Rk

S`2MQȒ2MD2 FQHBÍBM2 iQTHQi2

RkXR lpQ/
S`2MQȒ2MD2 2M2`;BD2 UFQHBÍBM2 iQTHQi2V iQTHQiQK bKQ D2 D2/M Q/ i`B MÍBM `xK2M2 2M2`;BD2
BxK2çm h.a B QFQHBM2X J2çmiBK- F/ b2 ;QpQ`B Q `xK2MB 2M2`;BD2 Tmi2K iQTHQi2 QM/ TQbiQD2
i`B QbMQpM MÍBM T`2MQȒ2MD 2M2`;BD2 UFQHBÍBM2 iQTHQi2-iDX iQTHQi2V,

RX T`2MQȒ2MD2 FQHBÍBM2 iQTHQi2 FQM/mF+BDQK@T`QpQç2MD2K

kX T`2MQȒ2MD2 FQHBÍBM2 iQTHQi2 FQMp2F+BDQK@T`2Hʈ2MD2

jX T`2MQȒ2MD2 FQHBÍBM2 iQTHQi2 x`Í2MD2K@`/BD+BD

RkXk S`QpQç2MD2 iQTHQi2 @ EQM/mF+BD

EQM/mF+BD BHB T`QpQç2MD2 iQTHQi2 D2 MÍBM T`2MQȒ2MD FQHBÍBM2 iQTHQi2 FQDB b2 DpHD m
Íp`biBK i2HBK- i2ÍMQbiBK BHB ;bQpBK FQDB KB`mDmX E/ ;Q/ TQbiQDB `xHBF m i2KT2`im`B
m i2Hm- 2M2`;BD É2 b2 Tmi2K FQM/mF+BD2 T`2MQbBiB Bx Q#HbiB pBȒ2 m Q#Hbi MBʈ2 i2KT2`im`2X
.FH2- TQi`2#M mbHQp / TQbiQDB T`QpQç2MD2 iQTHQi2 D2 / TQbiQDB i2KT2`im`MB ;`/BD2Mi FQDB
T`2/bipHD T`QK2Mm i2KT2`im`2 m T`p+m MQ`KH2 M /im TQp`Ȓ,
∂T E
gradT = ~M [ ] URkXRV
∂n K
;/2 D2 ~M D2/BMBÍMB p2FiQ` MQ`KH2 M /im TQp`ȒX
w ;`/BD2Mi b2 m i2Q`BDB TQHD FQ`BbiB QT2`iQ` M#H ∇- iDX m bHmÍDm i2KT2`im`2 ;`/BD2Mi b2
bF`É2MQ TBȒ2 gradT = ∇T X
l .2F`iQpQK FQQ`/BMiMQK bBbi2Km ;`/BD2Mi i2KT2`im`2 BK Q#HBF,
∂T ~ ∂T ~ ∂T ~ E
∇T = B+ D+ F[ ] URkXkV
∂x ∂y ∂z K
;/2 bm ~B- ~D B ~F D2/BMBÍMB p2FiQ`B x bpFm Q/ Qb .2F`iQpQ; T`pQm;HQ; FQQ`/BMiMQ; bBbi2KX
:2QK2i`BDbFQ K2biQ iÍF BHB bFmT iÍF FQD2 BKDm Bbim p`2/MQbi i2KT2`im`2 7Q`KB`
BxQi2`KMm TQp`ȒX h2KT2`im`MQ TQHD2 D2 bFmT bpB? p`2/MQbiB i2KT2`im` m bpBK iÍFK i2H
m /iQK i`2MmiFm p`2K2M,

T = T (x, y, z, τ ) URkXjV
lFQHBFQ D2 i2KT2`im`MQ TQHD2 bi+BQM`MQ QM/ D2 ∂T
∂τ
= 0X lFQHBFQ D2 i2KT2`im`MQ TQHD2
D2/MQ/BK2MxBQMQ QM/ D2 ∂T
∂y
= ∂T
∂z
= 0X

Rkj
 h2`KQ/BMKBF "@AxpQ/B b T`2/pMD

RkXkXR 6m`BD2Qp xFQM T`QpQç2MD iQTHQi2

EQ ȒiQ D2 TQxMiQ- iQTHQiMB T`QiQF D2,

δQ
Q̇ = [q] URkX9V
/τ
lFQHBFQ b2 iQTHQiMB T`QiQF bp2/2 M D2/BMB+m TQp`ȒBM2 /Q#BD b2 TQp`ȒBMbFB iQTHQiMB T`QiQF
UiQTHQiMB ~mFbV,

Q̇ q
[ ]
q̇ = URkX8V
A Kk
6m`BD2 D2 T`2iTQbipBQ / D2 p2FiQ` TQp`ȒBMbFQ; iQTHQiMQ; T`QiQF b`xK2`M ;`/BD2Mim
i2KT2`im`2 B /2}MBbQ D2 ixpX 6m`BD2Qp xFQM T`QpQç2MD iQTHQi2,

~q̇ = −λ∇T [ q ] URkXeV

Kk
;/2 D2 λ iQTHQiM T`QpQ/HDBpQbi Ki2`BDHX L QbMQpm T`2i?Q/MQ; Bx`x HFQ b2 /Q#BD / D2
q
D2/BMB+ x iQTHQim T`QpQ/HDBpQbi Ki2`BDH [ KE ]X

aHBF RkXR, :`/BD2Mi i2KT2`im`2 B p2FiQ` iQTHQiMQ; ~mFb x BxQi`QTM B MBxQi`QTM Ki2`BDH

l Bx`xm x 6m`BD2Qp xFQM xMF KBMmb D2 TQbH2/B+ ÍBMD2MB+2 / b2 iQTHQi T`2MQbB Bx Q#HbiB
pBȒ2 m Q#Hbi MBʈ2 i2KT2`im`2-  / D2 ;`/BD2Mi i2KT2`im`2 mbK2`2M m bmT`QiMQK bK2`mX
lFQHBFQ iQTHQiM T`QpQ/HDBpQbi Ki2`BDH M2 xpBbB Q/ FQQ`/BMi UBxQi`QTM Ki2`BDHV QM/ bm
p2FiQ` TQp`ȒBMbFQ; iQTHQiMQ; T`QiQF B ;`/BD2Mi i2KT2`im`2 FQHBM2`MB- HB p2FiQ`B bmT`QiMQ;
bK2`X EQ/ MBxQi`QTMQ; Ki2`BDH iQ MBD2 bHmÍDX
hQTHQi b2 T`QpQ/B Tmi2K bHQ#Q/MB? 2H2Fi`QM BHB Tmi2K pB#`+BD iQK- iDX Tmi2K 7QMQKX
6QMQK D2 FpMi xpmFX

q
]
λ = λel + λf on [ URkXdV
KE
hQTHQiM T`QpQ/HDBpQbi λel D2 /B`2FiMQ T`QTQ`+BQMHM 2H2Fi`BÍMQD T`QpQ/HDBpQbiBX w ÍBbi2
K2iH2 λel >> λf on T D2 7QMQKbFB K2?MBxK T`QpQç2MD iQTHQi2 xM2K`HDBp m Q/MQbm M
2H2Fi`QMbFBX J2çmiBK- FQ/ H2;m` 7QMQKbFB K2?MBxK b2 M2 KQʈ2 xM2K`BiBX EQ/ M2K2iH

Rk9
 LX _m/QMD

/QKBMMiM K2?MBxK T`QpQç2MD iQTHQi2 D2 Tmi2K 7QMQK- iDX T`2FQ Qb+BH+BD iQK m `2@
Ȓ2iFK- iDX Tmi2K pB#`+BDX Ji2`BDHB FQDB BKDm m`2ç2M2 `2Ȓ2iF2- TQTmi Fp`+- BKDm p2Ém
iQTHQiMm T`QpQ/HDBpQbi Q/ KQ`7MB? Ki2`BDH UMT`X biFHQVX hQTHQiM T`QpQ/HDBpQbi Ki2`BDH
xpBbB Q/ i2KT2`im`2 Ki2`BDH UbHBF RkXkV

aHBF RkXk, wpBbMQbi iQTHQiM2 T`QpQ/HDBpQbiB M2FB? Íp`biB? Ki2`BDH Q/ i2KT2`im`2

RkXkXk ai+BQM`MQ T`QpQç2MD2 iQTHQi2 F`Qx #2bFQMÍM `pM xB/

#2x BxpQ` iQTHQi2
L2F b2 T`2iTQbipB / b2 `/B Q bi+BQM`MQK D2/MQ/BK2MxBQMQK T`QpQç2MDm iQTHQi2 F`Qx
Íp`biQ i2HQ T`B Í2Km m i2Hm M2 TQbiQDB mMmi`ȒMDB iQTHQiMB BxpQ` BHB TQMQ` UMT`X M2 TQbiQDB mMmi`@
ȒMD2 ;2M2`BbMD2 FQHBÍBM2 iQTHQi2 Tmi2K 2H2Fi`BÍM2 2M2`;BD2VX L QbMQpm T`pQ; xFQM i2`KQ/B@
MKBF2 bH2/B / D2 iQTHQiMB T`QiQF FQDB mHxB m `pM xB/ D2/MF iQTHQiMQK T`QiQFm FQDB MTmȒi
`pM xB/X
6m`BD2Qp xFQM m QpQK bHmÍDm BK Q#HBF,

~q̇ = −λ∇T = −λ /T ~B [ q ] URkX3V

/x Kk
hQTHQiMB T`QiQF D2,
/t
Q̇ = −λA [q] URkXNV
/x
T`B Í2Km D2 BbFQ`BȒÉ2M ÍBMD2MB+ / D2 /T = /tX Ax T`2i?Q/MQ; Bx`x bH2/B,

Rk8
 h2`KQ/BMKBF "@AxpQ/B b T`2/pMD

aHBF RkXj, C2/MQ/BK2MxBQMQ bi+BQM`MQ T`QpQç2MD2 iQTHQi2 F`Qx `pM xB/

1
Q̇ /x = −/t URkXRyV
λA
Z δ Z t2
1
Q̇ /x = − /t URkXRRV
0 λA t1

hQTHQiMB T`QiQF Q̇- iQTHQiM T`QpQ/HDBpQbi Ki2`BDH λ B TQp`ȒBM A M FQDm D2 mT`pM p2FiQ`
TQp`ȒBMbFQ; iQTHQiMQ; T`QiQF M2 xpBb2 Q/ FQQ`/BMi2 x- Q/MQbMQ Q/ i2KT2`im`2- T D2,
Z δ Z t2
1
Q̇ /x = − /t URkXRkV
λA 0 t1

1
Q̇ δ = −(t2 − t1 ) URkXRjV
λA
(t1 − t2 )
Q̇ = δ
[q] URkXR9V
λA

_/B MHQ;BD2 b 2H2Fi`BÍMQK bi`mDQK B PKQpBK xFQMQK- Bx`x m BK2MBQ+m T`2/bipHD

QiTQ` T`QpQç2MDm iQTHQi2 F`Qx `pM xB/,

δ E
Rλ = [ ] URkXR8V
λA q
l bHmÍDm / iQTHQiMB T`QiQF T`QHxB F`Qx n T`H2HMB? bHQD2p Ki2`BDH `xHBÍBi2 iQTHQiM2
T`QpQ/HDBpQbiB B /2#HDBM2- QM/ Bx`x x iQTHQiMB T`QiQF F`Qx `pM xB/ BK Q#HBF,

Rke
 LX _m/QMD

(t1 − tn+1 )
Q̇ = Pn [q] URkXReV
δi
λi A
i=1

lFQHBFQ b2 `pM xB/ bbiQDB Q/ MT`X n = 3 T`H2HMQ TQbipHD2M bHQD `xHBÍBiB? Ki2`BDH
UbHBF RkX9V- QM/ D2 Bx`x x iQTHQiMB T`QiQF F`Qx `pM i`QbHQDM xB/,

(t1 − tn+1 ) (t1 − t4 ) (t1 − t4 )

Q̇ = P = 3 = [q] URkXRdV
n
δi P δi δ1
λ1 A
+ λδ22A + δ3
λ3 A
λi A λi A
i=1 i=1

aHBF RkX9, C2/MQ/BK2MxBQMQ bi+BQM`MQ T`QpQç2MD2 iQTHQi2 F`Qx i`QbHQDM `pM xB/

SQp`ȒBMbFB iQTHQiMB T`QiQF m bHmÍDm `pMQ; xB/ D2,

Q̇ (t1 − tn+1 )
q̇ = = Pn [q/Kk ] URkXR3V
A δi
λi
i=1

ÌHM m BK2MBQ+m T`2/bipHD QiTQ` T`QpQç2MDm iQTHQi2 F`Qx i−iB bHQD F`Qx R K2 `pMQ; xB/,

δ i Kk E
rλ,i = [ ] URkXRNV
λi q

Rkd
 h2`KQ/BMKBF "@AxpQ/B b T`2/pMD

RkXkXj ai+BQM`MQ T`QpQç2MD2 iQTHQi2 F`Qx +BHBM/`BÍM xB/ #2x BxpQ`

iQTHQi2
l +BHBM/`BÍMQK FQQ`/BMiMQK bBbi2Km ;`/BD2Mi i2KT2`im`2 BK Q#HBF,
∂T ~ 1 ∂T ~ ∂T ~ E
∇T = B+ D+ F[ ] URkXkyV
∂r r ∂ϕ ∂z K
FQ D2 i2KT2`im`MQ TQHD2 D2/MQ/BK2MxBQMQ QM/ D2 ∂T ∂ϕ
= ∂T
∂z
= 0 iDX iQTHQi b2 T`2MQbB
BbFHDmÍBpQ m `/BDHMQK T`p+m- T D2 iQTHQiMB T`QiQF,
/t
[q]
Q̇ = −λA URkXkRV
/r
Q/FH2 b`2/B Bx`x x iQTHQiMB T`QiQF m xpBbMQbiB Q/ i2KT2`im` M ;`MBÍMBK TQp`ȒBK +BHBM@
/`BÍMQ; xB/,
/r
Q̇ = −/t URkXkkV
λA
S`B Í2Km D2 m /iQK T`2b2Fm- M TQHmT`2ÍMBFm r- TQp`ȒBM A 7mMF+BD TQHmT`2ÍMBF- A = 2πrl-
;/2 D2 l /mʈBM +BHM/`BÍMQ; xB/ m K2i`BKX
/r
Q̇ = −/t URkXkjV
2πrlλ
Z Z t2
r2
/r
Q̇ =− /t URkXk9V
r1 2πrlλ t1

1 r2
HM = t1 − t2
Q̇ URkXk8V
2πλl r1
EQMÍMQ- iQTHQiMB T`QiQF F`Qx D2/MQbHQDM +BHBM/`BÍM xB/ D2,
t1 − t2
Q̇ = [q] URkXkeV
1
2πλl
HM rr21
ÌHM m BK2MBQ+m T`2i?Q/MQ; Bx`x D2 QiTQ` T`QpQç2MDm iQTHQi2 F`Qx +BHBM/`BÍM xB/,
1 r2 E
Rλ = HM [ ] URkXkdV
2πλl r1 q
l bHmÍDm / iQTHQiMB T`QiQF T`QHxB F`Qx n FQFbBDHMQ TQbipHD2MB? +BHBM/`BÍMB? bHQD2p Ki2@
`BDH `xHBÍBi2 iQTHQiM2 T`QpQ/HDBpQbiB B /2#HDBM2- QM/ Bx`x x iQTHQiMB T`QiQF F`Qx +BHBM/`BÍM
pBȒ2bHQDM xB/ BK Q#HBF,

(t1 − tn+1 )
Q̇ = P
n [q] URkXk3V
1
2πλi l
HM ri
ri+1

i=1
w#Q; T`QK2MHDBp2 TQp`ȒBM2- iQTHQiMB T`QiQF b2 bpQ/B M D2/BMB+m /mʈBM2 +BHBM/`BÍMQ; xB/- ȒiQ
T`2/bipHD TQ/mʈMB iQTHQiMB T`QiQF,

Q̇ (t1 − tn+1 )
q̇l = = P
n [q/K] URkXkNV
l 1
2πλi
HM ri+1
ri
i=1
T`B Í2Km ÍHM m BK2MBQ+m T`2/bipHD QiTQ` T`QpQç2MDm iQTHQi2 F`Qx i−iB bHQD bp2/2M M R K
+BHBM/`BÍMQ; xB/,
1 ri+1 KE
rλ,i = HM [ ] URkXjyV
2πλi ri q

Rk3
 LX _m/QMD

aHBF RkX8, C2/MQ/BK2MxBQMQ bi+BQM`MQ T`QpQç2MD2 iQTHQi2 F`Qx +BHBM/`BÍM xB/

RkXj S`2Hʈ2MD2 iQTHQi2@EQMp2F+BD

S`2Hʈ2MD2 iQTHQi2 BHB FQMp2F+BD D2 TQDp i`MbTQ`i 2M2`;BD2 bi`mDMD2K ~mB/ T`2FQ Íp`bi2
TQp`ȒBX aK `2Í FQMp2F+BD BK bpQD FQ`2M m HiBMbFQK ;H;QHm +QMp2+iQ@`2- ȒiQ m T`2pQ/m
xM+B bTQD2MQ- xD2/MQ- x/`mʈBiB- BHB /QM2iB M D2/MQ K2biQX EQMp2FiBpMQ T`2MQȒ2MD2 iQTHQi2
/QbiB;HQ D2 xMÍDM MBpQ m bp`2K2MQD Mm+B D2` b2 ʈ2H2HQ `xmK2pMD2 bK2 TQDp2- T`2/pBçMD2
iQF TQDp- Q/MQbMQ /QHʈ2MD2 /Q QbMQpMQ; bxMMD FFQ ~mB/M bi`mD p`ȒB T`2MQb Ki2`BD2-
Q/MQbMQ T`2MQb 2M2`;BD2X .FH2- FQMp2F+BD D2 T`Q+2b T`2MQȒ2MD iQTHQi2 FQDB D2 /B`2FiMQ TQp2xM
b bi`mDMD2K ~mB/X l xpBbMQbiB Q/ mx`QF bi`mDMD ~mB/ `xHBFmD2 b2,

Ç T`B`Q/M FQMp2F+BD

Ç T`BMm/M FQMp2F+BD

S`B`Q/M FQMp2F+BD MbiD2 mbH2/ `xHBF2 m ;mbiBMB ~mB/-  FQD D2 TQbH2/B+ `xHBF2 m i2K@
T2`im`B ~mB/X .FH2- TQ;QMbF bBH x T`B`Q/MQ bi`mDMD2 ~mB/ D2bi2 `xHBF m ;mbiBMB ~mB/X
a /`m;2 bi`M2- T`BMm/M FQMp2F+BD D2 TQbH2/B+ T`BMm/MQ; bi`mDMD ~mB/ mbH2/ /2Dbip bTQ@
HDȒMD2; m`2çD TQTmi TmKT2 BHB p2MiBHiQ`X
ai`mDMD2 ~mB/ KQʈ2 #BiB HKBM`MQ BHB im`#mH2MiMQX "2x/BK2MxBQMB #`QD FQDB b2 FQ`BbiB x /2}@
MBbMD2 `2ʈBK bi`mDMD MxBp b2 _2DMQH/bQp #`QD B T`2/bipHD Q/MQb BM2`+BDHMB? B pBbFQxMB?
bBH FQD2 /2HmDm M Bx/pQD2MB /2Q ~mB/X .FH2- _2DMQH/bQp #`QD T`2/bipHD F`Bi2`BDmK T`2HbF
Bx HKBM`MQ; m im`#mH2MiMQ bi`mDMD2 ~mB/X _2DMQH/bQp #`QD b2 /2}MBȒ2 FQ,

ρwl wl
_2 = = URkXjRV
µ ν
;/2 bm, ρ−;mbiBM ~mB/- w−#`xBM bi`mDMD ~mB/- l−F`Fi2`BbiBÍM /mʈBM- µ−/BMKBÍF
pBbFQxMQbi (S·b)- ν−FBM2KibF pBbFQxMQbi ~mB/ (K2 fb)X E`BiBÍM p`2/MQbi _2DMQH/bQpQ; #`QD
D2 p`2/Mbi T`B FQDQD /QHxB /Q T`QK2M2 `2ʈBK bi`mDMDX E`BiBÍM p`2/MQbi _2DMQH/bQpQ; #`QD

RkN
 h2`KQ/BMKBF "@AxpQ/B b T`2/pMD

T`B bi`mDMDm T`2FQ `pM2 THQÍ2 D2 5 · 105 X

S`B bi`mDMDm ~mB/ T`2FQ Íp`bi2 TQp`ȒB m #HBxBMB TQp`ȒB b2 7Q`KB` ixpX ;`MBÍMB bHQDX P/ BMi2`2b
bm ?B/`Q/BMKBÍFB U#`xBMbFBV B i2KT2`im`MB ;`MBÍMB bHQDX EQ/ ?B/`Q/BMKBÍFQ; bHQD /2#HDBM
;`MBÍMQ; bHQD D2 QM /2#HDBM T`B FQDQD D2 #`xBM ~mB/ /QbiB;H NN T`Q+2Mi Q/ #`xBM2 ~mB/
m M2TQ`2K2É2MQD bi`mDB UbHQ#Q/MQD bi`mDBV Uu = 0.99u∞ VX

aHBF RkXe, .2#HDBM #`xBMbFQ; ;`MBÍMQ; bHQD T`B bi`mDMDm ~mB/ T`2FQ `pM2 THQÍ2

aHBÍMQ- /2#HDBM i2KT2`im`MQ; ;`MBÍMQ; bHQD D2 QM /2#HDBM M FQDQD D2 `xHBF BxK2çm
i2KT2`im`2 ~mB/ B i2KT2`im`2 Íp`bi2 TQp`ȒB /QbiB;H NN T`Q+2Mi Q/ `xHBF2 i2KT2`im`2
BxK2çm i2KT2`im`2 Íp`bi2 TQp`ȒB B i2KT2`im`2 bHQ#Q/M2 bi`mD2 ~mB/ U TTss−T
−T
∞
= 0, 99VX

aHBF RkXd, .2#HDBM i2KT2`im`MQ; ;`MBÍMQ; bHQD T`B bi`mDMDm ~mB/ T`2FQ BxQi2`KM2 `pM2 THQÍ2

lbH2/ /2HQpMD pBbFQxMB? bBH #`xBM bi`mDMD ~mB/ m M2TQb`2/MQD #HBxBMB THQÍ2 D2/MF
D2 #`xBMB THQÍ2X FQ D2 #`xBM THQÍ2 D2/MF MmHB QM/ ~mB/ T`BMD x THQÍm- T D2 B #`xBM
~mB/ mx THQÍm D2/MF MmHBX SQȒiQ D2 #`xBM bi`mDMD ~mB/ m #HBxBMB THQÍ2 D2/MF MmHB QM/
b2 T`2MQȒ2MD2 iQTHQi2 m /iQK bHQDm ~mB/ T`FiBÍMQ Qbip`mD2 bKQ Tmi2K FQM/mF+BD2- T D2
iQTHQiMB T`QiQF F`Qx /iB bHQD ~mB/,
∂T
Q̇ = −λf A |y=0 [q] URkXjkV
∂y
a /`m;2 bi`M2- LDmiM D2 mp2Q FQ2}+BD2Mi T`2Hʈ2MD iQTHQi2 α iDX T`2iTQbipBQ D2 / D2
`xK2MD2MB iQTHQiMB T`QiQF b`xK2`M `xHB+B i2KT2`im` TQp`ȒB B ~mB/- ȒiQ T`2/bipHD ixpX
LDmiMQp xFQM T`2Hʈ2MD iQTHQi2,

Q̇ = ±α(Ts − T∞ )A [q] URkXjjV

;/2 b2 xMF ǴYǴFQ`BbiB FQ D2 i2KT2`im` TQp`ȒB pBȒ Q/ i2KT2`im`2 ~mB/- /QF b2 m
bmT`QiMQK FQ`BbiB xMF Ǵ@ǴX EQ`Bbi2ÉB T`2i?Q/M2 /p2 D2/MÍBM2 /Q#BD b2 Bx`x x FQ2}+BD2Mi
T`2Hʈ2MD iQTHQi2,

Rjy
 LX _m/QMD

−λf ∂T |
∂y y=0 q
α=± ][ URkXj9V
(Ts − T∞ ) Kk E
L QbMQpm T`2i?Q/MQ; Bx`x xFHDmÍmD2 b2 / FQ2}+BD2Mi T`2Hʈ2MD iQTHQi2 xpBbB Q/
iQTHQiM2 T`QpQ/HDBpQbiB Ki2`BDH- ;`/BD2Mi i2KT2`im`2 m #HBxBMB TQp`ȒB- i2KT2@
`im`2 TQp`ȒB- i2KT2`im`2 ~mB/X PbBK Mp2/2MQ;- FQ2}+BD2Mi T`2Hʈ2MD iQTHQi2
xpBbB T`p2Mbip2MQ Q/ `2ʈBK bi`mDMD- biMD TQp`ȒBM2- ;2QK2i`BDbFB? T`K2i@
`- i2`KQ}xBÍFB? F`Fi2`BbiBF ~mB/ Bi/X JQʈ2 b2 bHQ#Q/MQ `2ÉB / m }xB+B M2 TQbiQDB
FQKTHBFQpMBD }xBÍF p2HBÍBM M2;Q ȒiQ D2 FQ2}+BD2Mi T`2Hʈ2MD iQTHQi2X EQ`BȒÉ2MD2K xFQM
Q Q/`ʈMDm Kb2 UD2/MÍBM2 FQMiBMmBi2iV- xFQM Q Q/`ʈMDm FQHBÍBM2 F`2iMD UAA LDmiMQpQ;
xFQMV B xFQM Q Q/`ʈMDm 2M2`;BD2 UA xFQM i2`KQ/BMKBF2V- mx FQ`BȒÉ2MD2 i2Q`BD2 bHBÍMQ@
biB B #2x/BK2MxBQM2 MHBx2 /Q#BDDm b2 ixpX #2x/BK2MxBQMB #`QD2pBX Ax #2x/K2MxBQMQ; Q#HBF
D2/MÍBM2 2M2`;BD2 /Q#BD b2 ixpX Lmb2HiQp #`QD,

αlkar
Lm = URkXj8V
λf
Lmb2HiQp #`QD b2 /D2 m Q#HBFm F`Bi2`BDHMB? D2/MÍBM iDX FQ 7mMF+BQMHM xpBbMQbi Q/
_2DMQH/bQpQ;- S`M/iHQpQ; B :`b?Q7QpQ; #`QDX a`2/MD p`2/MQbi Lmb2HiQpQ; #`QD,

N u = C · _2m · S`n · :`p · εT URkXjeV

;/2 D2 εT 7FiQ` FQDBK b2 Q#m?pi T`QK2M i2`KQ}xBÍFB? F`Fi2`BbiBF ~mB/ m #HBxBMB

xB/-  S`M/iHQp B :`b?Q7Qp #`QD b2 Q/`2çmDm M MÍBM,
ν
S` = λ
URkXjdV
ρcp

βg(Ts − T∞ )l3
:` = URkXj3V
ν2
;/2 D2 β FQ2}+BD2Mi xT`2KBMbFQ; ȒB`2MDX EQ2}+D2MiB C, m, n, p B εT b2 Q/`2çmDm 2FbT2`BK2MiH@
MBK Tmi2KX w Q/`2ç2M2 bHmÍD2p2 QpB FQ2}+BD2MiB /iB bm m i#HB+K US`B`mÍMBF x i2`KQ/B@
MKBFm- h#2H .XjXVX
.FH2- FQ`Bbi2ÉB D2/MÍBM2 /Q#BD2M2 M #xB i2Q`BD2 bHBÍMQbiB B 2FbT2`BK2MiHMB? Bbi`ʈBpMD /Q@
#BD b2 p`2/MQbi x Lmb2HiQp #`QD- M QbMQpm FQ; b2 Bx`ÍmMp FQ2}+BD2Mi T`2Hʈ2MD iQTHQi2
αX LDmiMQp xFQM T`2Hʈ2MD iQTHQi2 KQʈ2 b2 MTBbiB m 7Q`KB FQD D2 MHQ;M PKQpQK xFQMm
iDX M MÍBM,

(Ts − Tf )
Q̇ = ± 1 [q] URkXjNV
αA

;/2 ÍHM 1
αA
T`2/bipHD QiTQ` T`2Hʈ2MDm iQTHQi2- iDX,
1 E
Rα = [ ] URkX9yV
αA q
w +BHBM/`BÍM xB/ QiTQ` T`2Hʈ2MDm iQTHQi2 D2,
1 E
Rα = [ ] URkX9RV
dπlα q
;/2 D2 d T`2ÍMBF +BHBM/` M FQK2 b2 Q/pBD T`Q+2b T`2Hʈ2MD iQTHQi2X

PiTQ` T`2Hʈ2MDm iQTHQi2 bp2/2M M R K2 `pMQ; xB/ D2,

RjR
 h2`KQ/BMKBF "@AxpQ/B b T`2/pMD

1 Kk E
rα = [ ] URkX9kV
α q
/QF b2 x +BHBM/`BÍM xB/ QiTQ` bpQ/B M R K /mʈBM2,

1 KE
rα = [ ] URkX9jV
dπα q

RkX9 S`QHʈ2MD2 iQTHQi2

EFQ #B b2 TQD2/MQbipBHB BMʈ2MD2`bFB T`Q`ÍmMB- T`2Hʈ2MD2 iQTHQi2 UFQMp2F+BDV B T`QpQç2MD2
iQTHQi2 UFQM/mF+BDV KQ;m b2 TQbKi`iB FQ bT`2;MmiB T`Q+2bBX SQDp T`2MQȒ2MD FQHBÍBM2
iQTHQi2 FQD b2 bbiQDB Q/ FQM/mF+BD2 B FQMp2F+BD2 MxBp b2 T`QHʈ2MD2 iQTHQi2X L T`BK2`-
mFQHBFQ bm /p ~mB/ `xHBÍBiB? i2KT2`im` Q/pQD2M T`2;`/MBK xB/QK- QM/- T`QHʈ2MD2
iQTHQi2 b2 bbiQDB Q/ T`2Hʈ2MD iQTHQi2 b ~mB/ pBȒ2 i2KT2`im`2 M TQp`Ȓ xB/ FQD D2 m
FQMiFim b iBK ~mB/QK- TQiQK- Q/ T`QpQç2MD iQTHQi2 F`Qx T`2;`/MB xB/- B M F`Dm- Q/
T`2Hʈ2MD iQTHQi2 b TQp`ȒB xB/ M ~mB/ FQDB BK MBʈm i2KT2`im`mX

RkX9XR ai+BQM`MQ T`QHʈ2MD2 iQTHQi2 F`Qx #2bFQMÍM `pM pBȒ2@

bHQDM xB/
L2F b2 T`2iTQbipB / b2 #2bFQMÍM `pM xB/ bbiQDB Q/ i`B bHQD ?QKQ;2M- BxQi`QTM
B T`H2HMQ TQbipHD2M Ki2`BDH UbHBF RkX3VX P/`2ç2M FQHBÍBM iQTHQi2 Tmi2K T`2Hʈ2MD
UFQMp2F+BD2V T`2HxB b ~mB/ R M TQp`Ȓ `pMQ; xB/ b FQDQK D2 m FQMiFimX SQiQK- FQHBÍBM
iQTHQi2 b2 T`QpQ/B F`Qx `pM xB/- B M F`Dm- i Bbi FQHBÍBM iQTHQi2 b TQp`ȒB xB/- FQD D2 m
FQMiFim b ~mB/QK k- T`2HxB M ~mB/ kX
AKDmÉB m pB/m ÍBMD2MB+m / bm iQTHQiMB QiTQ`B `2/MQ p2xMB- mFmTMB QiTQ` T`QHʈ2MDm
iQTHQi2 BxMQbB,

Kk E
Ruk = Rα1 + Rλuk + Rα2 [ ] URkX99V
q

1 X δi n
1 E
Ruk = + + [ ] URkX98V
α1 A i=1 λi A α2 A q

BHB QiTQ` F`Qx R K2 `pMQ; xB/,

1 X δi 1 Kk E
n
ruk = Ruk A = + + [ ] URkX9eV
α1 i=1 λi α2 q

S b2 iQTHQiMB T`QiQF KQʈ2 MTBbiB m Q#HBFm,

tf 1 − tf 2 tf 1 − tf 2
Q̇ = = P n A [q] URkX9dV
Ruk 1 δi 1
α1
+ λi
+ α2
i=1

Q̇ = k(tf 1 − tf 2 )A [q] URkX93V

;/2 k T`2/bipHD ixpX FQ2}+BD2Mi T`QHʈ2MD iQTHQi2,

Rjk
 LX _m/QMD

aHBF RkX3, ai+BQM`MQ T`QHʈ2MD2 iQTHQi2 F`Qx #2bFQMÍM `pM xB/

1 q
k= P [ ] URkX9NV
1
n
δi 1 Kk E
α1
+ λi
+ α2
i=1

SQp`ȒBMbFB iQTHQiMB T`QiQF b2 KQʈ2 Bx`xBiB T`2FQ FQ2}+BD2Mi T`QHʈ2MD iQTHQi2,

Q̇ q
q̇ = = k(tf 1 − tf 2 ) [ k ] URkX8yV
A K

RkX9Xk ai+BQM`MQ T`QHʈ2MD2 iQTHQi2 F`Qx #2bFQMÍM +BHBM/`BÍM

xB/
L2F b2 x#Q; D2/MQbipMQbiB TQbKi` D2/MQbHQDM +BHBM/`BÍM xB/ U+2pVX L2F F`Qx +2p bi`mDB
~mB/ pBȒ2 i2KT2`im`2@~mB/ R- /QF b2 QFQ +2pB MHxB ~mB/ MBʈ2 i2KT2`im`2@~mB/ k UbHBF RkXNVX
P/`2ç2MD FQHBÍBM iQTHQi2 T`2HxB b ~mB/ R M mMmi`ȒMDm TQp`Ȓ +2pB- TQp`ȒBM2 d1 πl- TQiQK b2
iQTHQi T`QpQ/B F`Qx +2p iQTHQiM2 T`QpQ/HDBpQbiB λ- B M F`Dm Bbi FQHBÍBM iQTHQi2 b2 b TQp`ȒB
TQp`ȒBM2 d2 πl T`2/D2 ~mB/m kX
oQ/2ÉB `ÍmM Q iQK2 / b2 `/B Q +BHBM/`BÍMQK xB/m- mFmTMB QiTQ` T`QHʈ2MDm iQTHQi2 BxMQbB,
1 1 d2 1 E
Ruk = Rα1 + Rλ + Rα2 = + HM + [ ] URkX8RV
α1 d1 πl 2πλl d1 α2 d2 πl q
lFQHBFQ b2 `/B Q pBȒ2bHQDMQK +BHBM/`BÍMQK xB/m- QiTQ` T`QHʈ2MDm iQTHQi2 D2,
1 X 1 n
di+1 1 E
Ruk = Rα1 + Rλ,uk + Rα2 = + HM + [ ] URkX8kV
α1 d1 πl i=1 2πλi l di α2 dn+1 πl q

Rjj
 h2`KQ/BMKBF "@AxpQ/B b T`2/pMD

aHBF RkXN, ai+BQM`MQ T`QHʈ2MD2 iQTHQi2 F`Qx #2bFQMÍM +BHBM/`BÍM xB/

;/2 D2 n #`QD bHQD2pX PiTQ` T`QHʈ2MDm iQTHQi2 x R K /mʈBM2 +2pB D2,

1 X 1 n
di+1 1 KE
ruk = Ruk l = rα1 + rλ,uk + rα2 = + HM + [ ] URkX8jV
α1 d1 π i=1 2πλi di α2 dn+1 π q

hQTHQiMB T`QiQF F`Qx pBȒ2bHQDM +BHBM/`BÍK xB/ D2,

tf 1 − tf 2 tf 1 − tf 2
Q̇ = = P
n l [q] URkX89V
Ruk 1
α1 d 1 π
+ 1
2πλi
HM di+1
di
+ 1
α2 dn+1 π
i=1

Q̇ = kl (tf 1 − tf 2 )l [q] URkX88V

;/2 kl T`2/bipHD ixpX HBMBDbFB UTQ/mʈMBV FQ2}+BD2Mi T`QHʈ2MD iQTHQi2,

1 q
kl = P [ ] URkX8eV
n
KE
1
α1 d 1 π
+ 1
2πλi
HM di+1
di
+ 1
α2 dn+1 π
i=1

GBMBDbFB iQTHQiMB T`QiQF b2 KQʈ2 Bx`xBiB T`2FQ HBMBDbFQ; FQ2}+BD2Mi T`QHʈ2MD iQTHQi2,

Rj9
 LX _m/QMD

Q̇ q
q̇l = = kl (tf 1 − tf 2 ) [ ] URkX8dV
l K

RkX8 S`2MQȒ2MD2 2M2`;BD2 x`Í2MD2K

w`Í2MD2 D2 MÍBM T`2MQȒ2MD 2M2`;BD2 Tmi2K 2H2Fi`QK;M2iMB? iHb `xHBÍBiB? iHbMB? /m@
ʈBM λ [µK]X w`Í2MD2 b2 m Q/MQbm M FQM/mF+BDm B FQMp2F+BDm `xHBFmD2 m bH2/2É2K,

Ç x`Í2MD2 M2 x?i2p T`BbmbipQ K2/BDmK UKQ;mÉ2 B m pFmmKmV-

Ç `xK2MD2M 2M2`;BD D2 b`xK2`M Í2ip`iQK bi2T2Mm i2KT2`im`2X

JBMBKHMB BxMQb 2M2`;BD2 x`Í2MD b2 MxBp FpMi BHB 7QiQMX S`2 T`2HbFm 2H2Fi`QM b pBȒ2;
M MBʈB 2M2`;BDbFB MBpQ i2HQ QbHQ#ç 2M2`;BDm D2/MQ; FpMi- /QF T`B TbQ`#QpMDm 2M2`;BD2
D2/MQ; FpMi 2H2Fi`QM T`2HxB b MBʈ2; M pBȒB 2M2`;BDbFB MBpQ- T /QHxB /Q TQpBȒ2MD mMmi`@
ȒMD2 2M2`;BD2 i2HX .FH2- QbBK ȒiQ 2KBimD2 2M2`;BDm x`Í2MD- i2HQ KQʈ2 T`BKiB iDX TbQ`#QpiB
2M2`;BDm x`Í2MD FQD /QHxB M MD2;Qpm TQp`ȒBMmX 1M2`;BD x`Í2MD D2 `bTQ/2HD2M TQ +2HQK
2H2Fi`QK;M2iMQK bT2Fi`m U0 − ∞ [µK]VX E`Qx Q/`2ç2MB K2/BDmK 2M2`;BD x`Í2MD b2 T`2MQbB
#`xBMQK bp2iHQbiB F`Qx /iB K2/BDmK cX "`xBM bp2iHQbiB D2 MDp2É T`B T`QHbFm F`Qx pFmmK
B BxMQbB c0 = 2, 998 · 108 [K/b]X o2x BxK2çm iHbM2 /mʈBM2 λ- #`xBM2 bp2iHQbiB c B mÍ2biHQbiB
U7`2Fp2M+BD2V ν /i D2 Bx`xQK,
c = λν URkX83V
S`B T`QHbFm F`Qx M2Fm b`2/BMm M2 K2MD b2 7`2Fp2M+B@
D- p2É b2 K2MDDm #`xBM bp2iHQbiB B iHbM /mʈBMX hHbM
/mʈBM xpBbB Q/ iQ; FFQ MbiDm 2H2Fi`QK;M2iMB iHbBX
J2iH Q FQDB m/`Dm pBbQFQ 7`2Fp2MiMB 2H2Fi`QMB 2KBimD2 x@
x`F2- /QF M2FB F`BbiHB 2KBimDm /m;QiHbMQ x`Í2MD2X
hQTHQiMQ x`Í2MD2 D2 TQbH2/B+ i2KT2`im`2 i2HX hQTHQiMQ
x`Í2MD2 b2 2KBimD2 M iHbMBK /mʈBMK Q/ y-R /Q Ryy
[µK]- /QF pB/HDBpQ x`Í2MD2 Q#m?pi /2Q iHbMB? /mʈBM Q/
y-j8 /Q y-d8 [µK]X hQTHQiMQ x`Í2MD2 Q#m?pi /2Q mHi`pB@
QH2iMQ; x`Í2MD- +2Q bT2Fi` pB/HDBpQ; x`Í2MD B BM7`+`p2MQ
x`Í2MD2X w`Í2MD2 FQD2 b2 2KBimD2 M iÍMQ Q/`2ç2MQD iH@
bMQD /mʈBMB MxBp b2 KQMQ?`QKibFQ x`Í2MD2X amM+2- b
b`2/MDQK i2KT2`im`QK TQp`ȒB Q/ T`B#HBʈMQ 83yy E 2KBimD2
2H2Fi`QK;M2iM2 iHb2- iHbMB? /mʈBM KMDB? Q/ j [µK]-
iDX FFQ É2 FbMBD2 #BiB Q#DȒMD2MQ MDp2ÉB /2Q 2M2`;BD2 bmM@
+2 2KBimD2 m pB/HDBpQK bT2Fi`mX a /`m;2 bi`M2- x2KHD b
b`2/MDQK i2KT2`im`QK TQp`ȒB Q/ T`B#HBʈMQ kNy E 2KBimD2
/m;QiHbMQ x`Í2MD2X EQ TQbH2/B+ iQ; / i`Q B pBȒ2iQKMB
;bQpB m x2KHDBMQD iKQb72`B T`QTmȒiDm F`iFQiHbMQ x`Í2@
MD2- HB M2 T`QTmȒiDm /m;QiHbMQ x`Í2MD2- /QHxB /Q TQDp2
272Fi biFH2M2 #Ȓi2X
l bFH/m b FpMiMQK i2Q`BDQK Jt SHMF 2M2`;BD
aHBF RkXRy, 1H2Fi`QK;M2iMB bT2Fi`
FpMi D2 b`xK2`M 7`2Fp2M+BDB 2H2Fi`QK;M2iMQ; iHb,

E = hν [C] URkX8NV

;/2 D2 h = 6, 625 · 10Ɛ34 J · s SHMFQp FQMbiMiX

Rj8
 h2`KQ/BMKBF "@AxpQ/B b T`2/pMD

h2Q`BD `2HiBpBi2i /D2 p2xm BxK2çm Kb2 FpMi- #`xBM2 bp2iHQbiB B 2M2`;BD2,

E = mc2 [C] URkXeyV

;/2 D2 m Kb FpMi- T`B Í2Km D2 pʈMQ xMiB / FpMi BK Kbm bKQ /QF b2 F`2É2X

RkX8XR A`/BD+BD@Px`Í2MQbi
lFmTM 2M2`;BD x`Í2MD m D2/BMB+B p`2K2M bp2/2M M TQp`ȒBMm M FQDm b2 /Qx`ÍmD2 xQp2
b2 B`/BD+BD Ġ UBM+B/2MiMQ BHB mT/MQ x`Í2MD2V BHB Qx`Í2MQbiX .2Q 2M2`;BD2- FQD b2 m D2/BMB+B
p`2K2M /Qx`ÍmD2 M TQp`Ȓ b2 `2~2FimD2 Ġρ - /2Q b2 TbQ`#mD2 Ġα -  /2Q b2 T`QTmȒi Ġτ UmFQHBFQ
D2 iQ KQ;mÉ2V,

Ġρ + Ġα + Ġτ = Ġ [q/Kk ] URkXeRV

lFQHBFQ b2 T`2i?Q/M D2/MÍBM TQ/2H2HB mFmTMQK B`/BD+BDQK Ġ /Q#BD b2,

ρ+α+τ =1 URkXekV
;/2 bm ρ, α, τ - TQ `2/QbH2/m- FQ2}+BD2MiB `2~2FbBD2- TbQ`T+BD2 B i`MbKBbBD2 UT`QTmbiHDBpQbiBVX

aHBF RkXRR, AM+B/2MiMQ- `2~2FiQpMQ- TbQ`#QpMQ B T`QTmȒi2MQ x`Í2MD2

o2ÉBM Íp`biB? i2H M2 T`QTmȒi iQTHQiMQ x`Í2MD2- T D2 FQ2}+BD2Mi T`QTmbiHDBpQbiB D2/MF

MmHBX .FH2- x Íp`bi M2T`QxB`M i2H pʈB,

ρ+α=1 URkXejV
lFQHBFQ D2 m;Q TQ/ FQDBK b2 `2~2FimD2 BM+B/2MiMQ x`Í2MD2 BbiB FQ m;Q TQ/ FQDBK b2 QMQ
/Qx`ÍmD2 M TQp`Ȓ- QM/ b2 iFpQ x`Í2MD2 MxBp bT2FmH`MQ-  TQp`Ȓ D2 Q;H2/HbiX lFQHBFQ
b2 BM+B/2MiMQ x`Í2MD2 `2~2FimD2 m BbiBK BxMQbBK m bpBK T`p+BK QM/ D2 iFpQ x`Í2MD2
/B7mxBQMQX
h2HQ FQD2 TbQ`#mD2 bp2 p`bi2 x`F M bpBK iHbMBK /mʈBMK MxBp b2 +`MQ i2HQX w
+`MQ i2HQ pʈB / D2 FQ2}+BD2Mi `2~2FbBD2 D2/MF MmHB- T bH2/B / D2,

α=1 URkXe9V

1M2`;BD x`Í2MD M2FQ; i2H J@`/BQ+Bi2i

˙ b2 bbiQDB Q/ bQTbip2MQ; x`Í2MD Ė U2KBbBQM
bM;V B `2~2FiQpMQ; /2H BM+B/2MiMQ; UmT/MQ;V x`Í2MD Ġρ ,

Rje
 LX _m/QMD

aHBF RkXRk, aT2FmH`M B /B7mxBQM `2~2FbBD

J˙ = Ė + Ġρ = Ė + ρĠ [q/Kk ] URkXe8V

aHBF RkXRj, 1M2`;BD x`Í2MD i2H

RkX8Xk *`MQ i2HQ

*`MQ i2HQ D2 B/2HBxQpMQ i2HQX PpFpQ i2HQ m `2HMQbiB M2 TQbiQDB- D2` bp2 TQp`ȒBM2 `2~2FimDm
/2Q mT/MQ;@BM+B/2MiMQ; x`Í2MDX J2çmiBK- +`MQ i2HQ KQʈ2 b2 /2HBKBÍMQ T`QFbBKB`iB FQ M
bHB+B RkXR9X AM+B/2MiB x`F mHxB F`Qx KHB QipQ` M ȒmTHDBMB B QbiD2 /QpQHDMQ /m;Q m ȒmTHDBMB-
T`2 M2;Q ȒiQ MTmbiB ȒmTHDBMmX a bpFQK `2~2FbBDQK x`F- mMmi` ȒmTHDBM2- /2Q 2M2`;BD2 b2
TbQ`#mD2X aiQ; b2 KQʈ2 bKi`iB / D2 mFmTM BM+B/2MiM 2M2`;BD x`Í2MD m TQiTmMQbiB
TbQ`#QpMX
*`MQ i2HQ D2 i2HQ FQD2 BK bH2/2É2 F`Fi2`BbiBF2,

RX *`MQ i2HQ D2 B/2HMB TbQ`#2`@TQp`ȒBM i2H D2 +`M- iDX TQp`ȒBM D2 iFp / D2 FQ2}@
+BD2Mi `2~2FbBD2 D2/MF MmHB ρ = 0- iDX mFHDmÍmDmÉB mbHQp / D2 B FQ2}+BD2Mi T`QTmbiHDBpQbi
D2/MF MmHB- /QHxB b2 /Q iQ; / D2 α = 1X
kX *`MQ i2HQ D2 /B7mxBQMB 2KBi2`@2KBimD2 Bbim 2M2`;BDm x`Í2MD m bpBK T`p+BKX
jX *`MQ i2HQ D2 B/2HMB 2KBi2`@x /im i2KT2`im`m M2 TQbiQDB i2HQ FQD2 2KBimD2 pBȒ2
2M2`;BD2 M2;Q ȒiQ 2KBimD2 +`MQ i2HQX

amT`QiMQ +`MQK i2Hm D2bi2 #2HQ i2HQX "2HQ i2HQ m TQiTmMQbiB `2~2FimD2 BM+B/2MiMQ x`Í2MD2
iDX x #2HQ i2HQ pʈB / D2 α = 0- ρ = 1- T`B Í2Km B x +`MQ B x #2HQ i2HQ pʈB / D2 τ = 0X

Rjd
 h2`KQ/BMKBF "@AxpQ/B b T`2/pMD

aHBF RkXR9, S`B#HBʈM T`QFbBK+BD +`MQ; i2H

RkX8Xj wFQMB x`Í2MD +`MQ; i2H

1M2`;BD x`Í2MD KQʈ2 b2 Q/MQbBiB M Q/`2ç2Mm iHbMm /mʈBMm@bT2Fi` BHB M +2Q QTb2;
iHbMB? /mʈBMX aiQ; b2 `xHBFmD2 bT2Fi`HM UKQMQ?`QKibFV 2M2`;BD x`Í2MD B mFmTM
UiQiHMV 2M2`;BD x`Í2MDX PpQ b2- QbBK M 2M2`;BDm- Q/MQbB B M /`m;2 p2HBÍBM2 x`Í2MD UMT`X
bT2Fi`HMB FQ2}+BD2Mi `2pH2FbBD2 @ mFmTMB FQ2}+BD2Mi `2~2FbBD2- XXXVX

SHMFQp xFQM x`Í2MD +`MQ; i2H

L QbMQpm FpMiM2 i2Q`BD2 Jt SHMF- bT2Fi`HM UM Q/`2ç2MQD iHbMQD /mʈBMBV 2KBbB@
QM bM; x`Í2MD D2/BMBÍM2 TQp`ȒB +`MQ; i2H Q/`2çmD2 b2 M QbMQpm bH2/2É2 D2/MÍBM2,

C1
Ėcλ = C2 [q/(Kk µK)] URkXeeV
λ5 (e λT − 1)

;/2 bm, (Ėcλ )@bT2Fi`HM 2KBbBQM bM; x`Í2MD b D2/BMBÍM2 TQp`ȒB +`MQ; i2H [q/(Kk µK)]-
λ)@iHbM /mʈBM [µK]- (T )@i2KT2`im`- [E]- (C1 )@S`p FQMbiMi x`Í2MD C1 = 3, 742 ·
108 [qµK9 /Kk ]- (C2 )@.`m; FQMbiMi x`Í2MD C2 = 1, 439 [µK · E]X .FH2- bT2Fi`HM 2KBbB@
QM bM; x`Í2MD D2/BMBÍM2 TQp`ȒB +`MQ; i2H- i2KT2`im`2 T - D2 2KBiQpM 2M2`;BD m D2/BMB+B
p`2K2M TQ D2/BMB+B TQp`ȒBM2 M D2/BMBÍMQK BMi2`pHm iHbM2 /mʈBM2 QFQ iHbM2 /mʈBM2 λX
C2/MÍBM RkXee T`2/bipHD SHMFQp xFQM x`Í2MD +`MQ; i2HX

ai27M@"QH+KMQp xFQM x`Í2MD +`MQ; i2H

AMi2;`HD2MD2K D2/MÍBM2 RkXee TQ +2HQK QTb2;m iHbM2 /mʈBM2 /Q#BD b2 mFmTM bM;
x`Í2MD D2/BMBÍM2 TQp`ȒB +`MQ; i2H /i2 i2KT2`im`2,
Z ∞ Z ∞
C1
Ėc = Ėcλ /λ = C2 /λ = σT 4 [q/Kk ] URkXedV
0 0 λ (e − 1)
5 λT

Rj3
 LX _m/QMD

C2/MÍBM RkXed T`2/bipHD ai27M@"QH+KMQp xFQM x`Í2MD +`MQ; i2HX EQMbiMi

σ D2 ixpX ai27M@"QH+KMQp FQMbiMi B BxMQbB σ = 5, 67 · 10−8 [q/(Kk E9 )X
.FH2- mFmTM 2KBbBQM bM; x`Í2MD +`MQ; i2H b`xK2`M D2 Í2ip`iQK bi2T2Mm i2KT2`@
im`2X

oBMQp xFQM TQK2`MD KFbBKmK 2KBbBQM2 bM;2 x`Í2MD +`MQ; i2H

lFQHBFQ b2 KFbBKHM p`2/MQbi 7mMF+BD2 /i2 D2/MÍBMQK RkXee- iDX FQ b2 TQi`ʈB T`pB
BxpQ/ bT2Fi`HM2 2KBbBQM2 bM;2 x`Í2MD +`MQ; i2H TQ iHbMQD /mʈBMB- T`B Í2Km b2 mxBK /
D2 i2KT2`im` FQMbiMi- B BxD2/MÍB b MmHQK- /Q#BD b2,

/Ėcλ
|T =const. = 0 URkXe3V
/λ

λmax T = C3 [µK · E] URkXeNV

C2/MÍBM RkXeN T`2/bipHD oBMQp xFQM TQK2`MD KFbBKmK 2KBbBQM2 bM;2 x`Í2MD
+`MQ; i2HX EQMbiMi C3 D2 i`2É FQMbiMi x`Í2MD B BxMQbB C3 = 2898 [µK · E]X L QbMQpm
D2/MÍBM2 RkXeN KQʈ2 b2 xFHDmÍBiB / b TQ`biQK i2KT2`im`2 +`MQ; i2H KFbBKmK 2KBbBQM2
bM;2 x`Í2MD b2 TQK2` F MBʈBK p`2/MQbiBK iHbMB? /mʈBMX

aHBF RkXR8, aT2Fi`HM 2KBbBQM bM; x`Í2MD +`MQ; i2H

RjN
 h2`KQ/BMKBF "@AxpQ/B b T`2/pMD

RkX8X9 1KBbBpMQbi TQp`ȒB

S`B /2}MBbMDm +`MQ; i2H `2Í2MQ D2 / M2 TQbiQDB /`m;Q i2HQ FQD2 M /iQD i2KT2`im`B B
/iQD iHbMQD /mʈBMB 2KBimD2 pBȒ2 2M2`;BD2 M2;Q ȒiQ ÍBMB +`MQ i2HQX .FH2- `2HMQ i2HQ T`B /iQD
i2KT2`im`B B iHbMQD /mʈBMB KQʈ2 2KBiQpiB bKQ KMD2 2M2`;BD2 x`Í2MD M2;Q ȒiQ 2KBimD2 +`MQ
i2HQX P/MQb mFmTM2 2KBbBQM2 bM;2 `2HMQ; i2H B 2KBbBQM2 bM;2 +`MQ; i2H Bbi2 i2KT2`im`2
xQp2 b2 2KBbBpMQbi BHB FQ2}+BD2Mi 2KBbBD2,

Ė(T )
ε= URkXdyV
Ėc (T )

aT2Fi`HM 2KBbBpMQbi b2 /2}MBȒ2 FQ,

Ėλ (T )
ε= URkXdRV
Ėcλ (T )

.FH2- bT2Fi`HMB FQ2}+BD2Mi 2KBbBD2 xpBbB Q/ i2KT2`im`2 B iHbM2 /mʈBM2X lFQHBFQ bT2F@
i`HMB FQ2}+BD2Mi 2KBbBD2 M2 xpBbB Q/ iHbM2 /mʈBM2 QM/ b2 iFpQ i2HQ xQp2 bBpQ i2HQX aBpQ i2HQ
D2 iFQç2 /B7mxBQMB 2KBi2` HB KMD2; BMiMxBi2i x`Í2MD M2;Q +`MQ i2HQ Bbi2 i2KT2`im`2X

aHBF RkXRe, 1KBbBQM bM; B FQ2}+BD2Mi 2KBbBD2 x `2HMQ- bBpQ B +`MQ i2HQ

.FH2- mFQHBFQ D2 TQxMi 2KBbBpMQbi TQp`ȒB QM/ b2 KQʈ2 Q/`2/BiB B 2KBbBQM bM; /i2
TQp`ȒB,

Ė(T ) = ε · Ėc (T ) = εσT 4 [q/Kk ] URkXdkV

RkX8X8 EB`?Q7Qp xFQM x`Í2MD

L2F b2 TQbKi`Dm /p i2H Q/ FQDB? D2 D2/MQ +`MQ i2HQ Ui2HQ RV-  /`m;Q bBpQ i2HQ Ui2HQ kVX
h2HQ k D2 Q#m?pÉ2MQ i2HQK R- T`B Í2Km b2 Q# i2H MHx2 M BbiQD i2KT2`im`BX SQȒiQ b2
Q# i2H MHx2 m i2`KBÍFQD `pMQi2ʈB- i2KT2`im` i2H b2 M2É2 K2MDiBX Ax QpQ; mbHQp bH2/B /

R9y
 LX _m/QMD

mFmTM 2M2`;BD FQDm TbQ`#mD2 i2HQ k KQ` #BiB D2/MF MD2;QpQD bQTbip2MQD 2M2`;BDB x`Í2MD
U2KBbBQMQD bMxBV,

aHBF RkXRd

Ė2 A2 = α2 A2 J˙1 [q] URkXdjV

Ė2 = α2 J˙1 [q/Kk ] URkXd9V

lFmTMQ x`Í2MD2 U`/BQ+Bi2iV FQD2 MTmȒi i2HQ R D2,

J˙1 = Ė1 + ρ1 J2 = Ė1 = σT 4 [q/Kk ] URkXd8V

l T`2i?Q/MQD D2/MÍBMB BbFQ`BȒÉ2MQ D2 iQ ȒiQ D2 i2HQ R +`MQ- T D2 FQ2}+BD2Mi `2~2FbBD2 D2/MF
MmHBX .HD2 bH2/B,

Ė2 = α2 Ė1 [q/Kk ] URkXdeV

h2HQ k D2 bBpQ- T D2 MD2;Qp bQTbip2M 2M2`;BD x`Í2MD U2KBbBQM bM;V Ė2 = ε2 σT 4 - T
b2 /Q#BD,

ε2 σT 4 = α2 σT 4 URkXddV
EQMÍMQ b2 /Q#BD bH2/2ÉB Bx`x,

α 2 = ε2 URkXd3V

FQDB T`2/bipHD EB`?Q7Qp xFQM x`Í2MDX

EB`?QpQ7 xFQM x`Í2MD pʈB B x Q/`2ç2MB /2Q bT2Fi` B BK Q#HBF,

α λ = ελ URkXdNV

Ax EB`?Q7QpQ; xFQM b2 BxpQ/B xFHDmÍF / FQ M2FQ i2HQ M /iQD iHbMQD /mʈBMB /Q#`Q
TbQ`#mD2 QM/ B /Q#`Q 2KBimD2 2M2`;BDm x`Í2MD2KX SQȒiQ D2 x +`MQ i2HQ FQ2}+BD2Mi TbQ`T+BD2
D2/MF D2/BMB+B QM/ D2 B FQ2}+BD2Mi 2KBbBD2 D2/MF D2/BMB+B α = ε = 1X

R9R
 h2`KQ/BMKBF "@AxpQ/B b T`2/pMD

RkX8Xe _xK2M 2M2`;BD2 x`Í2MD2K BxK2çm /p bBp M2T`QxB`M i2H

L2iQ `xK2MD2MB iQTHQiMB T`QiQF BxK2çm /p2 bBp2 M2T`QxB`M2 TQp`ȒB R B k,

T1 4 T2 4
Q̇12 = Cc εred H12 [( ) −( ) ][q)] URkX3yV
100 100

;/2 bm,
Cc @FQMbiMi x`Í2MD +`MQ; i2H- Cc = 5, 67 [q/(Kk E9 )]-
εred @`2/mFQpMB FQ2}+BD2Mi 2KBbBD2 T`B mxDKMQK x`Í2MDm TQp`ȒB i2H R M TQp`Ȓ i2H-
H12 @272FiBpM TQp`ȒBM mxDKMQ; x`Í2MD BxK2çm i2H R B i2H k- [Kk ]-
T1 @i2KT2`im` TQp`ȒB i2H R- [E]-
T2 @i2KT2`im` TQp`ȒB i2H k- [E]X

_2/mFQpMB FQ2}+BD2Mi 2KBbBD2,

1
εred = URkX3RV
1 + ( ε11 − 1)F12 + ( ε12 − 1)F21

:/2 bm ε1 B ε2 mFmTM2 2KBbBpMQbiB TQp`ȒB i2H R B i2H k- TQ `2/QbH2/mX F12 B F21 bm ;2QK2i`BDbFB
7FiQ`B pB/HDBpQbiBX
w 7FiQ`2 pB/HDBpQbiB pʈB,
X
Fij = 1 URkX3kV
w i2H R B k bmKB`MD2 7FiQ` pB/HDBpQbiB b2 p`ȒB FFQ bH2/B,

F11 + F12 = 1
URkX3jV
F21 + F22 = 1
6FiQ`B pB/HDBpQbiB b2 /Dm m i#2HK B /BD;`KBK US`B`mÍMBF x i2`KQ/BMKBFmX i#2H
.X9XRXVX

R9k
 LX _m/QMD

172FiBpM TQp`ȒBM mxDKMQ; x`Í2MD BxK2çm /p i2H,

H12 = F12 A1 = F21 A2 URkX39V

;/2 bm A1 B A2 TQp`ȒBM2 i2H m [Kk ]X

:2QK2i`BDbFB 7FiQ`B pB/HDBpQbiB@T`BK2`B

RX EQMp2FbMQ i2HQ R Q#m?pÉ2MQ i2HQK k

F11 = 0, F12 = 1
A1 URkX38V
F21 = F12 A 2
=A 1
A2

aHBF RkXR3

kX "2bFQMÍM2 T`H2HM2 `pM2 THQÍ2

F11 = 0, F12 = 1
A1 A1 URkX3eV
F21 = F12 A 2
=A 2
=1

aHBF RkXRN

R9j
 h2`KQ/BMKBF "@AxpQ/B b T`2/pMD

jX L2FB F`Fi2`BbiBÍMB k. bHmÍD2pB

aHBF RkXky

R99
 LX _m/QMD

9X L2FB F`Fi2`BbiBÍMB j. bHmÍD2pB

aHBF RkXkR

R98
 h2`KQ/BMKBF "@AxpQ/B b T`2/pMD

w/iF,
l FMHm Fp/`iMQ; TQT`2ÍMQ; T`2b2F /BK2MxBD 50 × 50 +K- MHxB b2 iQTHQpQ/M +2p bTQ@
HDȒMD2; T`2ÍMBF φ250 KKX h2KT2`im` bTQHDȒMD2 TQp`ȒB +2pB D2 biHM B BxMQbB 3yê*- /QF D2
mFmTMB FQ2}+BD2Mi 2KBbBD2 TQp`ȒB +2pB ε1 = 0, 77X h2KT2`im` mMmi`ȒMD2 TQp`ȒB xB/Qp FMH
D2 biHM B BxMQbB kyê*- /QF D2 mFmTMB FQ2}+BD2Mi 2KBbBD2 mMmi`ȒMD2 TQp`ȒB xB/ FMH ε2 = 0, 93X
P/`2/BiB iQTHQiMB T`QiQF FQDB b2 `xK2MB x`Í2MD2K BxK2çm xB/ +2pB B xB/ FMH x /mʈBMm
+2pB Q/ Ryy KX

aHBF RkXkk

_2Ȓ2MD2,
SQp`ȒBM i2H R T`2FQ FQD2 b2 x`Í2MD2K `xK2MDmD2 2M2`;BD,

A1 = dπL = 0, 25 · 3, 14 · 100 = 78, 5 [Kk ] URkX3dV

SQp`ȒBM i2H k T`2FQ FQD2 b2 x`Í2MD2K `xK2MDmD2 2M2`;BD,

A2 = 4aL = 4 · 0, 5 · 100 = 200 [Kk ] URkX33V

6FiQ`B pB/HDBpQbiB,

F11 = 0, F12 = 1
URkX3NV
F21 A1
= F12 A 2
A1
=A 2
= 78,5
200
= 0, 393
_2/mFQpMB FQ2}+BD2Mi 2KBbBD2,
1 1
εred = = = 0, 753 URkXNyV
1+ ( ε11 − 1)F12 + ( ε12 − 1)F21 1+ 1
( 0,77 1
− 1) · 1 + ( 0,93 − 1) · 0, 393

172FiBpM TQp`ȒBM mxDKMQ; x`Í2MD,

H12 = F12 A1 = 1 · 78, 5 = 78, 5 [Kk ] URkXNRV

hQTHQiMB T`QiQF x`Í2MD2K b TQp`ȒB xB/ +2pB M TQp`Ȓ FMH,
T1 4 T2 4
Q̇12 = Cc εred H12 [( ) −( )] URkXNkV
100 100

353, 15 4 293, 15 4
Q̇12 = 5, 67 · 0, 793 · 78, 5[( ) −( ) ] = 27386, 8 [q] ≈ 27, 4 [Fq] URkXNjV
100 100

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RX *2M;2H umMmb- JB+?2H "QH2b, h?2`KQ/vMKB+b, M 2M;BM22`BM; TT`Q+?- 1B;?i? 1/BiBQM-

J+:`r@>BHH 1/m+iBQM- kyR8X

kX am#`i "?ii+?`D22, h?2`KQ/vMKB+b, M BMi2`+iBp2 TT`Q+?- S2`bQM- kyReX

jX æQ`ç2 EQxBÉ, h2`KQ/BMKBF- T`BM+BTB B T`BK2M- JȒBMbFB 7FmHi2i "2Q;`/- kyRNX

9X .Q#`Qbp JBHBMÍBÉ- .BKBi`BD2 oQ`QMD2+, h2`KQ/BMKBF- JȒBMbFB 7FmHi2i "2Q;`/- kyyyX

8X JB+?2H JQ`M- >Qr`/M a?TB`Q- .BbB2 "Q2iM2`- J`;`2i "BH2v, 6mM/K2MiHb Q7

2M;BM22`BM; i?2`KQ/vMKB+b- CQ?M qBH2v  aQMb- kyRRX

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