Power Quality Issues: EE4161

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PowerDr.Quality
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Dr. V N Kalkhambkar, Associate Professor,

10/27/20 1
RIT Rajaramnagar
UNIT VI

 Distributed Generation and Power Quality with rise of DG

 DG Technologies Interface to the Utility System
 Power Quality Issues A R
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 Operating Conflicts K H
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 DG on distribution Networks IJ U
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 Siting DG distributed Generation,
D Interconnection standards,
Power Quality Benchmark.

Dr. V N Kalkhambkar, Associate Professor,

10/27/20 2
RIT Rajaramnagar
Distributed Generation: Concept

• As the name implies, DG uses smaller-sized generators than does the typical
central station plant.

• They are distributed throughout the power system closer to the loads.

• The term smaller-sized can apply to a wide range of A Rgenerator sizes i.e
B K
generator sizes less than 10 MW. M
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• Generators larger than this are typically Kinterconnected at transmission
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voltages where the system is designed to Aaccommodate many generators.
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•
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Thus, several power quality issues arise when there are multiple sources

• VIDEO:DG

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End-user DG perspective:
•Backup generation to provide improved reliability.
•High-efficiency applications (combined heat and power)
•End users receives compensation for making their generation capacity available to
the power system in areas having potential power shortages

Distribution utility DG perspective:

•The distribution utility is selling power to end users through its existing network of
lines and substations. A R
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•DG can be used for transmission and distribution (T&D) M capacity relief.
A
•In most cases, load grows sufficiently and require toKHbuild new T&D facilities.
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•DG serves as a solution against uncertain load growth.
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J the power market
• It also can serve to restrict high price spikesAIon
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Commercial power producer DG perspective:
•They are interested in selling power or ancillary services into the area power
market
•DG units are too small to bid individually in the power markets
•The DG may be directly interconnected into the grid or simply serve the load off-
grid.
•serving the load off-grid avoids the problems associated with interconnection but
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does not allow the full capacity of theRITDG to be utilized.
Rajaramnagar
 Disadvantages of DG
• Many DG are connected to the grid via power converters, which injects
harmonics into the system.

• The connection of DG might cause over-voltage, fluctuation and unbalance

of the system voltage if coordination with the utility supply is not properly
achieved. AR
BK
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• Depending on the network configuration, the K H penetration level and the
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nature of the DG technology, the power injection of DG may increase the
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power losses in the distribution system. A
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• Short circuit levels are changed when a DG is connected to the network.
Therefore, relay settings should be changed & if there is a disconnection of
DG, relay should be changed back to its previous state.

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RIT Rajaramnagar
 CHAT POST:

1. What is the need of DG A R

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2. Advantage of DG A M
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3. Disadvantages/ challenges ofA LDG
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Dr. V N Kalkhambkar, Associate Professor,

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Dr. V N Kalkhambkar, Associate Professor,

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 Distributed Generation

Micro-grids are independently controlled (small) electric networks,

powered by local units (distributed generation)

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Dr. V N Kalkhambkar, Associate Professor,

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What is a microgrid?
Micro-grids are considered to be locally confined and independently
controlled electric power grids in which a distribution architecture
integrates loads and distributed energy resources—i.e. local
distributed generators and energy storage devices—which allows
the micro-grid to operate, connected or isolated toRa main grid
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Dr. V N Kalkhambkar, Associate Professor,

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There are many unanswered questions about DG:

• Do end users really want to operate generators?

• Will electricity cost less and be more reliable?AR
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• Will power markets continue to be favorable A M toward DG?
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 Perspectives on interconnection

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Dr. V N Kalkhambkar, Associate Professor,

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• Figure depicts the viewpoint of end users and DG owners who want to
interconnect to extract benefits of DG.

• The implied message related to power quality is that the DG is small compared
to the grid. This group often has the view that the grid is a massive entity too
large to be affected by their relatively small generator.

• For this reason, many have a difficult time understandingR why utilities limits
A
BK competition.
interconnecting and view the utility requirements and avoid
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• DG as improving the reliability of the system (including the grid) and providing
K
better-quality power.
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• The size of customer owned DG isDmagnified to appear much larger than its
actual size, and it produces power quality issues.

• It is also a little off-center in its design, suggesting that it is not built and
maintained as well as utility equipment.

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 DG Technologies

• Reciprocating engine genset

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• Combustion (gas) turbines B K
A M
K H
• Fuel cells K AL
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• Wind turbines Dr

• Photovoltaic systems

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Dr. V N Kalkhambkar, Associate Professor,

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Reciprocating engine genset
•Diesel gensets are quite popular with end users for backup power.

•One of the disadvantages of this technology is high NOx and SOx emissions.

•This severely limits the number of hours the units, particularly diesels, may operate each
year to perhaps as few as 150.

AR backup
•Thus, the main applications will be for peaking generation and emergency
BK
A
•Natural gas–fired engines produce fewer emissions and canHgenerally
M
be operated several
K
thousand hours each year. AL
K
U
IJ cogeneration applications in schools,
A
•Thus, they are popular in combined heat and power
V
government, and commercial buildings where r .they operate at least for the business day.
D
Efficiency:40 % - 45 %

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Dr. V N Kalkhambkar, Associate Professor,

10/27/20 16
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Combustion Turbines
•Combustion turbines commonly used in cogeneration applications interconnected to the
distribution system generally range in size from 1 to 10 MW.

•The turbines commonly turn at speeds of 8000 to 12,000 rpm and geared down to speed
required by the synchronous alternator (typically 1800 or 3600 rpm for 60-Hz systems).

• Units of 10 MW or larger in size, in either simple- or combined-cycle configurations, are

commonly found connected to the transmission grid.
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B be used.
• Natural gas is a common fuel, although various liquid fuels may also
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•One new combustion turbine technology-the microturbine-has A L been responsible for some of
K
the renewed interest in DG. Electrical efficiency of theUmicroturbine is 20%–30% and the power
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range is from 25 to 500 kW V
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•The only moving part in a microturbine is a one-piece turbine with a permanent-magnet rotor.
The assembly spins at speeds typically ranging from 10,000 to 100,000 rpm

•The alternator output is rectified to direct current immediately and fed into an inverter that
interfaces with the ac electric power system.

•Thus, the characteristic of the microturbine that is of interest to power quality engineers is the
response of the inverter to systemDr.disturbances.
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Dr. V N Kalkhambkar, Associate Professor,

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Dr. V N Kalkhambkar, Associate Professor,

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Fuel cells

• Hydrogen and Oxygen from the air and puts out electricity, heat, and water.

• It doesn't use fossil fuels and it doesn't produce greenhouse gases . it should be
the ideal solution to providing distributed or portable electrical power.

• Fuel cells are efficient electricity generators and may be employed in combined
heat and power applications to achieve among the veryAR best possible energy-
B K
conversion efficiencies. M
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• Those who see the future energy economy based KA on hydrogen see the fuel cell as
the dominant energy-conversion technology. IJ U
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• A fuel cell is basically a battery powered by an electrochemical process based on
the conversion of hydrogen. It produces dc voltage, and an inverter is required
for interfacing to the ac power system.

• The chief drawback to fuel cells at present is cost. Fuel cell technologies are on
the order of 10 times more expensive than reciprocating gensets.
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Dr. V N Kalkhambkar, Associate Professor,

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Dr. V N Kalkhambkar, Associate Professor,

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RIT Rajaramnagar
Wind Turbines

• The power P available in the wind impinging on a wind driven generator is given

by:
P = ½CAρv3
where C is Power Coefficient which depends on the machine design, A is the area of the wind front
intercepted by the rotor blades (the swept area), ρ is the density of the air (averaging 1.225 Kg/m 3 at
sea level) and v is the wind velocity.
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B and has become cost
• Wind generation capacity has been increasing rapidly M
H A
competitive with other means of generation in some
K regions.
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• A common implementation is to group a numberU of wind turbines ranging in size
V A
.
Dr farm” having a total maximum capacity
from 700 to 1200 kW each into a “wind
range of 200 to 500 MW.

• The chief power quality issue associated with wind generation is voltage
regulation. Wind generation tends to be located in sparsely populated areas
where the electrical system is weak relative to the generation capacity.

• This results in voltage variations that are difficult to manage Thus, it is

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sometimes impossible to serve loads from the same feeder that serves a wind
RIT Rajaramnagar
• There are three main classes of generator technologies used for the electrical
system interface for wind turbines:

i. Conventional squirrel-cage induction machines or wound-rotor induction

machines. These frequently are supplemented by switched capacitors to
compensate for reactive power needs. R
A
ii. Doubly fed wound-rotor induction machines that employ BK power converters to
control the rotor current to provide reactive power A Mcontrol.
iii. Non–power frequency generation that requires K Han inverter interface..
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Dr. V N Kalkhambkar, Associate Professor,

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RIT Rajaramnagar
 A R
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• A typical fixed speed system employs a rotor
AL
K with three variable pitch blades
U
IJ a fixed rotation speed for any wind
which are controlled automatically to maintain
A
speed. r. V D
• The reaction time of these mechanical systems can be in the range of tens of
milliseconds so that each time a burst of wind hits the turbine, a rapid fluctuation of
electrical output power can be observed.

Dr. V N Kalkhambkar, Associate Professor,

10/27/20 25
RIT Rajaramnagar
 A R
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K H
AL
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• Rather than controlling the turbine rotation speed U
IJ to obtain a fixed frequency synchronised
A
with the grid from a synchronous generator,
r . Vthe rotor and turbine can be run at a variable
D conditions.
speed corresponding to the prevailing wind
• This will produce a varying frequency output from the generator synchronised with the
drive shaft rotation speed.
• This output can then be rectified in the generator side of an AC-DC-AC converter and the
converted back to AC in an inverter in grid side of the converter which is synchronised with
the grid frequency.
• One major drawback of this system is that the components and the electronic control
circuits in the frequency converter must be dimensioned to carry the full generator power.
Dr. V N Kalkhambkar, Associate Professor,
The doubly fed induction generator
10/27/20 DFIG overcomes this difficulty.
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 A R
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DFIG technology is currently the preferred wind power generating technology.
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• The basic grid connected asynchronous induction r VA
. generator gets its excitation current from the grid
D over its output voltage and frequency.
through the stator windings and has limited control

• The doubly fed induction generator permits a second excitation current input, through slip rings to a
wound rotor permitting greater control over the generator output.

• The DFIG system consists of a 3 phase wound rotor generator with its stator windings fed from the grid
and its rotor windings fed via a back to back converter system in a bidirectional feedback loop taking
power either from the grid to the generator or from the generator to the grid.
• The frequency error is equal to the generator slip frequency and is equivalent to the difference between
Dr. V N Kalkhambkar, Associate Professor,
the synchronous speed and the actual shaft speed
10/27/20 of the machine.
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 Photovoltaic systems

• According to the basic principle of photovoltaics, sunlight is converted to electricity

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• Several large scale grid connected PV power
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K plants have been constructed
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IJ500 kW capacity but some as high as
throughout the world, mostly of 300 kW to A
300MW or more. r .V
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• Up to now deployment of large scale plants has been limited to experimental
installations because of the high cost of the solar panels. With typical efficiencies
of around 15%,

• Photovoltaic solar systems generate dc power and are interfaced to the utility system
through inverters. Some systems do not have the capability to operate stand-alone—the
inverters operate only
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Dr. V N Kalkhambkar, Associate Professor,

10/27/20 29
RIT Rajaramnagar
 Interface to the Utility System
• The primary concern is the impact of DG on the distribution system power
quality.

• The energy conversion technology plays some role in the power quality

• The power quality issues relate to the type of electrical system

R interface.
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B
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The main types of electrical system interfaces A L are
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•Synchronous machines r .V
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• Asynchronous (induction) machines

•Electronic power inverters

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Synchronous machines
• A synchronous machine that is large relative to the capacity of the system at the PCC to
regulate the utility system voltage. This can be a power quality advantage in certain weak
systems.

• However, this type of system should be carefully studied and coordinated with the utility
system protection and voltage regulation equipment.

A R bus to operate in this

• It would be possible to permit only one generator on each substation
B K
fashion without adding elaborate controls. M
HA
• LK
KA
The generation will likely take over voltage regulation and can drive voltage regulators to
undesirable tap positions. IJ U
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• r. the generator exciter to undesirable set
Conversely, utility voltage regulators canDdrive
points.

• Compared to the utility electrical power system, generators sized for typical backup
power purposes have high impedances.

• The subtransient reactance Xd″, which is seen by harmonics, is often about 15 percent of
the machine’s rating. The transient reactance, Xd′, which governs much of the fault
contribution, might be aroundDr.25
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V Npercent.
Kalkhambkar,The synchronous
Associate Professor, reactance Xd is generally31
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over 100 percent
• Some actual examples of unexpected consequences with synchronous gen

a) The harmonic voltage distortion increases to intolerable levels when the

generator is attempting to supply adjustable-speed-drive loads.

b) There is not enough fault current to trip breakers or blow fuses that were
sized based on the power system contribution.
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B causes fluorescent
c) The voltage sag when elevator motors are being started
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lamps to extinguish. K H
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• Another aspect that is often overlooked IJ U is that the voltage waveform
A
produced by a synchronous machiner.isVnot perfect. In certain designs, there
D
are considerable third-harmonic currents in the voltage.

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Asynchronous (induction) machines

•Simple induction generator requires reactive power (vars) to excite the machine
from the power system to which it is connected.

•More commonly there will be low-voltage problems in induction generator

applications.
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• The usual fix is to add power factor correction capacitors
K
B to supply the reactive
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Ait can bring about another
power locally. While this works well most of the time,
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set of power quality problems i.e mainly resonance
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•Most are SLG faults, and the voltage on
r VA
. the faulted phase does not collapse to
zero and may fed the fault current. D

•A common rule of thumb is that if the voltage supplying the induction machine
remains higher than 60 percent, it will continues to feed into the fault as if it were
a synchronous machine.

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 Electronic power inverters
• All DG technologies that generate either dc or non–power frequency ac must use an
electronic power inverter to interface with the electrical power system.

• To achieve better control and to avoid harmonics problems, the inverter technology has
changed to switched, pulse-width modulated technologies. This has resulted in a more
friendly interface to the electrical power system.
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Arequirements of IEEE
• The total harmonic distortion limit is 5 percent, based on the K
B limits under specific
Standard 519-1992. Occasionally, some inverters will exceed
A Mthese
conditions. K H
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• commonly applied inverters basically attempt Ito J U generate a sine-wave current that
V Aproduce power at unity power factor
.
follows the voltage waveform. Thus, they would
Dr
• One of the advantages of such an inverter for DG applications is that it can be switched
off very quickly when a disturbance requiring disconnection is detected

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Power Quality Issues
The main power quality issues affected by DG are:

•Sustained interruptions. This is mainly reliability area. Many generators are

designed to provide backup power to the load in case of power interruption.
However, DG has the potential to increase the number ofKA
R
B interruptions in some
cases. A M
K H
AL
K factor for how much DG can be
•Voltage regulation. This is often the most limiting
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V A making changes.
accommodated on a distribution feeder without
.
Dr
•Harmonics. There are harmonics concerns with both rotating machines and
inverters, although concern with inverters is less with modern technologies.
•Voltage sags. This a special case because DG may or may not help.

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Sustained interruptions
•Much of the DG that is already in place was installed as backup generation. The most
common technology used for backup generation is diesel gensets.

•The bulk of the capacity of this form of DG can be realized simply by transferring the load to
the backup system

•Not all DG technologies are capable of significant improvements in reliability

e.g, a homeowner may install a rooftop photovoltaic solar system with the expectation
A R
of being able to ride through rotating blackouts. K B
M
A storage capacity to operate
•The less costly DG systems do not have the proper inverter K H
and
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stand-alone. Therefore, there is no improvement in reliability.
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•Utilities may achieve improved reliability by employing DG to cover contingencies when part
r .
of the delivery system is out of service. D
•In this case, the DG does not serve all the load, but only enough to cover for the capacity that
is out of service.

•This can allow deferral of major construction expenses for a few years.

•The dependency on this scheme for too many years can ultimately lead to worse reliability.
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Voltage Regulation

• It may initially seem that DG should be able to improve the voltage regulation on a feeder.

• Generator controls are much faster and smoother than conventional tap-changing
transformers and switched capacitor banks.

• With careful consideration, this can be accomplished with sufficiently large DG. However,
there are many problems associated with voltage regulation. AR
BK
• In cases where the DG is located relatively far from the A M
substation, voltage regulation is
H
LK
often the most limiting without changes to the utilityAsystem.
K
U
IJ are unsuitable for regulating
• A
It should first be recognized that some technologies
r . Vmachines and for most utility interactive
voltages. This is the case for simple induction
D
inverters that produce no reactive power.

• Secondly, most utilities do not want the DG to attempt to regulate the voltage because
that would interfere with utility voltage regulation equipment and increase the chances
of supporting an island

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• small DG is simply not powerful enough to regulate the voltage and will be dominated
by the daily voltage changes on the utility system

• Significant penetration of dispersed DG producing a constant power factor can produce

large voltage changes.

• Suddenly connecting or disconnecting such generation can result in a relatively large

AR
voltage change that will persist until recognized by the utility voltage-regulating system
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Harmonics
• If thyristor-based, line-commutated inverters are used, this would be a large problem.

• Recently technologies requiring inverters have adopted the switching inverters like the one
described previously in this chapter.

• This has eliminated the bulk of the harmonics problems from these technologies.

R
• One problem that occurs infrequently arises when a switchingAinverter is installed in a
B K
system that is resonant at frequencies produced by the switching
M process
HA
• LKin a system creates resonance at
Problem arises when a switching inverter is installed
K A
frequencies produced by the switching process due
IJ U to capacitors
V A
• The utility power system acts as a short Dr. to zero-sequence triplen harmonics in the
circuit
voltage, which can result in surprisingly high currents.

• For grounded wye-wye or delta-wye service transformers, only synchronous machines

with 2/3 pitch can be paralleled without special provisions to limit neutral current.

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 Voltage sags
• The most common power quality problem is a voltage sag, but the ability of DG to help
alleviate sags is dependent on the type of generation technology and the interconnection
location.
• During a voltage sag, DG might act to counter the sag. Large rotating machines can help
support the voltage magnitudes and phase relationships.
• The DG influence on sags at its own load bus is aided by the impedance of the service
transformer, which provides some isolation from the source of the sag on the utility system
• Therefore, it is not likely that DG connected in this manner will R have any impact on the
A
BK
voltage sag characteristic seen by other loads served from the feeder
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 Operating Conflicts
Utility fault-clearing requirements:
•Deploying generation along utility distribution systems naturally creates some
conflicts because the design of the system assumes only one source of power.
• At some point, the conflicts will be too great and changes must be made

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Utility fault-clearing requirements
•Figure shows the key components of the overcurrent protection system of a radial feeder.

• The lowest-level component is the lateral fuse, and the other devices (reclosers and
breakers) are designed to conform to the fuse characteristic.

•There will frequently be two to four feeders off the same substation bus.

• This design is based mostly on economic concerns.

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B K
•This is the least costly protection scheme that is able to achieve M
A acceptable reliability for
K H
distributing the power. L
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• In essence, this design is the source of most of the conflicts for interconnecting DG with
the utility distribution system.

• Because there is too much infrastructure in place to consider a totally different distribution
system design to better accommodate DG, the DG must adapt to the way the utility system
works.

• With only one utility device operating to clear a fault, all other DG devices must
R protection system to
independently detect the fault and separate to allow the utility
A
complete the clearing and isolation process. BK
A M
• K
This is not always simple to do from the information that
Hcan be sensed at the generator.
A L
K
U
J the difficulties that occur due to this.
• The section operating conflicts describes someAIof
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Reclosing

•Reclosing utility breakers after a fault is a very common practice.

•Most of the distribution lines are overhead, and it is common to have temporary
faults.

•Once the current is interrupted and the arc dispersed, the line insulation is restored.
A R
•Reclosing enables the power to be restored to most of the B
customers within
K
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seconds. K H
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K
VIDEO: Reclosing IJ U
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D
Reclosing presents two special problems with respect to DG:
• DG must disconnect early in the reclose interval to allow time for the arc to
dissipate so that the reclose will be successful.

• Reclosing on DG, particularly those systems using rotating machine

technologies, can cause damage to the generator or prime mover.
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• Figure illustrates the reclose interval between the first two operations of the utility breaker
(this represents an unsuccessful reclose because the fault is still present).

• The DG relaying must be able to detect the presence of the fault followed by the opening of
the utility fault interrupter so that it can disconnect early in the reclose interval as shown.

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• A greater complicating factor is the use of instantaneous reclosing by many utilities.

• Thus, instantaneous reclose is very likely to be incompatible with DG. It greatly increases
the probability that some DG will still be connected when the reclose occurs or that the
fault did not have enough time to clear, resulting in an unsuccessful reclose.

Dr. V N Kalkhambkar, Associate Professor,

10/27/20 45
RIT Rajaramnagar
• If it is necessary to maintain the instantaneous reclose, it is generally necessary to employ
direct transfer trip so that the DG breaker is tripped simultaneously with the utility breaker

• This can be a very expensive proposition for smaller DG installations.

• Thus, for some distribution systems it will be necessary to compromise one aspect of
power quality to better accommodate significant amounts of DG.
A R
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Dr

Dr. V N Kalkhambkar, Associate Professor,

10/27/20 46
RIT Rajaramnagar
Interference with relaying
Three of the more common cases where DG can interfere with the overcurrent protection
relaying on distribution feeders are:
1. Reduction of reach
2. Sympathetic tripping of feeder breakers
3. Defeat of fuse saving

Reduction of reach
AR is determined by its
•Each overcurrent relay device has an assigned zone of protectionKthat
minimum pickup value. B
M A
K H
L
•Some refer to this generically as the “reach” of the relay.
KA DG infeed can reduce the current
that the relay sees, thereby shortening its reach. IJU
V A
.
•When the total DG capacity increases toDra certain amount, the infeed into faults can
desensitize the relays and leave remote sections of the feeder unprotected.

•A low-current (high-impedance) fault near the end of the feeder is more likely to go
undetected until it does sufficient damage to develop into a major fault.

•The power quality consequences of this are that voltage sags will be prolonged for some
customers and the additional fault damage will eventually lead to more sustained
interruptions. Dr. V N Kalkhambkar, Associate Professor,
10/27/20 47
RIT Rajaramnagar
 A R
B K
A M
K H
K AL
Solutions include: U
IJ
VA
•Decrease the relay minimum pickup currentr.to increase the zone.
D
•Add a line recloser to create another protection zone that extends far past the end of the
feeder.

•Use a transformer connection that minimizes DG contribution to ground faults, since high-
impedance faults are likely to be ground faults.

Dr. V N Kalkhambkar, Associate Professor,

10/27/20 48
RIT Rajaramnagar
Sympathetic tripping of feeder breakers
a healthy feeder trips unnecessarily for a fault on another feeder.
The sympathetic tripping comes from DG with high short-circuit current contribution and
can be observed in radial feeders that are fed from a common source.

For example, Figure 1 shows two radial circuits fed from one source. With no DG installed, if
a short circuit occurs on Feeder 2, the short circuit will be completely fed from the utility
source with no short circuit contribution from Feeder 1.
As a result, relay or breaker OC-1 will not respond to the short circuitRat feeder 2. The fault is
cleared by relay or breaker OC-2 as intended. K A
B
A M
K H
K AL
IJ U
. VA
Dr

Dr. V N Kalkhambkar, Associate Professor,

10/27/20 49
RIT Rajaramnagar
• In contrast, if a DG is installed on the healthy feeder (Feeder 1), the short circuit
contribution from the healthy feeder will not be zero as shown in Figure 2.
• OC-1 relay operates on the fault current contribution of the interconnected DG.
• In this case, if the relay at Feeder 1 has faster characteristics than the relay at Feeder 2, as
shown in Figure 3, the relay OC-1 may respond to the fault at Feeder 2 un-necessarily and
interrupt the loads of the healthy feeder (Feeder 1) before relay OC-2 operated to clear
the fault.

A R
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A M
K H
K AL
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. VA
Dr

Dr. V N Kalkhambkar, Associate Professor,

10/27/20 50
RIT Rajaramnagar
Fuse saving
Fuse saving is commonly practiced in utility overcurrent protection schemes, particularly in
more rural regions.

•The desired sequence for the situation depicted in Fig. is for the recloser R to operate
before the lateral fuse has a chance to blow.

• If the fault is temporary, the arc will extinguish and service will be restored upon the
subsequent reclose, which normally takes place within 1 or 2 s. KA
R
B
M
Aand improves the reliability of
•This saves the cost of sending a line crew to change the fuseK H
L
customers served on the fused lateral. KA
IJ U
V A
.
Dr

Infeed from DG can defeat fuse Saving

Dr. V N Kalkhambkar, Associate Professor,
10/27/20 51
RIT Rajaramnagar
Fuse-saving coordination fails for about the same level of generation that causes voltage
regulation problems.
Solutions include:

1.Increase the size of the lateral fuses. All fused cutouts in the zone would have to be
changed, which could be quite expensive.

2. Choose to simply abandon fuse saving, particularly if the DG is only connected

intermittently. AR
BK
M
3. Require DG to have transformer connections that do notHA
feed single line- to-ground
K
faults. AL K
IJ U
. VA
Dr

Dr. V N Kalkhambkar, Associate Professor,

10/27/20 52
RIT Rajaramnagar
 A R
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A M
K H
K AL
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Dr

Dr. V N Kalkhambkar, Associate Professor,

10/27/20 53
RIT Rajaramnagar
 Chat Post ( Fastest Figure First): Two Three
word Answer
What is the advantage of FUSE SAVING?
A R
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K H
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. VA
Dr
Ans:
Cost Saving
Reliability of System

---This saves the cost of sending a line crew to change the fuse and improves the
reliability of customers served on the fused lateral.

Dr. V N Kalkhambkar, Associate Professor,

10/27/20 54
RIT Rajaramnagar
Voltage regulation issues

Voltage regulation issues are more likely to occur and cause interconnection problems

Figure 9.15a shows the voltage profile along the feeder prior to the fault occurring. The
intent of the voltage regulation scheme is to keep the voltage magnitude between the two
limits shown. In this case, the DG helps keep the voltage above the minimum and, in fact, is
large enough to give a slight voltage rise toward the end of the feeder.
A R
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K H
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Dr

Dr. V N Kalkhambkar, Associate Professor,

10/27/20 55
RIT Rajaramnagar
• When fault occurs, the DG disconnects and may remain disconnected for up to 5 min
resulting in the condition shown in Fig. b.

• The load is now too great for the feeder and the present settings of the voltage regulation
devices.

• Therefore, the voltage at the end of the feeder sags below the minimum and will remain
low until voltage regulation equipment can react.

A
• This can be the better part of a minute or longer, which increases Rthe risk of damage to
B K
load equipment due to excessively low voltages. M
HA
LK
K A
IJ U
. VA
Dr

Dr. V N Kalkhambkar, Associate Professor,

10/27/20 56
RIT Rajaramnagar
• The amount of generation that can be accommodated by this test will obviously vary with
position on the feeder.

• One useful analysis is to determine how much DG capacity can be accommodated at

various distances along the feeder.

• For example, if one were to establish a 5 percent change criterion for the limit, there
would be a curve of generation limit versus distance similar to that shown in Fig.
A R
• If a proposed DG application falls to the left of the curve, it is K
B likely to be acceptable. If
A M
it falls to the right, more engineering study is needed to determine how to accommodate
H
the DG LK
KA
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. VA
Dr

Dr. V N Kalkhambkar, Associate Professor,

10/27/20 57
RIT Rajaramnagar
• Utility voltage regulators commonly come with a reverse-power feature that allows the
regulators to be used when a feeder is supplied from its alternate source

• Assume, when there is excess generation when the load is low.

• The regulator now senses reverse power and attempts to regulate the utility source.
However, the DG is not nearly as strong as the utility source and the regulator will not
succeed.

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A M
K H
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Dr

Dr. V N Kalkhambkar, Associate Professor,

10/27/20 58
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• Generation technologies whose output varies rapidly can be difficult to handle
on a distribution feeder.

• Wind-turbine generation is the most difficult because there is seldom a

substation near the proposed site.

• The generation is typically sited several miles from the nearest substation on a
AR a voltage regulator.
feeder that already may have several switched capacitors Kand
B
M
• One typical example based on a wind farm at a Kski HAresort is shown in Fig. The
A L
line is a typical untransposed, horizontal crossarm
K geometry that leads to special
issues. IJ U
V A
Dr.
• As the power output of the generator varies, one outside phase will tend to rise
in voltage while the other tends to drop. Not only is there a magnitude issue but a
balance issue.

Dr. V N Kalkhambkar, Associate Professor,

10/27/20 59
RIT Rajaramnagar
 A R
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K H
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Dr

Dr. V N Kalkhambkar, Associate Professor,

10/27/20 60
RIT Rajaramnagar
• Harmonics
• Harmonics from DG come from inverters and some synchronous machines.

• One new distortion problem that arises with the modern inverters is that the switching
frequencies will occasionally excite resonances in the primary distribution system. This
creates nonharmonic frequency signals typically at the 35th harmonic and higher riding
on the voltage waveform.

• Synchronous machines, there can be harmonics problems related to zero-sequence

triplen harmonics. A R
K B
M
• The facility where the generator is located is served atHA 480 V by a common delta-wye
K
transformer. When the generator is paralleled A toL the utility system through this
K
transformer, the operator is frequently surprised
IJ U to find a large amount of current
circulating in the neutral. V A
.
Dr
• In the example shown, the current is 26 percent of the machine’s rated current and is
entirely third-harmonic current.

• This can adversely affect the operation and efficiency of the machine and may result in
the failure of some circuit element.

• In this case, the problem is confined to the generator side of the transformer and does
not
10/27/20
Dr. V N Kalkhambkar,
affect the primary distribution Associate Professor,
system because the triplen harmonics are trapped
61 by
RIT Rajaramnagar
the delta winding. The
 A R
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Dr

Dr. V N Kalkhambkar, Associate Professor,

10/27/20 62
RIT Rajaramnagar
Islanding

Islanding is mode where the main grid is cut off and is not supplying power. The main grid
might be turned off due to fault or maintenance purposes

Perhaps the greatest fear of the utility protection engineer is that DG relaying will fail to
detect the fact that the utility breaker has opened and will continue to energize a portion of
the feeder. R A
B K
A
Therefore, much attention has been paid to detecting islands Mor forcing islands to become
K H
unstable so they can be detected. L
KA
U
IJbe subjected to such poor-quality voltage
The reliability concern is that other customers willA
r. V it will be held liable for the damage.
that damage will be sustained. The utility is fearful
D
There is also the safety concern of a generator accidentally energizing the line resulting in
injuries to the public and utility personnel.

Dr. V N Kalkhambkar, Associate Professor,

10/27/20 63
RIT Rajaramnagar
 A R
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K H
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Dr

Dr. V N Kalkhambkar, Associate Professor,

10/27/20 64
RIT Rajaramnagar
• One of the feeders is shown in detail. There are many customer connection points in the
feeder. Large distributed generators are typically connected to the primary feeders (DG1
and DG2).

• These are typically synchronous and induction generators at present. Small distributed
generators such as inverter based PV systems are connected to the low voltage secondary
feeders (DG3).

• An island situation occurs, for example, when recloser C opens.ARDG1 will feed into the
resultant island in this case. BK
M A
H
K fault in the downstream of the
• The most common cause for a recloser to open is A La
K
IJ U
recloser. A recloser is designed to open and re-close two to three times within a few
seconds. V A
.
Dr
• The intention is to re-connect the downstream system automatically if the fault clears by
itself. In this way, temporary faults will not result in the loss of downstream customers.

• An island situation could also happen when the fuse at point F melts. In this case, the
inverter based DG will feed the local loads, forming a small islanded power system

Dr. V N Kalkhambkar, Associate Professor,

10/27/20 65
RIT Rajaramnagar
• The island behaviour is unpredictable due to the power mismatch between the load and
generation and the lack of voltage and frequency control.

The main concerns associated with such islanded systems are:

i)The voltage and frequency provided to the customers in the islanded system can vary
significantly if the distributed generators do not provide regulation of voltage and
frequency and do not have protective relaying to limit voltage and frequency excursions,
R
since the supply utility is no longer controlling the voltage and frequency
A
B K
M public by causing a line to
ii)Islanding may create a hazard for utility line-workers or Athe
K H from all energy sources.
L
remain energized that may be assumed to be disconnected
KA
IJ U
iii)The distributed generators in the island Acould be damaged when the island is
V
reconnected to the supply system. Thisr. is because the generators are likely not in
D
synchronism with the system at the instant of reconnection.

iv)Islanding may interfere with the manual or automatic restoration of normal service for
the neighbouring customers.

The current power industry practice is to disconnect all DGs immediately so that the entire
feeder becomes de-energized. It prevents equipment damage and eliminates safety
hazards. To achieve this goal, each
Dr. V N DG must
Kalkhambkar, have
Associate the capability to detect islanding
Professor,
10/27/20 66
conditions and to automatically disconnect itself from the system.
RIT Rajaramnagar
Ferroresonance
• Ferroresonance is a special kind of resonance in which the inductive element is the
nonlinear characteristic of an iron-core device.
•
Most commonly, ferroresonance occurs when the magnetizing reactance of a transformer
comes in series with cable or power factor capacitance.

A R
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A M
K H
K AL
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Dr

Dr. V N Kalkhambkar, Associate Professor,

10/27/20 67
RIT Rajaramnagar
• There are several reasons why the riser-pole fuse may blow or become open.
• Normally, they are designed to blow for faults in the cable, but there are other reasons.
Squirrels or snakes may climb the pole and get in contact with the line.
• Fuse elements may also fatigue due to frequent inrush currents or lightning surge
currents. Fused cutouts may open due to corrosion or improper installation.

A R
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K H
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Dr

• The type of ferroresonance shown in Fig. is very sensitive to the amount of load. If
the system can be arranged so that there is always a resistive load attached to the
secondary bus, the resonance can be damped out. The load need not always be large,
but must be significant. Dr. V N Kalkhambkar,
10/27/20
Associate Professor,
RIT Rajaramnagar
68
 Shunt capacitor interaction

• These banks are mostly controlled by local intelligence, switching at predetermined times
or at loading levels as measured by either voltage, current, or kvar.
• Some types of DG can also produce reactive power (vars), and this can create control
hunting and other difficulties.
• There can be several capacitor banks on the feeder as illustrated in Fig.
• The capacitors switch independently of the generator control unless special
communications and control have been added to coordinate dispatch R A
B K
A M
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Dr

Dr. V N Kalkhambkar, Associate Professor,

10/27/20 69
RIT Rajaramnagar
Transformer connections
The service transformer used for interconnection can have a great influence on the impact DG
will have on the power quality

Grounded wye-wye connection

This is the commonly used connection for three-phase loads. It is favored because of
its reduced susceptibility to ferroresonance on cable-fed loads and fewer operating
restrictions when being switched for maintenance. R
A
Advantages include: BK
A M
K H of utility faults by DG
■ No phase-shifting of utility-side voltages. This makes detection
A L
protection relays more certain. K
U
IJ to ferroresonance.
■ Less concern for ferroresonance, but it is not immune
A
r .V
Disadvantages include: D

■ Allows DG to feed all types of faults on the utility system.

■ Does not inhibit the flow of zero-sequence harmonic currents that
might be produced from certain kinds of generators.

Dr. V N Kalkhambkar, Associate Professor,

10/27/20 70
RIT Rajaramnagar
• If the DG is a synchronous machine, it may produce a small amount of third-harmonic
voltage distortion, depending on the winding pitch of the machine.

• If a synchronous generator does not have a 2/3 winding pitch, paralleling to the utility
system provides a very low impedance path for the third harmonics

• the resulting neutral currents may damage generator equipment or simply add unwanted
harmonic currents to the utility A R
• system. BK
A M
K H
• A neutral reactor may be necessary for some wye-connected
A L machines while they are
paralleled to the utility system to – K
IJ U
A
a. Limit the flow of zero-sequence harmonics r .V
(principally, the third)
D
b. Limit the contribution of the generator to ground faults

Dr. V N Kalkhambkar, Associate Professor,

10/27/20 71
RIT Rajaramnagar
 Delta-wye connection

It would probably be favored for serving loads in nearly all cases if it were not for the
susceptibility of the connection to ferroresonance in cable-fed systems.

Advantages include:

•
There is less infeed into utility-side ground faults.
•
Third harmonics from the DG do not reach the utility system. A R
•
Some isolation from voltage sags due to utility-side SLG faults is
K
Bprovided.
A M
K H
Disadvantages include:
K AL
IJ U
•It is difficult to detect some SLG faults from theV A
secondary side by voltage relaying alone.
.
Dr installations
•It is susceptible to ferroresonance in cable-fed
• Third harmonics in the DG may cause excessive current in the secondary-side neutral.
•If islanded on an SLG fault, utility arresters can be subjected to overvoltages (see Sec. 9.6).
• If arresters are islanded on an SLG fault and there is little load, resonant overvoltages can
result.

Dr. V N Kalkhambkar, Associate Professor,

10/27/20 72
RIT Rajaramnagar
• Note that while this connection prevents third harmonics from the generator from
reaching the utility system, it does not prevent their flow on the DG side.

• As with the grounded wye-wye connection, it is generally not advisable to directly

connect synchronous alternators that are not 2/3 pitch without inserting an impedance in
the neutral to limit the third-harmonic current flow.

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. VA
Dr

Dr. V N Kalkhambkar, Associate Professor,

10/27/20 73
RIT Rajaramnagar
Delta-delta or ungrounded wye-delta connection
• These connections are still common for commercial and industrial loads.
• Both have similar behavior with respect to serving DG.
• Neither would be the preferred connection for serving most new DG installations, but
could be encountered in legacy systems where a customer wishes to parallel DG.

Advantages include:
■ More economical transformer installation for smaller three-phase service with some
single-phase loads is possible.
■ The load is isolated from ground faults on the utility side. A R
B K
■ DG would not typically feed utility-side ground faults except when
M resonance occurs.
■ Ungrounded interconnection can be provided for inverter-basedHA systems
LK
requiring it. KA
IJ U
Disadvantages include:
r . VA
D
■ Utility-side SLG faults are difficult to detect.
■ Utility arresters are subjected to high steady-state overvoltages if islanded on an SLG fault
(Fig). This is true for delta-wye connections as well.
■ These connections are highly susceptible to ferroresonance in cable fed installations..

Dr. V N Kalkhambkar, Associate Professor,

10/27/20 74
RIT Rajaramnagar
 A R
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. VA
Dr

Dr. V N Kalkhambkar, Associate Professor,

10/27/20 75
RIT Rajaramnagar
 Grounded wye-delta connection

Many utility engineers believe this is the best winding connection for interconnecting
generation to the utility system. This is the connection used for nearly all central station
generation. There are many advantages, including:

1.Utility-side faults are easily detected partly because the transformer itself actively
participates in ground faults.
A R
K
Bcause any current to flow
M
2. Triplen harmonic voltages produced by the generator do not
Anearly any generator can be
because it is blocked by the delta winding. Therefore,K H
L
paralleled with this connection. KA
IJ U
V
3. Protection schemes are well understood basedA on many years of experience with utility
.
generation. Dr

Dr. V N Kalkhambkar, Associate Professor,

10/27/20 76
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The connection is often referred to as a “ground source” because it contributes
to ground faults and will generally disrupt the ground fault relaying coordination on the
feeder. Other feeders connected to the same substation bus may be disrupted also

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Dr. V N Kalkhambkar, Associate Professor,

10/27/20 77
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This characteristic has a number of possible adverse side effects when present on the
distribution system:
■ Increased fault current means increased damage at the fault site, which will eventually lead
to more sustained interruptions and reduced reliability.

■ The connection is likely to cause sympathetic tripping of the feeder breaker for faults on
other feeders. The transformer supplies ground current to other feeders connected to the
same substation

■ Ground trip pickup levels must be increased, and more delay must
R
A be used to maintain
K
B(An alternative is to use
M
coordination, which results in less sensitive fault protection.
A
directional overcurrent relaying.) K H
A L
K
■ Sags for ground faults will generally be somewhat
IJ U deeper (the transformer makes the
system appear more solidly grounded). V A
.
Dr
■ If fuse saving is being attempted, the fault infeed, which is likely to be larger than from
the DG itself, makes this much more difficult to achieve.

■ The transformer itself is subject to short-circuit failure when a ground fault occurs. This is
particularly true for smaller transformer banks with impedances less than 4 percent. A
special transformer must generally be ordered.
■ The transformer is also subject to failure thermally because the feeder load is rarely
Dr. V N Kalkhambkar, Associate Professor,
balanced.
10/27/20 Thus, the transformer will act as a sink for zero-sequence load currents.
RIT Rajaramnagar
78
Siting DG

• The value of DG to the power delivery system is very much dependent on

location.
• It must be available when needed and must be where it is needed.

• Utility distribution engineers generally feel more comfortable with DG installed

on facilities they maintain and control.
A R
K
B there is sufficient space
• The obvious choice for a location is a substation where
M
HA
and communications to control centers. LK
KA
• This is an appropriate location if theAIJUneeds are capacity relief on the
.V
transmission system or the substation rtransformer.
D
• It is also adequate for basic power supply issues, and one will find many
peaking units in substations.

• However, to provide support for distribution feeders, the DG must be sited out
on the feeder away from the substation.
Dr. V N Kalkhambkar, Associate Professor,
10/27/20 79
RIT Rajaramnagar
 A R
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. VA
Dr

Dr. V N Kalkhambkar, Associate Professor,

10/27/20 80
RIT Rajaramnagar
• If 1 MW of generation were placed in the substation, no additional load could be
served on the feeder because no feeder relief has been achieved.
• However, if there is a good site on the feeder, the total feeder load often can grow by
as much as 1.4 MW.
• This is a typical maximum value for this measure of DG benefit on radial distribution
feeders.

A R
B K
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K H
K AL
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. VA
Dr

Dr. V N Kalkhambkar, Associate Professor,

10/27/20 81
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Interconnection Standards

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. VA
Dr

Dr. V N Kalkhambkar, Associate Professor,

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