Journal of Psychology and Theology
2003, Vol. 31, No. 4, 356-365
MEANING, PURPOSE, AND RELIGIOSITY IN
AT-RISK YOUTH: THE RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN ANXIETY AND SPIRITUALITY
TIMOTHY L. DAVIS, BARBARA A. KERR, and
SHARON E. ROBINSON KURPIUS
Arizona State University, Division of Psychology in Education
This study investigated the relationship between
spiritual well-being and anxiety in at-risk adoles-
cents. The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, the Spiritu-
al Well-Being Scale, a revised version of the Allport-
Ross Religious Orientation Scale, and the Social
Provisions Scale were administered to 45 male and
female high school students who were considered to
be at-risk. The research found that the higher the
spiritual well-being, existential well-being, religious
well-being and intrinsic religious orientation were
among males, the lower the anxiety. Only lower
existential well-being was associated with lower anx-
iety among females. Spiritual well-being and female
gender were found to be the best predictors of anxi-
ety from the variables studied.
P
sychologists are starting to recognize the role
that religion and spirituality can play in emo-
tional well-being. Psychology has traditionally
held a negative view of spirituality. Psychologists and
psychiatrists from Freud to Ellis have viewed reli-
gious orientation as "irrational" and as a "crutch for
people who can't handle life" (Clay, 1996, p. 1).
However, this view is changing. Research has shown
that spirituality and religion may actually enhance
mental health in many cases. Spirituality has been
shown to be associated with several positive psycho-
logical outcomes including subjective well-being
(Witter, Stock, Okun, & Haring, 1985), self-esteem
(Falbo & Shepperd, 1986), physical health (Gottlieb
& Green, 1984) and marital satisfaction (Glenn &
Weaver, 1978). Lack of spirituality has been associat-
ed with several negative behavioral and psychologi-
cal outcomes including depression (Wright, Frost,
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to
Timothy L. Davis, now at the University of Dayton Counseling
Center, 300 College Park, Dayton, OH 45469-0910. Email:
Tim.Davis@notes.udayton.edu
356
Copyright 2003 by Rosemead School of Psychology
Biola University, 0091-6471/410-730
and Wisecarver, 1993), substance abuse (Maton &
Zimmerman, 1992), and suicide and anxiety (Baker
& Gorsuch, 1982; Gartner, Larson, & Allen, 1991;
Sturgeon & Hamley, 1979).
Frankl (1984) recognized that the personal belief
that one's life fulfills some higher purpose and serves
some higher power is of enormous psychogenic
value, "There is nothing in the world, I venture to
say, that would so effectively help one to survive even
the worst conditions as the knowledge that there is a
meaning in one's life" (p. 126). Frankl believed this
psychotherapeutic value held true for not only adults
but also adolescents (Dienelt, 1984). Spirituality or
religious beliefs can cultivate a belief in adolescents
that their life has meaning, and that they have some
control over their fate (Werner, 1984).
Spirituality can also contribute to the adoption of
a positive cognitive appraisal of negative life events
(Martin & Carlson, 1988; Maton, 1989). Religion or
spirituality can provide an "overarching interpretive
scheme" (Peterson & Roy, 1985, p. 51) that allows
an individual to perceive his or her individual circum-
stances against a larger cohesive backdrop of order
and normality.
The Relationship Between Spirituality
and Anxiety
Researchers have studied the relationship
between spirituality and anxiety in several different
populations, with the notable exception of
adolescents. Kaczorowski (1989) investigated this
relationship in adults who had been diagnosed with
cancer using the Spiritual Well-Being Scale, which
distinguishes between the religious and existential
dimensions of spirituality, and the State-Trait Anxiety
Inventory which differentiates between transitory
(state) and characteristic (trait) anxiety. An inverse
DAVIS, KERR, and ROBINSON KURPIUS
relationship was found between spiritual well-being
and state-trait (total) anxiety. This finding held true
when controlling for age, gender and marital status.
A closer examination of spiritual well-being revealed
that lower levels of existential well-being were associ-
ated with state and trait anxiety more so than lower
levels of religious well being. This suggests that for
some people meaning and purpose in life exceed tra-
ditional religious beliefs in terms of how these vari-
ables relate to anxiety.
Sturgeon and Hamley (1979) examined the rela-
tionship between anxiety and intrinsic (genuine and
committed) religious orientation and extrinsic
(when religion is used superficially for personal gain)
religious orientation using the State-Trait Anxiety
Scale and the Allport/Ross Religious Orientation
Scale. They found that the intrinsically oriented sam-
ple was less anxious on trait anxiety than the extrinsi-
cally oriented sample, but no differences were found
on state anxiety. Using the same instruments, Baker
and Gorsuch (1982) had nearly identical results;
intrinsic religious orientation was negatively correlat-
ed with trait anxiety and extrinsic religious orienta-
tion was positively correlated with trait anxiety.
Rogalski and Paisey (1987) studied life satisfac-
tion among retirees and found that religious and
devoutly religious respondents, regardless of reli-
gious orientation, reported higher levels of life satis-
faction than non-religious persons. A step-wise multi-
ple regression analysis showed that only three
variables emerged as significant predictors of life sat-
isfaction: trait anxiety (accounting for 38.9% of vari-
ance), religious commitment (accounting for 5.1% of
variance) and state anxiety (accounting for 2% of
variance). Religious commitment, while accounting
for only a small portion of the variance, was still a
stronger predictor of life satisfaction in this popula-
tion than health status, socio-economic status, age
and all other predictor variables.
While recent research supports an association
between religious/spiritual commitment and lower
anxiety, some research has shown a relationship
between religiousness/spirituality and higher anxiety
(Spellman, Baskett & Byrne, 1971; Wilson & Miller,
1968). Other studies have shown no relationship
(Heintzelman & Fehr, 1976). The mixed conclusions
as to the nature of religion's relationship with anxiety
can be partially explained by looking at the simplistic
definitions of religion in past research (Baker & Gor-
such, 1982). Different studies will have sharply dif-
ferent findings depending on how the spiritual vari-
357
able is defined. If religion is defined by the "sinners-
in-the-hands-of-an-angry-God" philosophy, individu-
als will tend to have poorer mental health outcomes.
In contrast, if religion is defined by a "loving God"
orientation in which God is seen as a compassionate
partner who works with people to provide guidance
and support, individuals will tend to experience less
anxiety (Clay, 1996). Given the variations in how reli-
gion is defined, "the more useful question to ask is
how a person is religious rather than whether a per-
son is religious" (Payne, Bergin, Bielma, & Jenkins,
1991, p. 11).
The purpose of this study is to empirically exam-
ine the question of whether spirituality and/or reli-
giosity has an important relationship to anxiety in at-
risk adolescents. Specifically, this study addressed
two questions. The first question asked to what
extent trait anxiety, as measured by the State-Trait
Anxiety Inventory (Spielberger, 1983), would be relat-
ed to three variablea: (a) spiritual well-being, as mea-
sured by the Spiritual Well Being Scale (Ellison,
1983); (b) intrinsic religious orientation, as measured
by the Allport Ross Religious Orientation Scale (All-
port & Ross, 1967); and (c) social support, as mea-
sured by the Social Provisions Scale (Cutrona, 1989).
Social support was included in the study because of
its documented inverse relationship with anxiety
(Cobb, 1976; Cobb, 1979; Cohen & McKay, 1984;
Cohen and Willis, 1985; Thoits, 1982). The second
question asked to what extent trait anxiety could be
uniquely accounted for by spiritual well-being, intrin-
sic religious orientation, and social support.
Spirituality and Anxiety in At-Risk Adolescents
Werner (1984) found one of the four central char-
acteristics of resilient children to be "a strong ability
to use faith in order to maintain a positive vision of a
meaningful life" (p. 69). Adolescents who lack per-
ceived purpose are often more likely to engage in at-
risk behaviors such as unsafe sexual behavior, delin-
quency, substance abuse and suicide (McWhirter,
McWhirter, McWhirter, & McWhirter, 1993). There-
fore spiritual and religious beliefs, in helping adoles-
cents attach meaning to their existence, may have
psychotherapeutic value. Given the many challenges
to the healthy development of at-risk youth, it is
important to understand whether spiritual and reli-
gious variables may enhance healthy psychological
development. The role of religion and spirituality as
it affects the mental health of adolescents, particular-
358
ly at-risk youth, is an area which is not fully under-
stood and which promises to be fruitful for research.
(Wright, Frost, & Wisecarver, 1993).
At-risk adolescents can be defined as young men
and women between the ages of 13 and 19 who (a)
live in an impoverished economic setting, (b) exhibit
poor school work, (c) display characteristics of low
self-esteem, (d) exhibit a propensity for risk-taking
behavior (e.g., unsafe sexual practices substance
abuse, delinquency), or (e) who are exposed to mod-
els for deviant behavior (Jessor, 1991). Minority sta-
tus is another characteristic of being "at-risk" due to
the personal injustice and prejudice encountered by
minority youth (Spencer, Cole, DuPree, Glymph, &
Pierre, 1993). These at-risk characteristics put these
adolescents at a disadvantage for successfully com-
pleting appropriate developmental tasks (e.g., high
school completion, employment, physical and emo-
tional maturation) (Jessor, 1991). Although the levels
of anxiety typically experienced by at-risk adoles-
cents have not been quantified, it is reasonable to
expect this population to experience a heightened
sense of trait anxiety regarding their disadvantaged
circumstances and impaired opportunities for a ful-
filling life.
Definitions of Spirituality and Religiosity
In order to study constructs as abstract as spiritu-
ality and religiosity they must first be defined. Several
authors have defined spirituality as being closely
related to transcendence, but without specific refer-
ence to formal religious doctrine. Ellison's (1983)
existential conceptualization is "the capacity to find
purpose and meaning beyond one's self and the
immediate . . . " (p. 338). Miller and Martin (1988)
describe spirituality more traditionally as the inner
experience of "acknowledging a transcendent being,
power or reality greater than ourselves" (p. 200).
Both of these definitions are relevant to this study
because both existential and traditional conceptual-
izations of spirituality were examined.
Religiosity, on the other hand, connotes alle-
giance to a particular system of faith and worship.
Religious beliefs are characterized by adherence to a
set of sacred doctrines or membership in a body of
people who share similar beliefs about God, holy
observance, and morality. Religiosity shares many
attributes with the concept of spirituality; however,
religiosity adds an element of theological structure
and formality not present in spirituality. While reli-
ANXIETY AND SPIRITUALITY
giosity and spirituality can be conceptualized as sepa-
rate constructs, they are, in reality, more overlapping
than distinct. In many cases religiosity provides a
structure conducive to spirituality. In other cases
spiritual growth is pursued outside the context of a
religious framework.
METHOD
Participants
Forty-five students, 25 girls and 20 boys, partici-
pated in workshops titled Talented At-Risk Girls:
Encouragement and Training for Sophomores (TAR-
GETS), a research-through-service program spon-
sored by the National Science Foundation. These
workshops were offered to students who were con-
sidered at-risk for a variety of reasons including eco-
nomically impoverished family background, minori-
ty status, lack of support or encouragement (lack of
role models), frequent acting-out and other delin-
quent behaviors, or not achieving academic poten-
tial. Participants were also to be considered by teach-
ers to be talented in at least one academic or have
leadership potential. Ages ranged from 14 to 17 with
a mean age of 15.2 years (SD = .92). Sixteen were
high school freshmen, 21 sophomores, 6 juniors,
and 2 did not indicate grade level. The sample was
ethnically diverse: 12 Hispanic, 16 White, 5 African
American, 4 American Indian, 2 Asian/Pacific
Islander, and 6 multiethnic. When asked about reli-
gious affiliation, 18 indicated that they were
Catholic, 6 Protestant, 2 Mormon, 1 Jewish, 7 other
Christian, 5 no religion, and 5 did not respond.
Procedure
Students completed a demographic sheet, career
and personality inventories for career counseling,
and the four instruments for this study. These four
included the Trait subscale of the State-Trait Anxiety
Inventory (STAI; Spielberger, 1983), the Spiritual
Well-Being Scale (SWBS; Ellison & Smith, 1991), the
Allport/Ross Religious Orientation Scale (ROS; All-
port & Ross, 1967), and the Social Provisions Scale
(SPS; Cutrona & Russell, 1987).
State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. The STAI consists
of two scales, one for State Anxiety (S-anxiety) and
one for Trait Anxiety (T-anxiety). In this study, only
the T-anxiety scale was administered. Trait anxiety is
the construct of interest because the anxiety associat-
ed with being an at-risk adolescent is more enduring
DAVIS, KERR, and ROBINSON KURPIUS
(trait), rather than variable from situation to situa-
tion (state). The T-anxiety scale consists of 20 state-
ments that evaluate how respondents generally feel.
For example, subjects respond on a scale of one (not
at all) to four (very much so) to statements such as "I
feel nervous and restless" and "I feel like a failure."
Scores can range from a minimum of 20 to a maxi-
mum of 80 with higher scores indicating higher trait
anxiety. In 1983 Spielberger published a revised
form, Form Y, of these two scales. In Form Y, 30% of
the original items were replaced with items that
yielded stronger psychometric properties. Test-retest
reliability for T-anxiety was reported as ranging from
.65 to .86, indicating that it is a relatively stable
dimension of personality. Spielberger also reported
evidence of concurrent validity with strong correla-
tions between the T-anxiety scale and the IPAT Anxi-
ety Scale and the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale. The
T-anxiety scale also discriminated between psychi-
atric patients and normal controls and between par-
ticipants in high and low stress conditions. The STAI
has been used previously to study troubled adoles-
cents (Hillary & Schare, 1993; Ohring, Apter, Rat-
zoni, Weizman, Tyano, & Plutchik, 1996).
The Spiritual Well-Being Scale. Ellison and Smith
(1991) conceptualized spiritual well-being as having
two dimensions. One dimension (religious well-
being) refers to one's sense of well-being in relation
to "God," and the other (existential well-being)
refers to a sense of life purpose and life satisfaction
with no reference to anything specifically religious. It
is noteworthy that Spiritual well-being is not neces-
sarily indicative of spiritual maturity since one can
experience very positive spiritual well-being at a low
level of maturity (Ellison, 1983).
The SWBS consists of 20 items responded to on
a seven-point Likert-type scale. Ten items measure
religious well-being (RWB), assessed by items such
as "I believe that God is concerned about my prob-
lems" and "I believe God loves me and cares about
me." Separately, ten of the items measure existential
well-being (EWB). Sample items for this subscale
include "I feel good about my future" and "I believe
there is some real purpose for my life." These two
subscales can be summed to form one measure of
spiritual well-being (TOTSWB). This total score can
range from 20 to 120 with higher scores indicating
greater spiritual well-being.
Test-retest reliability for the three are .93 for
TOTSWB, .96 for RWB, and .86 for EWB. Coeffi-
cient alphas have been reported as .89 for TOTSWB,
359
.87 for RWB, and .78 for EWB. Factor analyses (Led-
better, Smith, Fischer, Vosler-Hunter, & Chew,1991;
Scott, Agresti, & Fitchett, 1998) found that a two
factor model (religious and existential well-being)
was insufficient to explain the spiritual well-being
construct. However, positive correlations with other
measures of religious affiliation and negative correla-
tions with depression, psychopathology and loneli-
ness (Ellison, 1983; Ellison & Smith, 1991) have pro-
vided evidence for construct validity.
In the review of literature on the SWBS, no spe-
cific validity data was found on adolescents. Howev-
er, spirituality has been widely studied in this popula-
tion. Spiritual characteristics have been investigated
among adolescents for their relationships to delin-
quency (Chadwick & Top, 1993), identity formation
(Markstrom-Adams, & Hofstra, 1994) and problem
behaviors (Jagers, 1996). Spirituality appears to be an
appropriate construct for study among adolescents
as evidenced by the finding that 53% claim their
"religion or faith" to be one of the most important
parts of their lives (Brightman 1994).
The Allport /Ross Religious Orientation Scale.
The Allport/Ross Religious Orientation Scale (All-
port & Ross, 1967; Robinson & Shaver, 1973) has
been called "the backbone of empirical research in
the psychology of religion" (Wright, Frost, & Wise-
carver,1993, p. 562). Although the original scale was
designed to separately measure both intrinsic and
extrinsic religiosity, recent factor analyses have chal-
lenged this two factor structure. Both Genia (1993)
and Kirkpatrick (1989) observed the failure of the
extrinsic items to form a single scale and proposed a
three factor structure consisting of a single intrinsic
factor and two extrinsic factors. Based on this and
on the small number of extrinsic items, only the
intrinsic scale was used in this study.
Genia (1993) reported internal consistency of .86
for the intrinsic subscale. Subjects responded on a
nine point scale to items such as "My religious
beliefs are what really lie behind my whole approach
to life" and "It is important to me to spend periods
of time in private religious thought." Scores can
range from nine to 45 with higher scores indicating
higher intrinsic religiosity.
Social Provisions Scale. Based on the theories of
Weiss (1974), this instrument measures six social pro-
visions: Attachment (caring), social integration
(belonging to a group of similar others), reliable
alliance (tangible assistance). guidance (advise and
information), reassurance of worth (positive evalua-
360
Table 1
Comparison of Means
Males
M SD
TRAIT ANX 39.44 10.15
TOTSWB 93.31 16.69
IROS 28.95 9.28
TOTSPS 74.39 11.21
Note. TRAITANX = Trait Anxiety; TOTSWB = Total Spiritual Well-Being Scale; RWB = Religious Well-Being Subscale;
IROS = Intrinsic Religious Orientation Scale; TOTSPS = Total Social Provisions Scale.
* = p < .05. ** = p < .01.
tion), and opportunity for nurturance (providing
support to others). The 24-item SPS measures total
social support and the extent to which each of these
six social provisions is available from a specific
source. Subjects respond on a four point scale rang-
ing from strongly disagree to strongly agree to items
such as "There are people I can depend on to help
me if I really need it" and "I feel a strong emotional
bond with at least one other person.
Cutrona and Russell (1987) reported alpha coef-
ficients ranging from .65. to .76 for the six subscales
and .92 for the total scale. Validity has been estab-
lished by correlating the SPS with various other sup-
port scales and through factor analysis. In this study,
the total score was used as a measure of social sup-
port. Scores can range from 24 to 96 with higher
scores indicating more social provisions.
RESULTS
Prior to analyzing the research questions, we
tested potential gender differences. The males and
females differed on trait anxiety with females hav-
ing higher trait anxiety (M = 46.62) than the males
(M = 39.44), t (43) = -2.66, p < .01. The female
mean placed in the 74th percentile of high school
females, while the male mean placed in the 47th
percentile of high school males (Spielberger, 1983).
Since anxiety is a key variable in all of the research
questions, we analyzed participants by gender. We
found no other gender differences on any of the
study measures. Means and standard deviations on
the study measures for males and females are pre-
sented in Table 1.
ANXIETY AND SPIRITUALITY
Females
M SD
46.62** 7.98
87.43 13.02
28.88 7.79
77.46 9.19
The first research question asked whether there
were significant relationships between anxiety and
spiritual well-being, intrinsic religious orientation,
and social support. The Pearson product moment
correlation coefficient between trait anxiety and spir-
itual well-being for the males was significant, r = -.58,
p < .01. The trait anxiety scores of males were also
significantly related to intrinsic religious orienta-
tion, r = -.45, p < .05. No relationship was found
between trait anxiety and social support for the
males. For the females, none of the correlations was
significant.
We used a backward multiple regression to ana-
lyze the second question, addressing the extent to
which trait anxiety could be accounted for by the
spiritual/religious variables and social support. First,
however, signs of non-normality, curvilinearity, non-
constant error variance, and outliers were investigat-
ed. All assumptions required for the regression equa-
tion were met. The backward regression revealed
that the two significant predictors of trait anxiety
were spiritual well-being (β = -.38, p < .01) and gen-
der (β = .30, p < .05), accounting for nearly 28% of
the variance in trait anxiety, F (2, 42) = 8.06, p < .01
(Table 2).
To better understand the relationship between
spiritual well-being and trait anxiety, we analyzed the
two subscales comprising spiritual well-being: exis-
tential well-being and religious well-being. Males
reported significantly higher existential well-being
(M = 46.80) than did females (M = 41.67), t (43) =
2.43, p < .05, although there were no gender differ-
ences for religious well-being. The trait anxiety
scores were negatively correlated with existential
DAVIS, KERR, and ROBINSON KURPIUS 361

Table 2
Summary of Backward Regression Analysis for Variables Predicting Trait Anxiety

Variable Β SE Β β F

Step 1 3.90**
GENDER 5.44 2.72 .28*
TOTSWB -.28 .13 -.43*
IROS .06 .21 .05
TOTSPS .04 .14 .05

Step 2 5.29**
GENDER 5.57 2.65 .29*
TOTSWB -.25 .09 -.39**
TOTSPS .04 .14 .04

Step 3 8.06**
GENDER 5.75 2.56 .30*
TOTSWB -.24 .09 -.38**

Note. R2 = .28, for Step 1; R2 = .28 for Step 2; R2 = .28 for Step 3. TRAITANX = Trait Anxiety; TOTSWB = Total Spiritual Well-Being
Scale; IROS = Intrinsic Religious Orientation Scale; TOTSPS = Total Social Provisions Scale.
* = p < .05 ** p = < .01.

well-being for both males (r = -.48, p < .05) and
females (r = -.39, p < .05). Religious well-being was
negatively related to trait anxiety only for males (r = -
56, p < .01). Then we reanalyzed the backward
regression using existential well-being, religious well-
being and gender as predictors. Only existential well-
being (β = -.51, p < .01) was a significant predictor of
trait anxiety, accounting for 27% of the variance
(Table 3).
DISCUSSION
Spirituality and religiosity may moderate anxiety
in adolescents (Dienelt, 1984; Hacker, 1994; Werner,
1984). The current study supported this view in that
greater spiritual well-being predicted lower trait anxi-
ety among at-risk adolescents. Caution should be
used in interpreting this study. The sample cannot be
considered representative of at-risk adolescents,
therefore results should not be generalized too
broadly.
Preliminary analyses showed that female partici-
pants had higher trait anxiety scores than male par-
ticipants. This finding is consistent with the litera-
ture (Kendler, Neale, Kessler, Heath, & Eaves, 1992;
Lewinsohn, Gotlib, Lewinsohn, Seeley, & Allen,
1998; Yonkers & Gurguis, 1995). The female partici-
pants’ higher trait anxiety may be, in part,
attributable to the differences in the way males and
females are traditionally socialized. Noble (1994)
wrote that women are socialized to "drift until some-
one else provides a solution, and to exchange [their]
vitality and independence for a life of safety, passivi-
ty, and acquiescence to the status quo" (p. 72).
Young women also encounter more barriers to per-
sonal, professional and financial achievement than
young boys, including training subtly geared to lower
status for girls, prejudicial treatment in school, dis-
crimination in the workplace and lack of resources
(Kerr, 1994). These barriers, particularly prejudicial
and discriminatory treatment, are even more impos-
ing for young women of color, who composed over
half of the female sample in this study. This perilous
combination of socialization toward passivity and
institutional hurdles could contribute to the higher
trait anxiety observed in the current study.
Another contributing factor to the higher anxiety
scores among female participants may be the drop in
self-esteem that many girls experience during adoles-
cence. In a study commissioned by the American
Association for University Women it was found that
362
Table 3
Summary of Second Backward Regression Analysis for Variables Predicting Trait Anxiety
Variable Β SE Β
Step 1
GENDER 4.47
RWB -.06
EWB -.52
Step 2
GENDER 4.28
EWB -.56
Step 3
EWB -.66
Note. R2 = .31 for Step 1; R2 = .31 for Step 2; R2 = .27 for Step 3. GENDER = Sex; RWB = Religious Well Being;
EWB = Existential Well-Being.
* = p < .05. ** p = < .01.
both boys and girls experience a decline in self-
esteem during the teen years, but the drop for girls is
much more dramatic (American Association for Uni-
versity Women /Greenberg-Lake, 1991). The biggest
difference between girls and boys in the study was in
their own perceived ability to accomplish things with
boys being more willing to dream bigger career
dreams and more likely to believe their dreams could
come true than girls. The consequences of this learn-
ing for at-risk girls is dramatic; if at-risk girls, with all
the extra challenges and obstacles they encounter,
are less likely to believe they can overcome those
obstacles than at-risk boys, then surely they will suf-
fer a heightened level of anxiety about their future
and their chances for a meaningful life.
There were no gender differences on any of the
other predictor variables (spiritual well-being, reli-
gious well-being, intrinsic religious orientation or
social support).
Although participants' trait anxiety and spiritual
well-being were negatively related to each other
among males, no significant relationship between
trait anxiety and spiritual well-being was found for
females. In the literature spirituality has been found
to be negatively associated with anxiety (Kac-
zorowski, 1989).
The current study's lack of a relationship between
spiritual well-being and trait anxiety among females
ANXIETY AND SPIRITUALITY
β F
6.18**
2.68 .23
.15 -.06
.21 -.40*
9.38**
2.61 .22
.18 -.44**
15.46**
.17 -.51**
may be attributable to the females' higher trait anxi-
ety scores. It is possible that spiritual well-being is
negatively related to trait anxiety only within a mod-
erate range of trait anxiety scores.
We also anticipated that trait anxiety would be
negatively related to intrinsic religious orientation.
Again, this was true for males, but not for females.
This finding among males is consistent with other
studies that have found a relationship between
intrinsic religious orientation and trait anxiety (Stur-
geon & Hamley, 1979; Baker and Gorsuch, 1982).
Like the absence of a relationship between trait anxi-
ety and spiritual well-being, the lack of a relationship
between trait anxiety and intrinsic religious orienta-
tion may be attributable to the females' higher trait
anxiety scores, as discussed above.
Trait anxiety and level of social support had no
relationship for males or females. This finding is
inconsistent with social support's documented rela-
tionship with a wide variety of psychological out-
comes, including an inverse relationship with anxiety
(Cobb, 1976; Cobb, 1979; Cohen & McKay, 1984;
Cohen and Willis, 1985; Thoits, 1982). Certain types
of social support may contribute to positive psycho-
logical outcomes because it provides a sense of pre-
dictability, stability and a sense of self-worth, all of
which can be conducive to lowering trait anxiety.
However, the level of social support experienced by
DAVIS, KERR, and ROBINSON KURPIUS
these at-risk adolescents may be below a threshold
required for the creation of stability and predictability.
In the regression results, total spiritual well-being
and gender were the best predictors of trait anxiety
in this sample of at-risk adolescents. These two vari-
ables accounted for slightly less than 28% of the vari-
ability in trait anxiety scores.
To better understand the relationship between
spiritual well-being and trait anxiety we analyzed the
two subscales that comprise the total Spiritual Well-
Being Scale: existential well-being and religious well-
being. First, an examination of mean differences
revealed that males had significantly higher existen-
tial well-being scores than females, while no differ-
ence was found on religious well-being. Females'
lower existential well-being scores can be under-
stood in a similar context to that of their higher trait
anxiety scores. Just as differences in socialization,
self-esteem and the number of barriers encountered
by women may produce higher trait anxiety levels in
women, these same factors may cause young women
to have lower expectations about their futures, mani-
fested in lower existential well-being scores.
An examination of correlations revealed a nega-
tive relationship between existential well-being and
trait anxiety for both males and females, however,
religious well-being was inversely related to trait anxi-
ety only among males. More research is needed to
understand the current study's lack of a significant
relationship between trait anxiety and religious well-
being among females.
Next, we ran another backward regression to
help explain whether existential well-being or reli-
gious well-being (the two subscales that comprise the
Spiritual Well-Being Scale) was more responsible for
the value of the spiritual well-being in predicting trait
anxiety. Existential well-being, religious well-being
and gender (the other significant variable from the
first the original regression) were all entered. In this
regression, existential well-being was the best predic-
tor of trait anxiety, indicating that existential well-
being, not religious well-being, was more responsible
for the overall value of spiritual well-being in predict-
ing trait anxiety. This finding explains females' high-
er trait anxiety scores as being predictable from their
lower existential well-being scores. It is consistent
with our earlier speculation that females' higher trait
anxiety scores are attributable to lower expectations
for a meaningful life.
Responses to the existential well-being subscale
of the Spiritual Well-Being Scale suggest three key
363
characteristics of at-risk adolescents with lower
trait anxiety. First, these participants are focused on
their futures. They feel that they are evolving
toward something. They have a degree of faith that
their lives are unfolding in a positive direction. Sec-
ond, they believe that life has innate meaning and
their life contains some purpose. Third, they per-
ceive life to be a potentially positive and fulfilling
experience.
The finding that existential well-being is more
predictive of trait anxiety than is religious well-being
makes sense when considering that religious beliefs,
in and of themselves, do not hold psychogenic value
unless they provide a sense of existential well-being;
unless they help individuals find some meaning and
purpose in their existence; and unless they help peo-
ple make sense of their past, present and future.
Without these provisions, religious beliefs are hol-
low and lack personal relevance for the believer.
Abstract religious beliefs that do not provide a sense
of personal meaning and purpose would not be
expected to have a negative relationship with anxi-
ety. Rather, religious beliefs provide a possible
means to greater existential well-being. Existential
well-being is, in turn, associated with lower trait anxi-
ety. This line of thought is supported by the associa-
tion of higher religious well-being with higher exis-
tential well-being.
Future research should include a replication of
this study among a representative sample of at-risk
adolescents to confirm the overall and gender-spe-
cific results. These results suggest that the spiritual
variable (particularly the existential dimension of
the spiritual variable) and gender have important
relationships with anxiety in at-risk adolescents.
The findings point to the importance of addressing
the spiritual, religious, and existential dimensions
of the adolescent psyche when counseling at-risk
teens, particularly young women. Whether through
value-based vocational counseling, assisting in the
exploration of one's relationship with a transcen-
dent power, or facilitating the development of a
meaningful vision of the future, counselors can
help to alleviate the anxiety and intrapsychic con-
flict that accompany meaninglessness and lack-of-
purpose. By helping at-risk adolescents struggle
with concerns about their futures, their spiritual
existence, and the ultimate significance of their
lives, counselors can facilitate the discovery of
meaning and purpose.
364
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AUTHORS
DAVIS, TIMOTHY L. Address: University of Dayton Counsel-
ing Center, 300 Colleg Park, Dayton, OH 45469-0910. Title:
Psychologist. Degrees: BA, Indiana University; MC, Arizona
State University; PhD, University of Maryland. Specializations:
Using dreams in psychotherapy, spiritual health, group psy-
chotherapy, psychological testing and assessment.
KERR, BARBARA A. Address: Box 870611, Arizona State Univer-
sity, Tempe, AZ 85287-0611. Title: Professor of Psychology in Edu-
cation. Degrees: BA, PhD, University of Missouri; MA, The Ohio
State University. Specializations: Spiritual intelligence, optimal
human development, creativity and giftedness, gender studies.
ROBINSON KURPIUS, SHARON E. Address: Counseling and
Counseling Psychology, PO Box 870611, Arizona State Universi-
ty, Tempe, AZ 85287-0611. Title: Professor of Counseling and
Counseling Psychology. Degrees: BS, MS, University of Wiscon-
sin, LaCrosse; PhD, Indiana University. Specializations:
Women’s health issues, at-risk youth, consultation, ethics, spiri-
tuality and health,; academic persistence, racial/ethnic minority
students.