Religious Research Association, Inc.

Spiritual Experience and Identity: Relationships with Religious Orientation, Religious Interest,
and Intolerance of Ambiguity
Author(s): P. J. Watson and Ronald J. Morris
Source: Review of Religious Research, Vol. 46, No. 4 (Jun., 2005), pp. 371-379
Published by: Religious Research Association, Inc.
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 SPIRITUAL EXPERIENCE AND IDENTITY:
RELATIONSHIPS WITH RELIGIOUS ORIENTATION,
RELIGIOUS INTEREST, AND INTOLERANCE OF AMBIGUITY

P.J.WATSON
OF TENNESSEEAT CHATTANOOGA
UNIVERSITY

RONALDJ. MORRIS
OF TENNESSEEAT CHATTANOOGA
UNIVERSITY
REVIEWOF RELIGIOUSRESEARCH2005, VOLUME46:4, PAGES371-379

SpiritualOpennessand SpiritualSupportsubscales of the SpiritualExperienceIndex

were administeredto 402 undergraduatesalong with the IdentityStyle Inventory,the
Intoleranceof AmbiguityScale, and measuresof religious interestand religious ori-
entation. Spiritual Openness was associated with lower levels of IdentityCommit-
ment, a Normative IdentityStyle, Intolerance of Ambiguity,an Intrinsic Religious
Orientation, and religious interest, and also with higher levels of Quest, a Dif-
fuse/AvoidantIdentityStyle,and an ExtrinsicOrientation.SpiritualSupportwas asso-
ciated with higher levels of Identity Commitment,both the Informationaland the
NormativeIdentityStyles,Religious Interest,and Intoleranceof Ambiguityand with
lower levels of Quest and a Diffuse/AvoidantStyle. These data once again illustrat-
ed the challengesassociated with effortsto understandreligiousmaturityin thatboth
SpiritualOpennessand SpiritualSupportpredictedpsychological weaknessas well
as strengths.

Effortsto understandreligious maturityare a perennialchallenge in the researchand

practiceof those who work with people of faith. One influentialapproachhas rest-
ed upon a differentiationbetween intrinsicand extrinsicmotivationsfor being reli-
gious (Allportand Ross 1967). With an intrinsicorientation,religion supposedlyserves as
the mastermotive of individualswho sincerely try to live their beliefs. With an extrinsic
orientation,religious commitmentsare insteadmaintainedas a means to sometimes more
selfish ends. Researchhas generally,thoughnot invariably,confirmedthatthe intrinsicand
extrinsicorientationspredictadjustmentand maladjustment,respectively(Donahue 1985).
Fully positiveinterpretationsof the intrinsicmotivationhave neverthelessbeen the object
of recentcritique.At least as measuredby the AllportandRoss (1967) scale, this motivation
theoreticallyreflects a blind conformityto religious norms, a lack of cognitive sophistica-
tion, anda narrowcompassionthatis limitedto in-groupmembers(BatsonandVentis 1982;
Battson, Schoenrade,and Ventis 1993). Quest Scales were createdto recorda more inde-
pendent,open-mindedreligioussearchfor meaning(Batsonand Schoenrade1991a, 1991b;
Altemeyerand Hunsberger1992), and some evidence has indeed suggestedthatQuestpre-
dicts greatercognitive complexityand widercompassion(BatsonandRaynor-Prince1983;
Batson, Eidelman,Higley, and Russell 2001).

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 Reviewof Religious Research

In even more recent research,however,wholly favorableinterpretationsof Quest have

been questionedas well. The compassionof Quest apparentlyis not universaland is limit-
ed to a differentin-group(GoldfriedandMiner2002). QuestScales also containa subsetof
ideologically antireligiousitems thatmay make them less thancompletely "open-minded"
(Watson,Morris,Hood, Milliron,and Stutz 1998). In addition,Quest fails to predicta per-
sonal achievementof meaning(Klaassenand McDonald2002), reflects identityconfusion
(Watson,Morris,and Hood 1992), correlateswith self-perceptionsof intolerance(Watson,
Morris,Hood, Miller,andWaddell1999), anddisplayswide-ranginglinkageswith psycho-
logical dysfunction(e.g., Watson,Morris,andHood 1989). Perhapsmost importantly,Quest
can correlatenegativelywith an interestin religion (Watsonet al. 1998, 1999). Quest was
devised to measurea missing dimensionof religious motivation.How can a valid religious
motivationscale predicta disinterestin religion?
Bettermeasuresof the religiousquest for meaningmay, therefore,be needed.The Spir-
itual ExperienceIndex is anotherinstrumentwith some apparentpotentialto measurean
open-mindedreligiousmaturity(Genia 1991, 1997). Its SpiritualOpennesssubscalecorre-
lates directlywith Quest and inverselywith Intoleranceof Ambiguity(Budner1962). Spir-
itualOpennessis illustratedin the belief that"ideasfrom faithsdifferentfrommy own may
increasemy understandingof spiritualtruth."A SpiritualSupportsubscale sometimesbut
not always predictsgreaterQuest and displays a robustpositive correlationwith the intrin-
sic religiousmotivation.SpiritualSupportis exemplifiedby the claim that"myfaithguides
my whole approachto life" (Genia 1997).
In generalterms,the presentprojectsoughtto determineif the SpiritualExperienceIndex
could be used to recorda matureand open-mindedform of religious commitment.Mature
commitmentwas evaluatedby examiningrelationshipsof the Index with identity,religious
orientation,and religious interest.The Intoleranceof Ambiguity Scale was used to assess
open-mindedness.
As recentlyemphasizedby GriffithandGriggs(2001:15), "Spiritualityandreligionseem
closely linked to ... identity."This is truebecause identityformationis the means through
which an individualcomes to embracereligious and otherideologies (Erikson 1964). The
process, if successful, culminatesin the developmentof fidelity as an ego virtue.Through
fidelity,the personintegratesreligious beliefs within an identity.Griffithand Griggs use a
case studyto demonstratehow the religiousstrugglefor meaningcan in fact be describedin
termsof on-going andlife-long transitionsalongthe diffusion,foreclosure,moratorium,and
achievementdimensionsof identityformation(Marcia1966).
In the presentstudy,processesrelatedto identityformationwere assessed with the Iden-
tity Style Inventory(Berzonsky 1992). The Identity Commitmentsubscale measuresthe
strengthof identityformationand is illustratedby the self-report,"I have a definite set of
values that I use in orderto make personaldecisions."Three other subscales measuredif-
ferentstyles of identityfunctioning.The InformationalStyle involves an active, self-reflec-
tive searchfor meaning that is similarto the underlyingconceptualizationof Quest (e.g.,
"I've spent a lot of time and talkedto a lot of people tryingto develop a set of values that
make sense to me"). The NormativeStyle makes referenceto an automaticconformityto
social normsthatis sometimesassociatedwith the IntrinsicScale (e.g., "I thinkit is better
to havefixed values,thanto consideralternativevaluesystems").The Diffuse/AvoidantStyle
operationalizesdifficultiesin identityformationthatmay be characteristicof Quest(e.g., "I

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SpiritualExperienceand Identity

try to avoidpersonalsituationsthatwill requireme to thinka lot and deal with them on my

own").
In summary,this study tested the possibility that the SpiritualExperienceIndex could
usefully measurean open-mindedform of religious commitment.Such a commitmentpre-
sumablywouldbe most obviousin positivecorrelationswith religiousinterest,IdentityCom-
mitment,and the InformationalStyle andin negativecorrelationswith the NormativeStyle,
the Diffuse/AvoidantStyle, andIntoleranceof Ambiguity.The overallreligiousimplications
of these variableswere evaluatedby examiningtheirrelationshipswith theAllportandRoss
(1967) Religious Orientationand the Batson and Schoenrade(1991a, 1991b)Quest Scales.

METHOD

Subjects
Universitystudentsenrolled in IntroductoryPsychology classes served as the research
participants.These 156 males and 246 females had an averageage of 19.5 years (SD = 2.7).
Religious affiliationwas 40.5% Baptist, 11.9%Catholic, 11.2%Methodist,8.7% Presby-
terian,4.7% Churchof Christ,3.5% Churchof God, 5.2% "OtherProtestant,"and 14.2%
"Other."On a 1 to 9 scale, the mean religiousinterestratingwas 6.8 (SD = 2.1) with 91.8%
of the sample reportingratingsof 4 or higher.The vast majority,therefore,had at least a
moderateinterestin religion.

Measures
All measureswere presentedin a questionnairebooklet that first obtainedbackground
information.Includedin this informationwas the 1 ("notat all interested")to 9 ("extreme-
ly interested")religious interestrating. After this section came the IdentityStyle Inventory
(Berzonsky,1992), the Intoleranceof AmbiguityScale (Budner 1962), the SpiritualExpe-
rience Index (Genia 1997), Quest Scale items (Batson and Schoenrade1991a, 1991b), and
the Allportand Ross (1967) Religious OrientationScales.
The IdentityStyle Inventoryused a "notat all like me" (0) to "verymuch like me" (4)
responseformat.The IdentityCommitmentsubscalehad 10 items (M = 27.78, SD = 6.72),
with 11 items for the InformationalStyle (M = 26.92, SD = 5.23), 9 for the NormativeStyle
(M = 21.91, SD = 5.48), and 10 for the Diffuse/AvoidantStyle (M = 14.58, SD = 5.83). The
validityof the IdentityStyle Inventoryhas been well establishedin a series of studies (e.g.,
Berzonsky 1993, 1994a, 1994b).
The widely used Intoleranceof Ambiguity Scale contained 16 items (M = 28.34, SD =
6.18). In the presentsample,the internalreliabilitywas low, with o equalto .58, suggesting
a need for cautionin interpretingdataobtainedwith this instrument.Responseoptionsranged
from"stronglydisagree"(0) to "stronglyagree"(4). Illustrativeitems includedthe statement
that"whatwe are used to is always preferableto whatis unfamiliar"andthe reverse-scored
assertionthat "people who insist on a yes or no answerjust don't know how complicated
things really are."
The SpiritualExperienceIndex contained 13 items for SpiritualSupport(M = 37.29, M
= 10.4) and 10 for SpiritualOpenness(M = 21.9, SD = 6.3). Respondingonce againoccurred
along a "stronglydisagree"(0) to "stronglyagree"(4) Likertscale.
Responseoptionsforthe 12-itemQuestScale(M= 21.3, SD = 7.5) rangedfrom0 ("extreme-
ly untrue of me")to 4 ("extremelytrueof me").As in a previousproject(Watsonet al. 1998),

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 Reviewof Religious Research

a numberof otherQuestmeasureswere assessedas well. Findingsfor these additionalscales

paralleledthose observedfor the Batson and Schoenrade(199la, 1991b) instrument,and
thus were not presentedfor the sake of brevity.Examplesof Questincludedclaims that"my
life experienceshave led me to rethinkmy religious convictions"and that "as I grow and
change,I expect my religion to also grow and change."
The 9-item Intrinsic(M = 30.9, SD = 7.9) andthe 11-itemExtrinsic(M = 29.5, SD = 7.0)
Scales were administeredaccordingto standardinstructions(Robinsonand Shaver 1973).
Illustrativeof the IntrinsicOrientationwas the statement,"Myreligiousbeliefs arewhatreal-
ly lie behindmy whole approachto life."An exampleof the ExtrinsicOrientationappeared
in the self-report,"OccasionallyI find it necessaryto compromisemy religious beliefs in
orderto protectmy social and economic well-being."

Procedure
In large groupsettings,subjectsnoted theirresponsesto all questionnaireitems on stan-
dardizedanswersheets. Answer sheets subsequentlywere read by optical scanningequip-
ment into a computerdatafile. Correlationsamongall measureswere computedfirst,and a
principalcomponentsanalysis with an oblique rotationwas used to summarizethese rela-
tionships.Participantswere also categorizedin termsof theirdominantidentityprocessing
style by followingthe proceduresof Berzonsky(e.g., 1993, 1994a).Specifically,datafor the
Informational,Normative,andDiffuse/Avoidantsubscaleswere convertedinto z-scores.The
highestz-score thendesignatedthe identitystyle of each individual.A preliminaryMANO-
VA indicatedno significantinteractionsbetween IdentityStyle type and Gender(p < .05).
Gender,therefore,was ignoredin the analysisof the threeIdentityStyle types.

RESULTS
Correlationsamongandinternalreliabilitiesfor all measuresarereviewedin Table1. Per-
hapsmost noteworthyin these datawere observationsthatSpiritualOpennesswas like Quest
in correlatingnegativelywith religiousinterestwhereasSpiritualSupportwas like the Intrin-
sic Scale in correlatingpositivelywith theseratings.An inverseassociationappearedbetween
these two subscales. In addition,SpiritualOpennesscorrelatedpositively with Quest, the
ExtrinsicScale, and the Diffuse/AvoidantStyle and negativelywith the IntrinsicScale, the
NormativeStyle, IdentityCommitment,and Intoleranceof Ambiguity.In contrast,Spiritu-
al Supportcorrelatedpositively with the IntrinsicScale, the InformationalStyle, the Nor-
mativeStyle, IdentityCommitment,andIntoleranceof Ambiguityandnegativelywith Quest
and the Diffuse/AvoidantStyle.
The principalcomponents analysis used to summarizethese relationshipsyielded the
threefactorspresentedin Table2. The first factoressentiallyrepresenteda committedreli-
gious identityfactordefinedby SpiritualSupport,the IntrinsicScale, and Religious Inter-
est; by IdentityCommitment;and by the Informationaland NormativeIdentityStyles. The
second factorroughlydescribeda Questdimensionthatwas associatedwith higherSpiritu-
al OpennessandlowerIntoleranceof Ambiguity.The ExtrinsicScaleandthe Diffuse/Avoidant
Style loaded on the final component.
Of the 402 subjects, 118 belonged to the InformationalStyle Type, with the Normative
andDiffuse/AvoidantTypescontaining142 subjectseach.A MANOVArevealedsignificant
type differences [Wilks'LambdaF (16/784) = 14.34, p < .001]. Table3 demonstratesthat
significantdifferenceswere observedfor all dependentvariables.Significantcontrastswere
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 Table I1
Correlaltions and Internal Reliabilities (along Diagonal) for Relig
and Intolerance of Ambiguity Measures

Measures 1 2. . 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

1. SpiritualOpenness (.75) -.46*** .62*** -.46*** .28*** -.33*** .07

2. SpiritualSupport (.95) -.49*** .83*** -.26*** .66*** .38***

3. Quest (.80) -.42*** .21*** -.40*** .06

4. IntrinsicScale (.82) -.30*** .64*** .33***

5. ExtrinsicScale (.68) -.22*** -.12*

6. Religious Interest (-) .34***

7. InformationalStyle (.64)

8. NormativeStyle

9. Diffuse-AvoidantStyle

10. Commitment

11. Intoleranceof Ambiguity

* p <.05 ** p <.01 *** p <.001

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 Reviewof Religious Research

Table 2
Principal Components Analysis of Religious, Identity, and Intolerance of
Ambiguity Measures1

Factors
1. 2. 3.
Measures
SpiritualOpenness -.20 .71 .31
SpiritualSupport .82 -.13 -.10
Quest -.34 .67 .17
IntrinsicScale .73 -.14 -.19
ExtrinsicScale .06 .11 .89
Religious Interest .71 -.03 -.13
InformationalStyle .72 -.14 -.19
NormativeStyle .77 -.28 .32
Diffuse-AvoidantStyle -.26 -.10 .46
Commitment .74 -.03 -.02
Intoleranceof Ambiguity .12 -.69 .30
Factors
Eigenvalue 4.41 1.65 1.15
%of Variance 40.12% 15.00% 10.44%

'The maximalloading for each measureis underlined.

specified throughuse of post hoc Scheffe tests (p < .05). Relativeto the othertwo groups,
the Diffuse/Avoidantsubjectsscoredhigheston the ExtrinsicOrientationand lowest on the
IntrinsicOrientation,Religious Interest,and IdentityCommitment.They also were lowest
on SpiritualSupportwith Normativesubjectsalso being significantlyhigherthanthe Infor-
mationalgroup.The Normativetype was lowest on SpiritualOpennessandQuest andhigh-
est on Intoleranceof Ambiguity.

DISCUSSION
This study once again documentedthe challenges associatedwith effortsto understand
religious maturity.A fully valid measureof open-mindedreligiousnesspresumablywould
correlatepositivelywith religiousinterest,IdentityCommitment,andthe InformationalStyle
and negatively with the NormativeStyle, the Diffuse/AvoidantStyle, and Intoleranceof
Ambiguity.Neithersubscalefromthe SpiritualExperienceIndexdisplayedthis pattern.Like
Quest, SpiritualOpennesswas associatedwith lower sores on the NormativeStyle and on
Intoleranceof Ambiguity,butit failed to exhibita significantrelationshipwith the Informa-
tional Style, predictedhigherlevels of the Diffuse/AvoidantStyle, and correlatednegative-
ly withIdentityCommitmentandreligiousinterest.LiketheIntrinsicScale,SpiritualOpenness
did correlatepositively with IdentityCommitment,the InformationalStyle, and religious
interest,but it also was associatedwith higher scores on the NormativeStyle and on Intol-
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SpiritualExperienceand Identity

Table 3.
Means, (Standard Deviations), and Analysis of Informational (I),
Normative (N), and Diffuse/Avoidant (D/A) Identity Type Differences in
Religion, Identity Commitment, and Intolerance of Ambiguity

IdentityTypes
Variables I N D/A F Post hocs

Spiritual 23.18 19.20 23.41 21.57*** N < (I, D/A)

Openness (6.55) (5.83) (5.68)
Spiritual 38.61 42.16 31.32 49.59*** D/A < I < N
Support (10.55) (7.50) (9.90)
Quest 23.19 17.19 23.89 39.70*** N < (I, D/A)
Scale (7.32) (6.37) (7.03)
Intrinsic 32.00 33.00 27.12 30.80*** D/A < (I, N)
Scale (8.28) (6.53) (7.31)
Extrinsic 28.32 28.62 31.31 7.86*** (I, N) < D/A
Scale (7.33) (7.36) (5.85)
Religious 7.22 7.49 5.73 32.54*** D/A < (I, N)
Interest (1.92) (1.68) (2.23)
Commitment 29.31 30.96 23.32 66.16*** D/A < (I, N)
Scale (6.10) (4.97) (6.45)
Intoleranceof 26.23 30.47 27.96 16.87*** (I, D/A)< N
Ambiguity (6.24) (5.73) (5.90)

*p<.05 ** p <.01 *** p <.001

erance of Ambiguity.Each construct,therefore,seemed to combine religious adjustment

with religious maladjustment.
Perhapsit would be naive to assume that any form of religious commitmentcould be
without any liabilities at all. Such a conclusion would be consistent with the differences
observedfor the IdentityStyle types. SpiritualOpenness and Quest were reflective of the
Informationaltype, andeach hadthe furtheradvantageof being somewhatincompatiblewith
the Normativetype. Both, however, seemed to be a featureof the Diffuse/Avoidanttype.
SpiritualSupportand the IntrinsicOrientationalso were associatedwith the Informational
type, and each displayedthe furtherbenefit of being somewhatincompatiblewith the Dif-
fuse/Avoidanttype. Both, however,were associatedwith the Normativetype. Once again,
religious commitmentsappearedto reflect a combinationof psychological strengthsand
weaknesses.
Correlationsand Identitytype differenceslargely confirmedthe validity of the Identity
Style Inventoryand its utility for understandingreligion.As might have been expected,the
ExtrinsicOrientationwas associatedwith the Diffuse/AvoidantStyle and with lower levels
of IdentityCommitmentand of the InformationalStyle. The associationof the Normative

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 Reviewof Religious Research

Style with Intoleranceof Ambiguitywas unsurprising,as was the negativecorrelationof the

InformationalStyle with this measure.At the same time,however,IdentityCommitmentcor-
relatedpositively and the Diffuse/AvoidantStyle failed to correlatesignificantlywith Intol-
erance of Ambiguity.These latterfindings perhapsuncoveredproblemswith the Identity
Style Inventory,but they also may have reflectedthe poorerinternalreliabilityand limited
validityof the Budnerscale.
Some emphasismightbe placedon how Questonce againcorrelatednegativelywith reli-
gious interest,a resultthatappearedfor SpiritualOpennessas well. Any findingsthat"reli-
gious" variablespredicta disinterestin religion seem to requiresome explicit theoretical
explanation.Developmentof the Quest Scale emergedout of a perspectivethatencouraged
a "commitmentwithoutideology"(Batson,Beker,andClark1973). The advantagesof such
a commitmentseem clearin thatideologies can certainlybe narrow-mindedandrigid.This
possibility in fact seemed obvious in the presentNormativeStyle data.At the same time,
however,identityformationrests uponthe internalizationof a personallymeaningfulideol-
ogy (Griffithand Griggs 2001), and schemas associated with some ideology presumably
must be at the heartof any "faithseeking understanding"(cf., Watson 1993). Linkagesof
SpiritualSupportand of the IntrinsicScale with the InformationalStyle may have pointed
in thatdirection.In short,some ideology may be essential. "Commitmentwithoutany ide-
ology at all"could become a "commitmentwithoutany commitment."Negativecorrelations
of Quest and of SpiritualOpennesswith religiousinterestperhapssupportedthatparadoxi-
cal possibility.
Finally,for professionalswho work with religious individuals,the implicationsof these
results seemed clear.For individualswho are high in SpiritualOpennessand Quest, diffi-
culties in the religious searchfor meaningmay become obvious in tendenciestowardiden-
tity diffusion.For those who are high in SpiritualSupportand the IntrinsicOrientation,the
problemmay insteadbe a fall towardthe greaterrigidity of identityforeclosure.Spiritual
Openness, SpiritualSupport,Quest, and the IntrinsicScale, nevertheless,defined charac-
teristicsthatwere compatiblewith the maturesearchfor meaningsymbolizedby the Infor-
mationalStyle. Professionalswho work with religious individualsmay, therefore,need to
help them avoid the two very differentvulnerabilitiesof identitydiffusion and foreclosure
and embracethe potentiallysharedstrengthof a religious identitythatis ever open to new
information.

Addressall correspondenceto P. J. Watson,Psychology/Department#2803, 350 Holt Hall - 615 McCallie, Uni-

versity of Tennesseeat Chattanooga,Chattanooga,TN 35403. The email addressis paul-watson@utc.edu.

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