.

Conglomerates contain Sandstone contains Clay is made up of very

grains that are more grains smaller than small grains that can
than 2 mm big, called 2 mm that are easily only be observed with
clasts. Clasts are joined visible. It feels rough to a magnifying glass or a
together by smaller the touch. microscope. It is soft to
grains. the touch.

❚ Non-detrital sedimentary rocks are not made up of fragments of other rocks.

They are made up of sediments from skeletons of marine life or mineral salts. They
can also come from the remains of living things that have not decomposed.

Sedimentary basins: the origin of sedimentary rocks

The process in which sediments transform into sedimentary rocks is

called diagenesis or lithification.

3.2.1. Formation of sedimentary rocks

Limestone can contain Gypsum is a rock composed Coal forms from the Petroleum also results
Sediments deposited in sedimentary basins (1) often follow two essential fossil remains or be composed of the mineral of the same accumulation and from the transformation
processes for the formation of sedimentary rocks: of mineral salts. It produces name, gypsum. It originates decomposition of plant of organic remains. It is
❚ Compaction (2) is when sediments lose volume. Due to the weight effervescence in contact from the salts of water remains over millions considered a rock even
of the sediments on top, water is lost and the sediments become with acids. evaporation in shallow2 lakes of years. though it is not in a solid, but
compacted. and seas. liquid state.
❚ Cementation (3) takes place after the water is lost and the salts form
crystals. The crystals act like cement and stick the sediments together Coal and petroleum originate from the remains of living things that have not 2
shallow: not deep
to form sedimentary rocks. decomposed. They can burn and produce energy. This is why they are called
combustible fossils. Coal originates from plant remains that could not decompose
completely because they were buried in sediments and sand. Petroleum is the
Analyse
Formation of sedimentary rock result of the transformation of remains of marine microorganisms buried in the
21. 2.5 cm of sediments are accumulated every 10 years in a ocean floor.
sedimentary basin. After the process of compaction, will
the volume of sediment be thicker or thinner? Explain your
answer. Analyse

22. Explain why water is important in the formation of sedimentary 23. Can you explain why limestone, which contains remains of living things,
rocks. cannot be burned like coal or petroleum?

56 3. The geosphere 57

3.2. Sedimentary rocks 3.2.2. The classification of sedimentary rocks

Before starting with sedimentary rocks, clarify the definition of Tell students to read the text and to look at the different rocks.
sediments, sedimentary basins and diagenesis. Ask them: What is the difference between detrital and non-detrital
Ask students How do sediments transform into sedimentary sedimentary rocks? When talking about detrital sedimentary rocks,
rocks? highlight the peculiarities of coal and petroleum as combustible
fossils.
Explain the origin of sediments from the erosion of rocks
by geological agents, and the posterior transportation and These sedimentary rocks originate from the remains of living
sedimentation. The illustration on page 56 will visually help things that have not decomposed. They can burn and produce
students to understand this process. Once they understand the energy.
formation of sedimentary rocks, you can carry on explaining the Coal could be from different types according to their calorific value.
processes that could happen in the diagenesis: the compaction From the least to the most calorific, they are classified in peat, lignite,
and the cementation. coal and anthracite. The calorific value depends on the quantity of
coal: more coal, more powerful.
Reading comprehension: THE ROCK OF AGES
Answer key
This text is about how slow the geological processes happen. Stu-
dents will realise how much implicated are human beings in these
processes since millions of years while the sand transformation in
Analyse
rock is still happening. 21. 2.5 cm of sediments are accumulated every 10 years in
a sedimentary basin. After the process of compaction,
will the volume of sediment be thicker or thinner?
3.2.1. Formation of sedimentary rocks
Explain your answer.
Ask students to read section 3.2.1 and then close their books.
The thickness will be 0.25 cm every 10 years.
Read out the process for either compaction or cementation and
ask them to stand up if you defined one or the other. 22. Explain why water is important in the formation of
Students could now do questions 21 and 22. For question 21, ask sedimentary rocks.
students to work on this problem in pairs. For question 22, they Because sediments, before transforming into sedimentary
should re-read section 3.2.1 first and then answer the question. rocks, must lose water by compaction or cementation.

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Analyse
23. Can you explain why limestone, which contains
remains of living things, cannot be burned like coal or
petroleum?
Because fossil remains in limestone are fossilized and
consequently they lose their organic part and just have left
hard parts like carapaces, shells, etc.

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3.3. Metamorphic rocks 3.4. The rock cycle

Rocks that are located deep in the crust are subjected to the pressure created by Any rock can be transformed into a different type of rock.
the rocks above them. In addition, if these rocks are near magma, they are also
exposed to high temperatures. Pressure and high temperature causes changes in The rock cycle is a series of processes that a rock goes through to transform
the minerals that compose a rock and a new rock forms. into another type of rock.

❚ Metamorphism is the process that changes a rock into a different type of These processes occur very slowly, so the rock cycle takes place over millions of
rock. years.
❚ Rocks that form in this way are called metamorphic rocks.

Metamorphic rocks are classified according to their texture, in two groups: foliated
and non-foliated.

❚ In foliated metamorphic rocks the minerals are arranged to form parallel

layers. This layered structure is easily observed in many rocks of this type.

Foliated metamorphic rocks are identified from low to high grades of

metamorphism: slate, schist, gneiss and migmatite.

Slate results from the
metamorphism of clay.
It is composed of small
crystals visible under the
microscope. Slate breaks into
thin sheets.
Schist comes from clay,
after a higher metamorphism
than in the case of slate.
Its crystals are visible without
a microscope.
Gneiss originates from
detrital sedimentary rocks or
from granite. Its crystals are
bigger than those in schist.
They are arranged in wavy
bands.
Migmatite are rocks half
way between igneous and
metamorphic rocks. They have
experienced a very intense
metamorphism that partially
melts the original rock. The rock cycle

All rocks, exposed to the action of wind and water, can go undergo the processes
❚ In non-foliated metamorphic rocks the minerals are not arranged in layers.
of erosion, transportation and sedimentation. Sediments deposited in sedimentary
The most common are marble and quartzite.
basins undergo the process of diagenesis or lithification and are transformed into
sedimentary rocks.
Marble originates Quartzite originates from
The rocks in the Earth’s crust are subjected to high pressures and/or temperatures
from the metamorphism the metamorphism of
form metamorphic rocks. If the rocks melt, magma will form. Magma can rise and
of limestone. sandstone. Like marble,
cool under the crust, creating plutonic igneous rocks. Magma can also come out
Its minerals are it forms due to the exposure
transformed due of the original rock to high
of the crust to the exterior and solidify, creating volcanic igneous rocks. Key concepts
to exposure to high temperatures. ❚ Rocks are aggregates of two
temperatures. Understand or various minerals.

25. Listen, look at the rock cycle and say true or false. ❚ According to their origin, rocks
are classified into igneous or
26. In which layer of the geosphere does the rock cycle take place? Which magmatic, sedimentary, and
Analyse
rocks form at the deepest level? metamorphic.
24. Compare the igneous and metamorphic rock processes. What conditions ❚ The process by which rocks
Analyse
are needed for a rock to transform into metamorphic rock and not transform into different rocks
igneous when subjected to high temperatures? 27. Explain which types of rocks can transform into igneous rocks. is called the rock cycle.

58 3. The geosphere 59

3.3. Metamorphic rocks 3.4. The rock cycle

Metamorphic rocks originate from the transformation of other rocks Ask students: How can rocks change into something different?
because of the increased pressure, high temperature or both. Those Tell them to read the text, look at the image and discuss the
factors act on the rocks that are placed in the interior of the Earth process involved in rock transformation in pairs. Ask them: Can
and provoke a reshaping or a change in the composition of rocks, a metamorphic rock change directly into an igneous rock? For a
changing them into a different type of rock. rock to be metamorphic, does it have to be a sedimentary rock
To become a metamorphic rock, the rock cannot melt before its first?
formation. If the original rock melts, magma will form. Magma Ask the students to close their books and then ask them to help
can rise and cool under the crust, creating plutonic igneous rocks. you draw the rock cycle on the board, step by step. Give cues
Magma can also come out of the crust to the exterior and solidify, when necessary. The ask them to copy their own versions in their
creating volcanic igneous rocks. notebooks.
When you finish this section, it is important to highlight that rocks Students could now do questions 25 to 27. For question 25,
are variable and are constantly changing, either because of external pPlay the audio twice, the second time ask students to raise their
agents or pressure increase or high temperatures. It causes a slow but hands if they think the sentence is true. Before doing question 26
constant transformation on the rocks called the rock cycle. they should look at the diagram of the rock cycle once again. For
Students could now do question 24. Before answering, they need question 27, ask students to discuss this in small groups and to
to review the section on igneous rocks in order to complete the task. come up with three simple explanations.
The science practical suggested on page 64 will clarify concepts of Finish this section reviewing the Key concepts on page 59.
this section.
Curricular adaptation: 6. THE ROCK CYCLE
Web page: IDENTIFYING ROCKS Section adapted according to the curriculum.
Short quiz to finish this section. There are different questions
about a photo. Students could make an identification key from
the questions and answers of the identified rocks.

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Answer key
Analyse
24. Compare the igneous and metamorphic rock
processes. What conditions are needed for a rock to
transform into metamorphic rock and not igneous
when subjected to high temperatures?
27. Explain which types of rock can transform into igneous
Igneous rocks are formed when magma (melted minerals) rises
to the surface, and as it cools it becomes solid. Metamorphic
rocks are rocks that change into a different type of rock when
exposed to pressure and high temperature.
Understand
25. Listen, look at the rock cycle and say true or false.
Audio script and answer:
a) The rock cycle is a series of processes that a rock goes
through. (True)
b) The processes happen very quickly. (False)
c) Not all rocks can undergo the processes. (False)
d) If the rocks melt, magma will form. (True)
26. In which layer of the geosphere does the rock cycle
take place? Which rocks form at the deepest level?
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In the Earth’s crust, the most superficial layer, where materials
are solidified, thus forming rocks. At the deepest level, we
find plutonic igneous rocks and metamorphic rocks because
those depend on high pressure and high temperature, very
common in deepest areas.
Analyse
rocks.
An igneous rock or magmatic rock can transform into any
types of rocks:
– Sedimentary rock: if it is subjected to the following
agents of the external geological processes: weathering,
erosion, transportation, sedimentation or deposit of
those fragments and diagenesis or transformation in a
sedimentary rock.
– Magmatic rock: if it is subjected to high temperatures
that provoke a fusion and again another transformation
into magma. When magma solidifies, a new igneous
rock is formed.
– Metamorphic rock: if it is subjected to high pressure/
temperature (metamorphism), without melting it but
transforming it into a different rock.
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4. THE USE OF ROCKS 5. EXTRACTION OF MINERALS AND ROCKS

The evolution of humans since the Palaeolithic Age has been linked to the use
of rocks for building, ornamentation or making utensils for hunting. Today, we
continue to use rocks for these activities.
The main uses of rocks are building, ornamentation and as a source of fuels and
technological materials.
❚ Building materials: some rocks are used directly. Others are modified for
building purposes.
Cement, concrete, ceramics and glass are some of most commonly used building
materials. They all come from rocks.
Rocks and minerals are extracted from mineral deposits in the Earth’s crust.
A deposit is the place where minerals or rocks are found in sufficient quantity
to make extraction economically beneficial.
The minerals that are of interest to extract are called ore deposit. The other rocks and
minerals are referred to as gangue.
To locate a deposit drill holes are made with large drills. Cylinders of earth are
extracted and then analysed.
Depending on how deep a deposit is and its accessibility, the extraction can be
superficial or subterranean.

❚ Superficial extractions: rocks and minerals are extracted from the surface or
not very deep under the surface. This type of extraction has a great impact on the
environment. There are various types:
• In opencast mines, such as those in Riotinto (Huelva), the minerals are not
deep underground. To extract them, they make funnel-shaped holes (pits). The
edges are stepped to transport the minerals to the surface.
Cement is obtained by grinding and Concrete is created by mixing cement, • In quarries, large rocks are extracted, cut into blocks or slabs. An example are
heating limestone and clay. It is mixed water, sand and gravel. When dry, it the marble quarries in Macael (Almería).
3
harden: to become hard with water to create a substance that is harder and stronger than cement. • Gravel4 is extracted from gravel pits. These are usually found in or near large 4
gravel: a mixture of rock fragments
hardens3 when dry. It allows us to stick This is why it is used for pillars and riverbeds. There are many in the Tajo river basin. between 2 and 64 mm
rocks together. foundations.
Remember ❚ Subterranean extractions: rocks and minerals are located deep within the crust
28. Make a table of rocks and are extracted using underground mines. Vertical tunnels called shafts are
used to make building constructed and horizontal tunnels or galleries called adits, to extract the minerals.
materials. Include what
materials they are used
to make and the uses of
those materials.
29. Which types of rocks
are usually used for
decoration?
Ceramics are made with pulverised Glass is created from quartz present Understand
Understand
clay mixed with water, modelled and in sand. Sand is placed in an oven at a 32. Explain in your own
30. Explain the difference cooked at high temperatures. high temperature and it melts. When words, the difference
between concrete and They are used to make bricks, tiles cooled, glass can be shaped in different between a subterranean
cement. or dishes. ways. mine and a quarry.

Key concepts
❚ Rocks are used, directly
or modified, as building
materials.
❚ Rocks also have ornamental
uses, as fossil fuels or as
a source of minerals for
technological use.
❚ Ornamental rocks: marble, granite, slate and basalt are often used in decoration.
Due to their beauty once they have been carved and polished, these rocks are
used in sculptures, floors of buildings and many other decorative elements in the
interior and exterior of buildings. Key concepts
❚ Source of fossil fuels: sedimentary rocks such as coal and oil are used because ❚ A deposit is the place
they produce a lot of when burnt. where minerals or rocks are
Extraction of rocks
extracted.
❚ Source of minerals for technological use: rocks rich in quartz are a source of
Understand ❚ Extractions are classified
silicon, which is used to make computer processors or photovoltaic solar panels. according to depth:
Aluminium, obtained from a sedimentary rock called bauxite, is used to make 31. What type of superficial extraction is shown in the picture? superficial or subterranean.
many objects such as planes, soft drink cans or kitchen utensils.

60 3. The geosphere 61

4. The use of rocks 5. Extraction of minerals and rocks

Ask the students: What objects can you see around you that are This section could make students think about the importance of
made of rocks? Probably they will find objects related to building. sustainable management of mineral and rock resources. It is es-
However, rocks are useful in the majority of objects around us, sential to know the consequences of the uncontrolled use of tho-
from building to technological ones. se resources, both for the environment and for people.
Read the following sentences just to review some types of rocks It is important that students become aware of the need for sear-
that will be useful during the lesson: ching for alternatives to use and overuse of non-renewable re-
❚ Granite and basalt are igneous or magmatic rocks. sources as well as their consequences. Sustainable use of mineral
and rock resources allow better work conditions for millions of
❚ Limestone, clay, coal and petroleum are sedimentary rocks. people and also avoid unnecessary risks. Now students do ques-
❚ Marble and slate are metamorphic rocks. tions 31 and 32.
Human beings have been using rocks since the Palaeolithic Tips: 31. Ask students to look at the different definitions of ex-
Age. At the beginning their use was natural, such as refuges traction and the image. 32. Elicit different answers from the class.
(caves or caverns) or utensils for hunting. Nowadays, the
main use of rocks is for building, ornamentation, and as a Web page: THE PROCESS OF GOLD EXTRACTION
source of fuels and technological materials. In the latter, they AND ITS USE
do not use rocks directly to produce them, but rather minerals
extracted from them like aluminum, which is obtained from To finish this section, students could watch this video. It is about
the extraction of gold and its importance to humans. After
bauxite.
watching the video, answer the questions on the worksheet.
Now, students should do questions 28 to 30. 28. Ask students to
do this in their notebooks and then compare with another stu-
dent. 29. Do this as a whole class activity, eliciting the answer. 30. Curricular adaptation: 8. MINERAL AND ROCK
Write different possibilities on the board and then ask students to EXTRACTION
choose the most appropriate answer for each.
Section adapted according to the curriculum.
Review concepts learnt in this section by reading the Key
concepts on page 60.

Curricular adaptation: 7. THE USE OF ROCKS

Section adapted according to the curriculum.

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Answer key Understand

31. What type of superficial extraction is shown in the
Remember
picture?
28. Make a table of rocks used to make building
materials. Include what materials they are used to
make and the uses of those materials.
Rocks Materials Uses
Cement Limestone and clay Stick rocks
together
Concrete Cement, water, Build pillars and
sand and gravel foundations
Ceramics Pulverised clay Make bricks, tiles
mixed with water or dishes
Glass Quartz present in Make windows,
sand bottles, glasses

29. Which types of rocks are usually used for decoration?

Plutonic rocks because of their beauty once they have been
cut and polished.
32. Explain in your own words the difference between a
Understand
30. Explain the difference between concrete and cement.
Cement is made from grinding and heating limestone and
clay. Concrete is created by mixing cement, water, sand and
gravel. When dry, it is harder and stronger than cement. This
is why it is used for pillars and foundations.
It is an opencast mine, they are making a funnel-shaped hole
(piles) to extract.
subterranean mine and a quarry.
In subterranean mines, vertical tunnels called shafts and
horizontal tunnels or galleries are constructed to extract the
minerals while in quarries, minerals are extracted from the
surface or not very deep under the surface and it has a great
impact on the environment. Large rocks are extracted and
cut into blocks or slabs.

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CONSOLIDATION
The Earth: origin and composition 39. Describe four properties of minerals. The use of rocks 60. Find out what a slag heap is. What environmental
problems do they cause?
40. Explain if an ice cube and coral used in jewellery 53. Explain which rocks provide the following building
33. Find out the thicknesses of the different layers of
are minerals or not. 61. Discuss this statement: ‘New generation mobile
the Earth and order them from thickest to thinnest. materials:
telephones are made of stone’.
41. Investigate and then copy and complete the table
34. Make a table to compare the characteristics of the a) glass c) cement e) brick
in your notebook.
continental crust and the oceanic crust. b) concrete d) lime f) tile
READ AND UNDERSTAND SCIENCE
35. Were all materials distributed according to their Mineral Ore
54. Why are coal and petroleum referred to as fossil fuels?
density from the very beginning? Explain your Cassiterite ... Slow but sure
answer. ... Lead 55. What is sandpaper? Explain why it is not made of
In Chihuahua, Mexico, giant crystals were found in the
fragments of gypsum or talc. cave of Naica. They are mega-crystals of selenite (a variety
36. Explain why the following statements are true or Hematite ...
false. 56. Copy and complete the table in your notebook for of gypsum). For years, the Spanish investigator Juan
... Zinc
the following rocks: petroleum, chalk, limestone, Manuel García has been studying how fast they grow.
a) The seismic method only allows us to know the Chalcopyrite ... Thanks to a special microscope designed by Japanese
composition of the Earth’ s crust. clay and coal.
engineers, we now know that these formations grow
b) The Earth is made up of solid materials. 42. According to the Mohs scale, what is the hardness at the equivalent of one hair every 100 years. However,
Rock Use Objects created with it
of a mineral that scratches orthoclase but is their growth has stopped in recent years due to mining
c) The Earth’ s crust has a uniform thickness of 50 km.
scratched by quartz? ... ... ... activities, to extract minerals from the underground
d) Denser materials in the geosphere are found on the water that the minerals need to grow.
Earth’ s surface. 43. Explain how can you distinguish white quartz from
57. Research how concrete and bricks are made. Make EVA VAN DEN BERG
e) The Earth’ s mantle is located between the Mohorovičić orthoclase which is the same colour? National Geographic, November 2011
a diagram.
discontinuity and the Lehmann discontinuity. 44. Find out why the colour and streak of a mineral (Translated and adapted)
f) The Earth’ s inner core is solid because the temperature is isn’t always the same. Extraction of minerals and rocks a) What is the text about?
lower than in the outer core.
45. Find out why pyrite is also referred to as ‘fool’s gold’. b) Can you explain the title?
37. The following graph shows how seismic waves 58. Complete the sentences in your notebook.
a) The rocks extracted from ….. are cut into blocks. c) Why have the crystals stopped growing?
move around the planet. Which seismic wave is Rocks
travelling at a higher speed? Which layers of the b) ….. are horizontal tunnels in underground mines. d) Do you think the growth of these formations can be
46. Explain the three characteristics that are used to observed by any person?
Earth do they go through? c) ….. is sediment that is usually extracted in or near large
classify rocks. riverbeds. e) Find out about selenite. Explain why water is
essential for its formation.
47. Pumice is a rock that floats in water. Why do you
Moho Gutenberg Lehmann 59. Explain the meaning of the terms deposit and mine.
think this is? Is it a natural or an artificial rock?
12 Justify your answer.
Waves P 48. Copy the following terms in two columns in your
Speed of siesmic wave (km/s)

notebook and then match them.

9 A: limestone, granite, clay, marble, basalt, chalk, detrital STUDY SKILLS You can record
Waves S your
sedimentary summary and
❚ Create your own summary of the unit using ❚ Copy the following diagram in your list
B: non-detrital sedimentary, plutonic, volcanic, foliated the Key concepts. Add any other important notebook and add the missing information to it as many tim en
6 as you like to es
metamorphic, non-foliated metamorphic information. to create a conceptual map of the unit. revise.
49. Are there any rocks which are not composed of
minerals? What type of rocks are they?
3 The geosphere
Outer Inner 50. When 1 kg of granite was analysed in the laboratory
Mantle core core is divided in is composed of
using different chemical processes they obtained
0 250 g of a white mineral, 300 g of another mineral,
0 1 000 2 000 3 000 4 000 5 000 6 000 almost black, and the rest was a grey mineral.
a) What is the name of each mineral that composes granite?
layers minerals rocks
Depth (km)
b) Which mineral corresponds to the grams of minerals
above? ... are classified by are classified by
Minerals
51. On an excursion, Ana found a rock that contained
a plant fossil that lived on Earth millions of years ... ...
38. Which property of materials
does the image show? ago. What type of rock do you think it was? Explain
your answer. ❚ Create your own scientific glossary. Define the following terms: quarry, clast, sedimentary basin, deposit, discontinuity,
reef, phytoplankton, fossil, gallery, gangue, geosphere, gravel, magma, metamorphism, mineral, ore, rock, sediment,
52. Which rock forms quartzite after metamorphism? seismic wave. Add any other terms you consider important.
What size are the grains of the original rock?

62 3. The geosphere 63

The Earth: origin and composition
33. Find out the thickness of the different layers of the
Earth and order them from thickest to thinnest.
Crust: between 6 and 70 km thick
Upper mantle: up to 670 km deep; around 600 km thick
Lower mantle: up to 2900 km deep; around 2230 km thick
Outer core: up to 5120 km deep; around 2220 km thick
Inner core: up to 6370 km deep; around 1250 km thick
In order from the thickest to the thinnest: lower mantle-outer
core-inner core-upper mantle-crust
34. Make a table to compare the characteristics of the
continental crust and the oceanic crust.
Characteristics
The age of materials
that formed it
Thickness
Rocks that formed it
Superficial reliefs that
composed it
35. Were all materials distributed according to their density
from the very beginning? Explain your answer.
No, the density differentiation happened after the process
called accretion of planetesimals.
36. Explain why the following statements are true or
false.
a) The seismic method only allows us to know the
composition of the Earth’s crust. False, it allows us to
know the composition and the structure of the Earth’s
interior.
b) The Earth is made up of solid materials. False, it is
made up of solid materials and molten rocks like in the
upper mantle and in the outer core.
c) The Earth’s crust has a uniform thickness of 50 km.
False, the thickness is variable in the Earth’s crust, for
example, the continental crust is thicker than the oceanic
crust.
d) Denser materials in the geosphere are found on
the Earth’s surface. False, in the geosphere the densest
Continental Crust Ocean Crust materials are found in the inner core and the lightest ones
More than 1 000 200 million years old in the crust.
million years old
e) The Earth’s mantle is located between the
Between 10 and 70 km Between 6 and
10 km
Mohorovicic discontinuity and the Lehmann
discontinuity. False because the Earth’s mantle is located
Granite, clay and slate Basaltic rock
between the Mohorovicic discontinuity and the Gutenberg
Continental platform, Sea floor
continent and islands
discontinuity.
f) The Earth’s inner core is solid because the temperature
is lower than in the outer core. False, the inner core is
solid although its temperature is colder than in the outer
core, because the pressure is higher.

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 CONSOLIDATION The Geosphere 3

37. The following graph shows how seismic waves move 42. According to the Mohs scale, what is the hardness of
around the planet. Which seismic wave is traveling at a mineral that scratches orthoclase but is scratched by
a higher speed? Which layers of the Earth do they go quartz?
through? The hardness will be between 6 to 7 according to the Mohs
scale.
Moho Gutenberg Lehmann 43. Explain how you can distinguish white quartz from
orthoclase which is the same colour.
12
We can distinguish them by other characteristics or properties,
Waves P like the streak or the lustre. The streak in the quartz is always
Speed of siesmic wave (km/s)

white. In case there are a fragment of quartz and another one

9 of orthoclase, you can compare their hardness as the quartz
Waves S scratch the orthoclase, but not the other way round.
44. Find out why the color and streak of a mineral isn’t
6
always the same.
Because the colour of the streak or the powder produced
when a mineral is scratched is actually its ‘original colour’,
3
Outer Inner according to its chemical composition and its crystalline
Mantle core core structure. The colour of a mineral could have been influenced
by external factors and caused a variation on its original
0 colour.
0 1 000 2 000 3 000 4 000 5 000 6 000
45. Find out why pyrite is also referred to as ‘fool’s gold’.
Depth (km)
Because its appearance (colour and lustre) is similar to the
P waves are traveling at a higher speed. gold, but its commercial value is much cheaper. Historically,
millions of people were fooled by buying pyrite rather than
P waves go through all layers of the Earth’s interior, while S gold.
waves only go through the crust and the mantle.
Rocks
Minerals
46. Explain the three characteristics that are used to classify
38. Which property of materials does rocks.
the image show? The three characteristics that are used to classify rocks are:
Tenacity and resistance, that shows - Composition: minerals that make up the rock.
when a mineral breaks.
- Texture: size and arrangement of the minerals in the rock.
39. Describe four properties of minerals.
- Origin: the way that the rock was formed.
Open answer. Students could choose four of the several 47. Pumice is a rock that floats in water. Why do you think
properties of minerals mentioned in the unit. this is? Is it a natural or an artificial rock? Justify your
40. Explain if an ice cube and coral used in jewelry are answer.
minerals or not. Because it has many small holes in the surface. These were
formed by gases that were in the rock before solidified.
An ice cube is not a mineral because it is made up by a
human being when freezing water and giving it an artificial 48. Copy the following terms in two columns in your
geometrical shape. On the other hand, the natural ice is notebook and then match them:
considered a mineral. Limestone Detritial Sedimentary
The coral used in jewelry is not a mineral because it is not Granite Non-detritial Sedimentary
inorganic, it is formed by an animal called coral.
Clay Plutonic
41. Investigate and then copy and complete the table in
your notebook. Marble Volcanic
Basalt Foliated metamorphic
Ore Metal Chalk Non-foliated metamorphic
Bauxite Aluminium 49. Are there any rocks which are not composed of
Blend Zinc minerals? What type of rocks are they?
Chalcopyrite Copper Yes, coal and petroleum. These rocks are classified by looking
at the origin of the sediments that compose them and are
Cassiterite Tin called sedimentary rocks.
Cinnabar Mercury 50. When 1 kg of granite was analysed in the laboratory
Galenite Lead using different chemical processes they obtained 250
g of a white mineral, 300 g of another mineral, almost
Hematite Iron black, and the rest was a grey mineral.

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 3 The Geosphere CONSOLIDATION

a) What is the name of each mineral that composes 57. Research how concrete and bricks are made. Make a
granite? diagram.
Feldspar, quartz and mica. For example:
b) Which mineral corresponds to the grams of minerals Heating and milling of Mixed with sand,
above? Concrete
limestone and clay. gravel and water.
Feldspar: 250 g of a total of 1 000 g = 25 %
Milling and Mixed with Oven at high
Quartz: 300 g of a total of 1 000 g = 30 %
pulverization water and temperature: Bricks
Mica: 450 g of a total of 1 000 g = 45 % of clay. model. cooking process.

51. On an excursion, Ana found a rock that contained a

plant fossil that lived on Earth millions of years ago. Extraction of minerals and rocks
What type of rock do you think it was? Explain your
58. Complete the sentences in your notebook.
answer.
It is a sedimentary rock, it was probably formed on the Earth’s a) The rocks extracted from quarries are cut into blocks.
surface including a plant fossil between the sediments that b) Adits are horizontal tunnels in underground mines.
originated it.
c) Gravel is a sediment that is usually extracted in or
52. Which rock forms quartzite after metamorphism? What near large riverbeds.
size are the grains of the original rock?
59. Explain the meaning of the terms deposit and mine.
The sandstone, with a size above 2 mm.
A deposit is the place where minerals are found in sufficient
quantity to make extraction economically beneficial while a
The use of rocks mine is the place that is more profitable to explore by human
53. Explain which rocks provide the following building beings.
materials.
60. Find out what a waste dump is and what environmental
a) Glass: sandstone
problems it presents.
b) Concrete: mixed cement, water, sand and gravel (little
A waste dump is a place on the Earth’s surface where
fragments of sedimentary rocks).
human beings throw rests of building materials such as
c) Cement: limestone and clay bricks, cement, concrete, etc. Those places cause lots of
d) Lime: limestone environmental problems. Living things that used to live in
those places will be moved or destroyed by those rests.
e) Brick: clay
f) Tiles: clay; although there are areas where tiles are made 61. Discuss this statement: ‘New generation mobile
up by slates and similar materials. telephones are made of stone.’
54. Why are coal and petroleum referred to as fossil fuels? The statement means that a lot of materials that are used to make
new generation mobile phones are extracted from the rocks.
They are combustible because they produce energy for the
human beings. And they are fossils because they originate READ AND UNDERSTAND SCIENCE
from the remains of living things. a) What is the text about?
55. What is sandpaper? Explain why it is not made of It is about some giant crystals that were found in the cave of
fragments of gypsum or talc. Naica, Mexico.
It is an utensil used in building and DIY made up of a paper b) Can you explain the title?
or cardboard in which there are fragments of hard sand stuck
on it. It is used to smooth surfaces and it cannot be made up The title refers to the velocity to form those crystals.
of gypsum or talc, because these have a low hardness. c) Why have the crystals stopped growing?
56. Copy and complete the table in your notebook for the Due to mining activities to extract minerals.
following rocks: petroleum, chalk, limestone, clay and d) Do you think the growth of these formation can be
coal. observed by any person?
No, because these formations grow at the equivalent of one
ROCK USE OBJECTS CREATED WITH IT hair every 100 years.
PETROLEUM Combustible Petrol or diesel and plastics such e) Find out about selenite. Explain why water is essential
and raw as bottles for its formation.
material Selenite is a variety of gypsum made up of hydrated calcium
sulphate, and it needs water during its process to hydrate.
LIMESTONE Building Cement
CHALK Building Roofs, walls, coating, etc.
CLAY Building Bricks STUDY SKILLS
COAL Combustible Energy source Open answer

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 CONSOLIDATION The Geosphere 3

Web page: THE EARTH’S CRUST AND ITS MATERIALS EXTENSION ACTIVITIES

Above the Earth’s crust, there are a group of inert materials such Various revision activities.
as minerals and rocks. This web page will help students to review
the main contents of this unit and to do the activities.
Curricular adaptation: ASSESSMENT
Adapted for mixed abilities.
CONCEPTUAL MAP
To introduce the contents of the unit, you could show to the
student an incomplete conceptual map and ask them to complete ASSESSMENT TEST
the gaps in their notebook or orally with the whole group. This Assess the learning outcomes that are seen in the unit.
will help students to globally visualise the links between the
different contents of the unit.

PRESENTATION
Use the slideshow presentation to show the different sections
in the unit and to evaluate student’s learning. This tool can also
be used as revision at the end. The slides can stimulate student
participation, as they can be asked about certain topics before
they study them.

REVISION ACTIVITIES
Various revision activities.

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 3 The Geosphere WORK AND EXPERIMENTATION TECHNIQUES

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WORK AND EXPERIMENTATION TECHNIQUES www
FINAL TASK
The texture of rocks The environmental impact of mineral extraction

Some characteristics of rocks cannot be seen just by looking at The objective of this task is to research
them. In this science practical, you will learn to use a binocular Materials the environmental and social impact of
loupe to compare different rocks and distinguish them extracting coltan. You will present your
❚ Binocular loupe
according to texture. information in a slideshow presentation
❚ Five different rocks, for example, and suggest some measures to contribute to solving the
conglomerate, sandstone, basalt, problems.
granite and gneiss
❚ Ruler
1. Research
Procedure a) What are the negative effects of mineral extraction on the environment?
b) What is coltan and what it is used for? 2. Tasks
1. Put each rock, one by one, on the slide of the binocular loupe. Look through the eyepieces
and move the macrometric screw until the rock is sharply focused. c) Where are the main coltan mines located? Are there any in Spain? a) Prepare a slideshow presentation.

2. Observe each rock, and draw what you see for each rock. d) How does the behaviour of the consumer affect the exploitation of b) Make a list of three ways in which we can contribute to the
children in coltan mines? What can we do to help solve this problem? sustainable management of mineral resources.
3. Place a ruler next to the rock and, with the help of the loupe, measure the crystals
or fragments that compose the rock.
4. Do another drawing of each rock observed. Procedure
Follow these steps for your research:

Analysis of results Research

To analyse the results and compare the rocks, use the following table next to your drawings: ❚ Find at least four different ways in which mines impact the environment and people. Suggest some possible solutions
to the problems.
Minerals it is Size of the
Name of rock Type of rock ❚ Do not trust only one source of information. Check that the answers to your questions are repeated in different
composed of components
sources.
... ... ... ...
❚ Make a bibliography of all sources consulted.

Organise the information

❚ Make a table with the main impacts of coltan mining.
❚ Write the answers to the questions in the Research section.

Obtain conclusions and confirm research

❚ As a result of your work, resolve the initial questions of the Final task.
❚ Verify your answers.
❚ Check that you have answered all the questions.

Texture of conglomerate Texture of gneiss Texture of sandstone

1. Which of the observed rocks is homogeneous? How did you know? SELF-ASSESSMENT
2. What are the main differences between conglomerates and sandstone? ❚ Answer these questions to evaluate your work.

3. What type of igneous rocks are granite and basalt? Can you observe any differences in their textures? 1. Have you resolved all the questions in the Research section?

4. Based on the results of this science practical, define in your own words the different types of rocks (igneous, 2. Have you used reliable sources to find information?
sedimentary and metamorphic). 3. Have you checked that the answers were repeated in various sources?
5. Which of the rocks observed were formed in the exterior of the Earth’s crust? And in the interior? 4. What rating, from 1 to 5, would you give your presentation?

64 3. The geosphere 65

The texture of rocks 2. What are the main differences between conglomerates
and sandstone?
This science practical complements the contents worked in section
3. In that section the learning standard that is worked on is 7.1. Mainly the size of the grain, bigger in conglomerates.
Identify rocks using information that could differentiate them.
3. What type of igneous rocks are granite and basalt?
In addition, it will help students to become familiar with materials Can you observe any differences in their textures?
and instruments used in a laboratory such as the binocular loupe.
Granite is a plutonic rock while basalt is volcanic. The
By doing this laboratory practical students will achieve the difference is visible on the texture and we can see the crystals
following key competences: on a naked eye in the granite.
❚ Mathematical competence and basic competences in
science and technology (MCST). 4. Based on the results of this practical, define in your
own words the different types of rocks (igneous,
❚ Learning to learn (LL). sedimentary and metamorphic).
❚ Sense of initiative and entrepreneurship (SIE). Student’s own answer

Answer key 5. Which of the rocks observed in this practical were

formed in the exterior of the Earth’s crust? And in the
1. Which of the observed rocks is homogeneous? How interior?
did you know? Conglomerate, sandstone, basalt and gneiss were formed in
Both sandstone and gneiss are homogeneous rocks. It is the exterior of the Earth’s crust while granite was formed in
checked by observing them with a binocular loupe. the interior as being a plutonic rock.

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 FINAL TASK The Geosphere 3

The environmental impact of mineral extraction

The final task of this unit aims to raise awareness of the importance of the sustainable management of mineral resources. Nowadays, we
live in a world of consumers, and we rarely ask ourselves where things we use come from, or the human costs and environmental needs.
When new objects come out in the market, we do not appreciate the ones we have and often refuse to use them even if they still work
properly. We do not even think about what to do with the objects we do not want anymore and how they can pollute the environment if
we do not throw them away properly.
At the beginning of the unit, the final task and its objectives, in this case, were introduced with a slideshow presentation.
On page 47 we introduce the final task with some questions to motivate the curiosity of students.
On page 65 we explain how to do the research and how to prepare the slides.
❚ In the section Research there are four questions to guide students during the research.
❚ In the section Tasks there is a reminder about what they need to do.
❚ The Procedure section indicates the steps students must follow during the research, how they organise the information before making
the slides, and the importance of reviewing all the information to make sure they are doing things correctly.
❚ The Self-assessment at the end of the page will make them think about their work and the development of the final task.
Unfortunately, there is no time to present all the slideshows. Choose one, or reduce the timing presentation and give the chance to another
group.
The learning outcome that will be reinforced by doing this task, in the section 2, is the 10.1. Recognise the importance of minerals and
rocks for humans and of managing these resources in a sustainable way.
The learning outcomes from sections 1 and 7 will be also developed.
An example of how to assess the final task is shown here:
0 = not handed in
1 = very basic
2 = well done
3 = excellent

0 1 2 3
SLIDESHOW PRESENTATION

The presentation is adjusted according to the instructions.

Slides are eye-catching and the proportion of the texts and images is balanced.

Slides include information and images that complement the explanation.

The language, in the oral presentation, was expressed in appropriate and understandable terms.

Images sources consulted were mentioned.

Able to answer the questions proposed by the teacher and classmates.

125

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 3

Evaluable learning Excellent Satisfactory In process Not achieved

Assessment tools Score
outcomes 3 2 1 0
1.1 Describe the formation 1, 42 Explains the process in a clear Explains the process in a valid Explains the process with Answers in an incorrect way or
process of the Earth manner, identifying all the main but incomplete way, identifying mistakes, identifying few of the does not answer.

GEOLOGY_1ESO_Ud03_LP.indd 126
elements. quite a few of the main main elements.
The Geosphere

2.1 Relate the layers of the
geosphere and its formation
process.
3.1 Describe the main
characteristics of the most
frequent materials in the
external areas of the planet
and explain their distribution
according to the density.
3.2 Describe the main
characteristics of the crust, the
mantle and the core and the
materials that have form them.
4.1 Understand the concept of
minerals.
3, 44 Explains the process in a clear
manner, identifying all the main
elements.
2, 40, 41, 42, 43 Explain the concepts in an
appropriate way, identifying
all the main elements and its
relations.
40, 41 Explain the concepts in an
appropriate way, identifying
all the main elements and its
relations.
4, 5, 9 Explain the concepts in an
appropriate way, providing
quite a few valid examples.
elements.
Explains the process in a valid
but incomplete way, identifying
quite a few of the main
elements.
Explains the concepts in a valid
but incomplete way, identifying
quite a few of the main
elements and its relations.
Explains the concepts in a valid
but incomplete way, identifying
quite a few of the main
elements and its relations.
Explains the concept in an
incomplete way, providing
quite a few valid examples.
Explains the process with
mistakes, identifying few of the
main elements.
Explains the concepts with
mistakes, identifying few of the
main elements and its relations.
Explains the concepts with
mistakes, identifying few of the
main elements and its relations.
Explains the concepts with
mistakes, providing limited or
non-existent examples.
Answers in an incorrect way or
does not answer.
Answers in an incorrect way or
does not answer.
Answers in an incorrect way or
does not answer.
Answers in an incorrect way or
does not answer.

126
4.2 Apply the concept of
mineral to recognise if a
substance is or not a mineral.
5.1 Identify minerals using
information that could
differentiate them.
6.1 Describe some of the more
frequent uses of minerals in our
daily life.
7.1 Understand the concept
of rock.
7.2 Recognise the three types
of rocks according to their
origin and identify the main
characteristics of each one.
8.1 identify rocks using
information that could
differentiate them.
6, 7, 8, 10, 47
11,12, 13, 14, 45, 46, 49, 50,
51, 52
15, 16, 48
17, 18, 31, 54
22, 23, 27, 28, 32, 33, 55,56,
58, Work and laboratory
practical techniques
19, 20, 21, 24, 25, 26, 29, 30,
53, 57, 59
Solves all the activities
correctly.
Solves all the activities
correctly.
Explain the concepts in an
appropriate way, providing
quite a few valid examples.
Explains the concept in a clear
manner, providing quite a few
valid examples.
Solves all the activities
correctly.
Solves all the activities
correctly.
Solves most of the activities
correctly, with mistakes in some
of them.
Solves most of the activities
correctly, with mistakes in some
of them.
Explains the concepts in a valid
but incomplete way, providing
a few valid examples.
Explains the concept in an
incomplete way, providing a
few valid examples.
Solves most of the activities
correctly, with mistakes in some
of them.
Solves most of the activities
correctly, with mistakes in some
of them.
Solves the activities but makes
mistakes in quite a few of
them.
Solves the activities but makes
mistakes in quite a few of
them.
Explains the concepts with
mistakes, providing limited or
non-existent examples.
Explains the concept with
mistakes, providing limited or
non-existent examples.
Solves the activities but makes
mistakes in quite a few of
them.
Solves the activities but makes
mistakes in quite a few of
them.
Answers in an incorrect way or
does not answer.
Answers in an incorrect way or
does not answer.
Answers in an incorrect way or
does not answer.
Answers in an incorrect way or
does not answer.
Answers in an incorrect way or
does not answer.
Answers in an incorrect way or
does not answer.
LEARNING OUTCOMES RUBRIC

25/03/15 13:02
 Evaluable learning
outcomes
9.1 Describe some of the most
frequent use of rocks in our
GEOLOGY_1ESO_Ud03_LP.indd 127
daily life.
10.1 Recognise the importance
of minerals and of managing
these resources in a sustainable
way.
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25/03/15 13:02
Assessment tools
34, 35, 36, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64
37, 38, 39, 65, 66, 67, 68,
Research task
Excellent
3 2
Explain the concepts in an
appropriate way, providing
quite a few valid examples.
Explain the concepts in an
appropriate way, providing
quite a few valid examples.
Satisfactory
Explains the concepts in a valid
but incomplete way, providing
a few valid examples.
Explains the concepts in a valid
but incomplete way, providing
a few valid examples.
In process Not achieved
Score
1 0
Explains the concepts with Answers in an incorrect way or
mistakes, providing limited or does not answer.
non-existent examples.
Explains the concepts with Answers in an incorrect way or
mistakes, providing limited or does not answer.
non-existent examples.
LEARNING OUTCOMES RUBRIC
3The Geosphere
 3 The Geosphere OXFORD INVESTIGATION

Objectives, contents and methodology

TYPES OF RESOURCES AND METHODOLOGY USED TO MEET OBJECTIVES

● Interactive activities. Elaboration and verification of a hypothesis.

❍ Search for information on the Internet.

 Watch videos.

❏ Analyse images.

■ Analyse texts (news articles, scientific articles, etc).

SECTIONS OBJETIVES AND CONTENTS METHODOLOGY

Minerals Identify that aligned atomic structures is a property in minerals (crystalline structure). ●
Recognise the two basic characteristics that define a mineral: chemical and structural
●
composition.

Identify mineraloides as solid bodies without a crystalline structure. ●

Recognise the influence that a crystalline structure has on the properties of minerals.
●
(Diamond/Graphite).

Concepts: mineral, mineraloide, crystalline structure

Rocks Find out the composition of rocks. Define the concept of rock. ●
Recognise the two basic characteristics that define a rock: mineralogical composition and
●
texture.
Recognise the influence that texture has on the characteristics of rocks (marble,
●
limestone).

Concepts: rocks, mineralogical composition, texture

Rocks Find out the main types of rocks. ❍ 

Find out the different processes that form rocks. ❍ 
Recognise the characteristics of rocks for each type (magmatic, metamorphic,
❍ ❏
sedimentary).

Concepts: classification of rocks, magmatic rocks, metamorphic rocks, sedimentary rocks

Extraction of minerals Find out and identify the main types of mineral extractions ❍
and rocks
Concepts: mineral extractions, superficial extractions, subterranean extractions, gravel pits, quarry

Final task Recognise minerals, rocks and types of deposits ❍ ❏

Analyse the social and environmental impact that could cause the mineral extraction. ■

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 EXAM A
1. Write the difference between the following concepts:
a) Ore and gangue:
Ore refers to the minerals which are profitable to extract
from a deposit while gangue refers to the ones that are not
profitable to extract.
b) Colour of a mineral and streak of a mineral:
The colour is the appearance of the mineral while the streak is
the color of the powder produced when a mineral is scratched.
c) Tenacity and cleavage:
Tenacity describes how easily a mineral breaks and cleavage
describes the way a mineral breaks.
2. Make a complete classification of rocks according to
their origin.
3. Why do the seismic methods help us to study the Earth’s
interior?
Because the speed of the seismic waves vary as they pass
from one layer to another. The study of the data obtained
helped scientists to deduce the composition of the Earth’s
interior and thanks to it we know that the Earth is divided
into three layers: the crust, mantle and core.
4. The following diagram shows the layers of the
geosphere. Write the name of each one of them and
their discontinuities.
5. Explain what happens in the process of diagenesis or
lithification.
It is the process in which sediments transform into sedimentary
rocks.
Sediments deposited in sedimentary basins firstly suffer a
process of compaction, when they lose volume due to the
weight of them on top so they become compacted. After
that, cementation takes place after the water is lost and the
salts form crystals. The crystals act like cement and stick the
sediments together to form sedimentary rocks.
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GEOLOGY_1ESO_Ud03_LP.indd 129
The Geosphere 3
6. Correct the following statements.
a) The conglomerate in a non-detrital sedimentary rock
with a superior grain size up to 2 mm.
The conglomerate is a detrital sedimentary rock.
b) Sandstone is a detrital sedimentary rock that produces
effervescence in contact with acids.
Sandstone does not produce effervescence.
c) All of sedimentary rocks are formed by minerals.
Coal and petroleum are formed by organic remains that have
not decomposed.
d) Clay is made up of grains of a size inferior to 2 mm
but easily visible.
The grains of clay only can be observed with a magnifying
glass or a microscope.
7. Indicate the name of the processes mentioned:
a) Transforms a magma into igneous rock.
Cooling and solidification.
b) Transforms a sedimentary rock into metamorphic.
Metamorphism.
c) Transforms and igneous rock into sediments.
Weathering, transportation and sedimentation.
d) Transforms a metamorphic rock into magma.
Fusion.
8. What rocks are used as combustible fossils?
Coal and petroleum.
9. Give an example for each case:
a) Soft: calcite, fluorite or apatite
b) Very soft: talc or gypsum
c) Hard: orthoclase or quartz
d) Very hard: topaz, corundum or diamond
10. Look at the images below and explain the types of the
superficial extractions.
The image on the left is a quarry. In quarries, large rocks are
extracted and cut into blocks or slabs.
The image on the right is an opencast mine. The minerals
are not deep underground so to extract them, they make
funnel-shaped holes (pits). The edge are stepped to
transport the minerals to the surface.
25/03/15 13:02
 3 The Geosphere
1. Indicate the similarities and differences between
opencast mines and underground mines.
They are both mines to extract minerals. In opencast mines,
minerals are extracted from the surface or hot very deep
under the surface while in underground mines they make
funnel-shaped holes called pits to extract the minerals.
2. Match the following minerals to their hardness:
Very hard Diamond
Gypsum
Hard Topaz
Apatite
Soft Talc
Quartz
Very soft Orthoclase
Calcite
3. Observe the following drawing and explain how the
Earth was formed.
4 600 billions of years ago the Sun was formed from chemical
reactions in a giant cloud of dust and gas called nebula. In the
cloud of matter that surrounded the Sun, smaller dust particles
collided and grew in size. This process which formed the
planets is called accretion of planetesimals.
For 1 000 million years the Earth was incredible hot. Due to the
immense heat stored in the Earth’s interior, there was a lot of
volcanic activity during the period. As the Earth’s temperature
decreased, gravity pushed heavier elements, such as iron,
towards the Earth’s interior. Lighter elements, such as oxygen,
moved towards the Earth’s surface. This process is called density
differentiation.
4. Draw an explanatory diagram of the parallel layers of
minerals in foliated metamorphic rocks. Why does this
reorientation happen?
It happens because of the pressure on the rocks.
5. Correct the following statements.
a) Volcanic rocks cool slower than plutonic rocks.
Plutonic rocks cool slower than volcanic rocks.
b) Basalt is the most abundant volcanic rock in the
continental crust.
Granite is the most abundant volcanic rock in the continental crust.
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GEOLOGY_1ESO_Ud03_LP.indd 130
EXAM B
c) Plutonic igneous rocks are also called extrusive rocks.
Plutonic igneous rocks are also called intrusive rocks.
d) Granite is the most abundant volcanic rock in the
continental crust.
Granite is a plutonic rock.
6. Answer the following questions:
a) What is the effervescence of a mineral?
It is the capacity to produce bubbles in contact with acids.
b) What does it mean if a mineral has a crystalline
structure?
It means that the particles are arranged to form a geometric
structure that is repeated constantly.
7. Indicate the ore that correspond to each mineral.
a) Bauxite: aluminium
b) Chalcopyrite: tin
c) Galena: lead
d) Hematite: iron
8. What are decorative rocks and what are they used for?
Give some examples.
Decorative rocks are the ones that after cut and polished
are so beautiful that they could be used to make sculptures,
building floors or any other element of decoration. Marble,
granite and basalt are great examples of decorative rocks.
9. Explain the rock cycle.
The rock cycle is a series of processes that a rock goes through
to transform into another type of rock. These processes occur
very slowly, so the rock cycle takes place over millions of
years. All rocks, exposed to the action of wind and water,
can undergo the processes of erosion, transportation and
sedimentation. Sediments deposited in sedimentary basins
undergo the process of diagenesis or lithification and are
transformed into sedimentary rocks.
The rocks in the Earth’s crust are subjected to high pressures
and/or temperatures from metamorphic rocks. If the mineral
melts, magma will form. Magma can rise and cool under the
crust, creating plutonic igneous rocks. Magma can also come
out of the crust to the exterior and solidify, creating volcanic
igneous rocks.
10. Look at the following
diagram and explain
the formation of
sedimentary rocks.
The process in which
sediments transform into
sedimentary rocks is called
diagenesis or lithification.
Sediments deposited in
sedimentary basins (1)
often follow two essential
processes for the formation of sedimentary rocks:
Compaction (2) is when sediments lose volume. Due to the
weight of the sediments on top, water is lost and the sediments
become compacted.
Cementation (3) takes place after the water is lost and the
salts form crystals. The crystals act like cement and stick the
sediments together to form sedimentary rocks.
25/03/15 13:02
 3 EXAM A

Name: _______________________________________________ Course: _____ Date: _______

1. Write down the differences between the following concepts:

a) Ore and gangue:

b) The colour of a mineral and the streak of a mineral:

c) Cleavage and exfoliation:

2. Classify all the rocks according to their origins.

3. How can seismology help us study the Earth’s interior?

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 3 EXAM A

Name: _______________________________________________ Course: _____ Date: _______

4. The following diagram shows the layers of the Earth’s interior. Write the name of each layer and its
discontinuities.

5. Explain the diagenesis or lithification process.

6. Correct the following statements:

a) A conglomerate is a non-detrital sedimentary rock with grains that are bigger than 2mm.

b) Sandstone is a detrital sedimentary rock that becomes effervescent when in contact with acids.

c) All sedimentary rocks are formed from minerals.

d) Clay is made up of grains less than 2mm big but which can be seen with the naked eye.

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 3 EXAM A

Name: _______________________________________________ Course: _____ Date: _______

7. Write the name of the process or processes below:

a) Transforming magma into an igneous rock.

b) Transforming a sedimentary rock into a metamorphic rock.

c) Transforming an igneous rock into sediment.

d) Transforming a metamorphic rock into magma.

8. Which rocks are used as combustible fossils?

9. Give an example of minerals that are thought to be:

a) Soft:

b) Very soft:

c) Hard:

d) Very hard

10. Name the two methods of superficial extraction of rocks that you can see pictured below.

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 3 EXAM B

Name: _______________________________________________ Course: _____ Date: _______

1. What are the similarities and differences between opencast mines and underground mines?

2. Match the following minerals to their different types of hardness:

Diamond
Very hard
Gypsum
Topaz
Hard
Apatite
Talc
Soft
Quartz
Orthoclase
Very soft
Calcite

3. Look at the picture below and explain how the Earth was formed.

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 3 EXAM B

Name: _______________________________________________ Course: _____ Date: _______

4. Draw a picture explaining the transformation of minerals into foliated metamorphic rocks. What causes
this transformation?

5. Correct the following statements:

a) Volcanic rocks cool slower than plutonic rocks.

b) Basalt is the most common rock in the continents.

c) Plutonic igneous rocks are also called extrusive rocks.

d) Granite is the most common volcanic rock in the continents.

6. Answer the following questions:

a) What is the ‘effervescence’ of a mineral?

b) What do we mean when we say that minerals have a crystalline structure?

7. Say what mineral each ore corresponds to:

a) Bauxite:

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 3 EXAM B

Name: _______________________________________________ Course: _____ Date: _______

b) Chalcopyrite:

c) Galena:

d) Hematite:

8. What are ornamental rocks? Give two examples.

9. Explain the rock cycle.

10. Look at the diagram below. Explain how sedimentary rocks are formed.

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 3 CONCEPTUAL MAP. ANSWER KEY

The geosphere

Is divided into
Is formed by

Layers
Rocks

Classified into:

Minerals
Are differentiated by their Are important as

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 3 EXTENSION

Name: _______________________________________________ Course: _____ Date: _______

Read the following text and answer the questions:

SEISMIC WAVES HELP US UNDERSTAND THE EARTH’S INTERIOR

Seismic waves are produced during a seismic movement or earthquake. They travel through the Earth
from the hypocentre in all directions, and at different speeds depending on the type of materials that
form the internal layers that they have to travel through and the density of these.

There are different types of seismic wave: some travel through the inside of the Earth, such as P
waves and S waves; others are superficial and travel over the surface, such as L waves – the most
dangerous. L waves are responsible for the material damage in inhabited areas.

Seismic waves can be detected by seismographs. These devices record the speed on graphs called
seismographs, which are used to construct a speed graph of seismic waves at different depths inside
the Earth’s interior. These graphs can give us an idea of the structure of the Earth’s interior.

1. At what depths do we observe sudden changes in the speeds of seismic waves?

2. To which areas do you think that these changes in speed correspond? What names are they given?

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 3 EXTENSION

Name: _______________________________________________ Course: _____ Date: _______

3. At what depths do S seismic waves stop spreading?

4. Knowing that S seismic waves do not spread through fluids, what can we deduce from the graphic?

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 3 READING COMPREHENSION

Name: _______________________________________________ Course: _____ Date: _______

The rock of ages

Millions of years in the making, Vermilion Cliffs National Monument remains a little-known wonder.
(VERLYN KLINKENBORG, National Geographic, February 2012).

Buckskin Gulch is famous for its deep canyon, but before I walked into the canyon I encountered a hillside
of red sand that was so smooth, so perfect in form and texture that it reminded me of the sand on a beach
when a wave is going out – it seemed that every grain of sand knew its place.

This was sandstone in the making, still to be solidified and awaiting diagenesis, i.e. the chemical
transformation that will eventually convert it to rock. It was quite simple to distinguish the stratigraphy of
the stone on the cliff; but there was another stratigraphy: that of life and biological forms, and an even
more recent stratigraphy that revealed the traces of human beings.

Thousands of years ago, this landscape belonged to indigenous hunter-gatherers, who would have
crossed it innumerable times, and after them different Indian settlements would have inhabited the terrain.

Birds, known today as California condors, lived in higher areas of the cliffs and watched all these nomadic
or settled humans from above. Generation after generation of these birds have been flying over this
wilderness for at least 20,000 years, perhaps even longer.

In this area, the Paria River cuts an ever-deeper gorge through the plateau of the same name. On this
plateau, running alongside the canyon, we find the so-called Honeymoon Trail (Highway 89A) parts of
which coincide with the route followed by the eighteenth-century Franciscan explorers as well as the
Mormons who passed through here on their way to Utah to get married.

Activities

1. Find the meanings of the words in bold.

2. Circle five key words in the passage that could summarise the information.

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 3 READING COMPREHENSION

Name: _______________________________________________ Course: _____ Date: _______

The rock of ages

3. In no more than five lines, summarise the main idea of the text.

4. Suggest another heading for the text.

5. What does the phrase ‘sandstone in the making, still to be solidified and awaiting diagenesis’ mean?

6. What is the writer referring to when he writes ‘cuts an ever-deeper gorge through the plateau’?

7. How do you think this phenomenon occurs in nature? What is the process called?

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 3 READING COMPREHENSION

Name: _______________________________________________ Course: _____ Date: _______

The core of the Earth rotates much slower than you think
The core moves at a different speed than the rest of the planet, which has important implications for our
magnetic field. (ABC, Madrid 21/02/2011).

New research from the University of Cambridge confirms that the core of the Earth, located about 5,000
km below the surface, rotates more slowly than previously thought. Its rotation is still faster than the rest of
the planet, something that scientists had already assumed, but not as fast as expected. The discovery,
published in the journal Nature, sheds light on the bowels of the earth and how it influences the magnetic
fields that protect us, for example, from solar radiation.

The Earth’s core is a central sphere consisting mainly of iron and nickel and with a larger diameter than
the planet Mars. It increases in size very slowly as material from the fluid outer core – the layer
immediately above it - solidifies onto its surface. During this rotation process, an east-west hemispherical
difference in velocity is created in the structure of the inner core.

Activities

1. Find the meaning of the words in bold.

2. Circle five key words in the text.

3. Summarise in no more than five lines the main idea of the text.

4. Suggest another title for the text.

5. What does the phrase “sheds light on the bowels of the earth” mean?

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 3 READING COMPREHENSION

Name: _______________________________________________ Course: _____ Date: _______

The core of the Earth rotates much slower than you think

6. What is the Earth’s core? What does it consist of?

7. What are the consequences of the Earth’s core moving more rapidly than the exterior layers? Explain
your reasons.

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 3 REINFORCEMENT

Name: _______________________________________________ Course: _____ Date: _______

1. In the following wordsearch look for the names of 10 rocks and include them in their corresponding
group:

M P U A N A K Q B Y
E X E F W T C U G R
T M Z H E E F E U A
A F U X B W X F L T
M C I T A M G A M N
O R F Z S Q P T N E
R U Y J O A D V N M
P D D R I I V C O I
H Q A P M X V Y O D
I A X G Q N Z E I E
C Y O W Z S S M V S

MAGMATIC:
SEDIMENTARY:
METAMORPHIC:

2. Draw a sketch-diagram of the cycle of rocks.

How can a sedimentary rock change into a magmatic rock?

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 3 REINFORCEMENT

Name: _______________________________________________ Course: _____ Date: _______

How can a magmatic rock change into a metamorphic rock?

3. In the coal mines in the north of Spain, workers have to go into tunnels and wells to extract the rock.
What sort of operations are coal mines? Give reasons for your reply.

4. Complete the following table with the Mohs Scale.

Scratches… Is scratched by… Hardness Example

6 Orthoclase
All None
None All

5. Amber is a fossilised vegetal resin that is used in jewellery. Can it be classified as a mineral? Why?

6. Using the following terms, complete the diagram below of the Earth’s interior: continental crust, upper
mantle, Mohorovicic discontinuity, oceanic crust, outer core, lower mantle, Gutenberg discontinuity.

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The hardness of minerals

Objective/Introduction: This experiment will help you to identify the hardness of minerals and to classify them
according to this property.

Materials
 Five different minerals, e.g. Talc, Calcite, Apatite, Orthoclase and Quartz
 A pointed knife
 Sandpaper
 Glass

Method
1. Take the minerals two by two and try to scratch them against each other.
2. Rank the minerals according to hardness, i.e. from the one that can be scratched by all the others to
the one that can’t be scratched by any.
3. Try to scratch the minerals with your fingernail.
4. With your fingernail first and then the tip of a knife, try scratching the minerals that could not be
scratched by any of the other minerals.
5. Now use sandpaper to try to scratch the minerals that could not be scratched with your fingernail or a
knife.
6. Now use the glass to try to scratch the minerals that could not be scratched with your fingernail, knife
or sandpaper.
7. Record all your results using the table below.

Analysis of results
In order to analyse the results and compare minerals, use a table like the one below for each of the
samples analysed:

Minerals that Scratched by Scratched

Name of the Minerals used Scratched by Scratched
were your by a Hardness
mineral for scratching a knife by a glass
scratched fingernail sandpaper

Talc

Calcite

Apatite

Orthoclase

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The hardness of minerals

Quartz

Activities
1. What is order of hardness for the minerals?

2. What minerals would you use to make a mark on a knife?

3. What is the hardness of glass? Explain your answer.

4. Based on this experiment, in your own words define the concept of ‘hardness’.

5. Ask your biology or geography teacher for other minerals to test. Repeat the exercise with these
minerals. What is the name of the mineral? How hard is it?

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Name: _______________________________________________ Course: _____ Date: _______

The origin of the Earth

This video is about the origins of the Earth and how the planets were formed.

Fuente: Documanía

http://inicia.oupe.es/bg1e306

Activities
1. What size was the Earth when it was formed 4,600 million years ago?

2. What are protoplanets?

3. What happened when two protoplanets crashed into each other?

4. How many protoplanets crashed into each other before the Earth was formed?

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Lithium for petroleum

This video is about the materials extracted from the geosphere and the way they are used by people in
developed economies.

Source: Tres 14 (Television programme by RTVE, Spain)

http://inicia.oupe.es/bg1e305

Activities
1. Name three materials derived from minerals that are essential for society today.

2. What characteristics are necessary for a material to be technologically useful in society today?

3. What technological use was made of cerium just after its discovery? How is it used today?

4. What other name is used for lanthanide materials?

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Lithium for petroleum

5. According to most of the scientists questioned in the video, what material age are we living in?

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A day without minerals

This video shows everyday objects that are made from minerals.

Fuente: FIFOMI

http://inicia.oupe.es/bg1e307

Activities
1. Write a short description about how you felt when watching this video.

2. Which objects that you use regularly would you miss most if they disappeared?

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A day without minerals

3. What rocks or minerals are needed to produce them?

4. In just five lines, explain why it is important to manage geological resources in a sustainable way.

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Gold extraction and its use

This video is about how gold is mined and why it has been so important to humans.

Source: Discovery Channel

http://inicia.oupe.es/bg1e308

Activities
1. Is gold used in its purest form? Why?

2. Where is most of the gold extracted for human use found?

3. What method was first used to mine gold, and in which part of today’s underdeveloped world?

4. Do you think this method would be profitable in developed countries? Why?

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The quarry
Minerals are solid and part of rocks. Minerals are extracted from the interior of the earth’s crust. On this
website you will learn more about their properties and also how to identify some of them. Activities can be
done in your notebooks in class.

Source: Junta de Castilla León

http://inicia.oupe.es/bg1e303

Activities
1. Match each mineral with its corresponding class:

Native elements Beryl

Sulphides Halite
Halides Chalcopyrite
Borates Mercury
Oxides Manganite
Hidroxides Cassiterite
Carbonates Celestina
Sulphates Colemanite
Silicate Calcite

2. There are some mineral properties that you have not studied in your textbooks, such as lustre or
streak. One of these corresponds to the shine of the mineral, and the other is found when you rub the
mineral with a piece of porcelain. Look for information on the web and find out which property is which.
Explain a bit more about each property.

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The quarry
3. What is the cleavage of a mineral?

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Identifying rocks

A short test to help you go over your knowledge of rocks. The questions take the form of an image that
you have to identify. The image changes each time you enter the web page.

Source: Educarex (Consejería de Educación de Extremadura)

http://inicia.oupe.es/bg1e3034

1 2 3

4 5 6

Activities
1. Which of the following specimens are minerals and which are rocks?

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Identifying rocks

2. Which ones are endogenous and which are exogenous?

3. Which are metamorphic?

4. Which are igneous?

5. Which are sedimentary?

6. Which are volcanic and which are plutonic?

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The crust and its matter

A group of inert materials known as minerals and rocks exist on the Earth’s surface. This web page will
help you go over the main contents from this unit. You can also do a few activities.

Source: Proyecto Biosfera (Ministerio de Educación)

http://inicia.oupe.es/bg1e302

Activities
1. Give an example of minerals or rocks with the following properties:

a) Metallic material:

b) Non-metallic material:

c) Energy mineral:

d) Gem:

e) Rock of industrial interest:

f) Ornamental rock:

g) Energy rock:

2. With the help of the map in part 5 of the web page (Distribution of rocks in Spain), describe what types
of rocks make up the soil in the region where you live.

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