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kXj .2b+`BT+BQM2b ;`€}+b /2 HQb /iQb

1M 2bi b2++BƦM T`2i2M/2KQb p2` H;mMb /2 Hb /2b+`BT+BQM2b ;`€@
}+b T` p`B#H2b MmKû`B+b v +i2;Ʀ`B+bX

kXjXR Ƣ/BKQb p`B#H2b v b2H2++BQMKQb +bQb Q

p`B#H2b
oKQb  Ƣ/B` K€b BM7Q`K+BƦM 2M Mm2bi`Q #M+Q /2 /iQbX a2;mB@
KQb +QM Hb +QM+2Mi`+BQM2b /2 MBi`BiQb /2H 2D2KTHQ kXRX 1M +QM+`2iQ
b2 b#2 [m2 Hb Km2bi`b /2 ;m b2 iQK`QM 2M /Qb HQ+HBx+BQM2b /2
 kk *SŐhlGP kX 1ah.ŐahA* .1a*_AShAo

H H#m72` /BbiBMibX Gb T`BK2`b 3 Km2bi`b b2 iQK`QM 2M 2H Tm2`iQ

/2 *i``QD v Hb e ȹHiBKb Km2bi`b b2 iQK`QM 2M 1H SHK`X 1bi
BM7Q`K+BƦM H ;m`/KQb 2M mM p2+iQ`

v 4 +UR-R-R-R-R-R-R-R-k-k-k-k-k-kV

kXjXk 6`2+m2M+Bb
G b2;mM/ p`B#H2 [m2 ?2KQb BMi`Q/m+B/Q 2M 2H #M+Q /2 /iQb
2b H xQM 2M [m2 iQKKQb H K2/B/X 1b Tm2b mM p`B#H2 +i2;Ʀ`B+
[m2 MQb BM/B+ H T2`i2M2M+B /2H /iQ  mM +i2;Q`ő- 2M 2bi2 +bQ- H
xQM 2M [m2 b2 Q#b2`p 2H /iQX G /2b+`BT+BƦM #€bB+ K€b bBKTH2 bQM
HQb +QMi2Qb Q 7`2+m2M+Bb #bQHmibX *QMiKQb 2H MȹK2`Q /2 p2+2b [m2
b2 `2TBi2M +/ mM /2 Hb +i2;Q`őbX h2M/`2KQb 2H MȹK2`Q /2 /iQb
[m2 b2 ? Q#b2`p/Q 2M +/ xQMX GQb Q#i2M2KQb /2 mM KQ/Q bBKTH2
+QM H 7mM+BƦM i#H2X

i#H2UvV

OO v
OO R k
OO 3 e

aB /BpB/BKQb Hb 7`2+m2M+Bb #bQHmib TQ` 2H MȹK2`Q iQiH /2 /iQb

i2M2KQb Hb 7`2+m2M+Bb `2HiBpbX SQ` 2D2KTHQ- +QM

T`QTXi#H2Ui#H2UvVV

OO v
OO R k
OO yX8dR9k3e yX9k38dR9

P- /2 Qi`Q KQ/Q- bB bmKKQb H i#H MQb / 2H iQiH /2 +bQb

bmKUi#H2UvVV

OO (R) R9

v TQ/2KQb Q#i2M2` Hb 7`2+m2M+Bb `2HiBpb /BpB/B2M/Q HQb +QMi2Qb

Q 7`2+m2M+Bb #bQHmib TQ` 2bi bmKX

i#H2UvVfbmKUi#H2UvVV

OO v
OO R k
OO yX8dR9k3e yX9k38dR9

Gb 7`2+m2M+Bb #bQHmib Hb TQ/2KQb `2T`2b2Mi` ;`€}+K2Mi2

+QM mM /B;`K /2 #``b U};m` kXRVX

HB#``vU;;THQikV
/7 4 /iX7`K2UvV
;;THQiU/7-2bUt4vVVY;2QKn#`UV

6B;m` kXR, .B;`K /2 #``b

+QM Hb 7`2+m2M+Bb #bQHmibX
kXjX .1a*_AS*APL1a :_6A*a .1 GPa .hPa kj

kXjXj >BbiQ;`K
S` mM p`B#H2 +mMiBiiBp mM #m2M QT+BƦM T` Q#b2`p` H
/Bbi`B#m+BƦM /2 HQb /iQb 2b mM ?BbiQ;`KX G B/2 /2 mM ?BbiQ;`K 2b
U/2KbB/QV bBKTH2X aB x1 , . . . , xn bQM HQb /iQb /2 HQb +mH2b [m2`2KQb
+QMbi`mB` 2H ?BbiQ;`K +QMbB/2`KQb 2H BMi2`pHQ [m2 p /2H KőMBKQ
H K€tBKQ- 2b /2+B`- 2H BMi2`pHQ

[a, b] = [KBM{x1 , . . . , xn }, Kt{x1 , . . . , xn }]

v HQ bm#/BpBKQb 2M mM MȹK2`Q /2 bm#BMi2`pHQb +QM H KBbK HQM;B@

im/X  2biQb bm#BMi2`pHQb b2 H2b bm2H2 HHK` +Hb2bX amTQM;KQb [m2
2H2;BKQb k +Hb2bX 1MiQM+2b HQb bm#BMi2`pHQb [m2 +QMbB/2`KQb bQM

[a, a + δ), [a + δ, a + 2δ), . . . , [a + (k − 1)δ, b]

/QM/2
b−a
δ=
k
.2T2M/B2M/Q /2H bQ7ir`2 [m2 miBHB+2KQb HQb pHQ`2b /2 a v b bm2H2M
2H2;B`b2 +QKQ mM TQ+Q K2MQb [m2 2H KőMBKQ v mM TQ+Q K€b [m2 2H
KőMBKQX 1H MȹK2`Q /2 +Hb2b b2 2HB;2 /2 mM KQ/Q miQK€iB+Q T2`Q
bB2KT`2 KQ/B}+#H2 TQ` 2H mbm`BQX *QMiKQb 2H MȹK2`Q /2 /iQb
[m2 ?v 2M +/ +Hb2X _2T`2b2MiKQb mM #``b U[m2 b2 `2T`2b2MiM
T2;/b mM +QM Qi` HQ [m2 iK#BûM MQb T2`KBi2 /B72`2M+B`HQ /2 mM
/B;`K /2 #``bV +mv #b2 +QBM+B/2 +QM 2H bm#BMi2`pHQ v +mv
Him` 2b T`QTQ`+BQMH H MȹK2`Q /2 /iQb [m2 ?2KQb Q#b2`p/Q 2M
/B+?Q bm#BMi2`pHQX 1bi2 2b 2H /B#mDQX o2KQb +ƦKQ ?+2`HQ +QM _X
aB MQ H2 BM/B+KQb M/ 2H T`Q;`K /2+B/2 2H MȹK2`Q /2 +Hb2b Q
bm#BMi2`pHQb U};m` kXkVX

HB#``vU;;THQikV
/7 4 /iX7`K2UtV
;;THQiU/7-2bUt4tVVY;2QKn?BbiQ;`KUV

kXjX9 .B;`Kb /2 +Db

1b mM /B#mDQ #b/Q 2M HQb +m`iBH2bX j G B/2 2b `2T`2b2Mi` mM
+D +QKQ H T`i2 [m2 K€b /2bi+ 2M 2H /B#mDQX .2Mi`Q /2 H +D b2 6B;m` kXk, >BbiQ;`KX
`2T`2b2Mi +QM mM HőM2 UH;Q K€b ;`m2b ?#BimHK2Mi2V H K2/BMX
GQb 2ti`2KQb /2 H +D +QBM+B/2M +QM HQb T2`+2MiBH2b /2H k8W v /2H
d8WX G HQM;Bim/ /2 H +D 2b H /B72`2M+B /2 2biQb T2`+2MiBH2b- 2b
/2+B`- 2H `M;Q BMi2`+m`iőHB+QX G +D Km2bi` H /Bbi`B#m+BƦM /2 H
KBi/ /2 HQb /iQb- H KBi/ /2 HQb /iQb [m2 2bi€M +2Mi`/QbX
a2 H2 Ƣ/2M mMQb #B;Qi2b [m2 bH2M /2 H +DX aQM mMb HőM2b [m2
/2b+`B#2M H p`B#BHB// /2 HQb /iQb [m2 2bi€M 2M HQb 2ti`2KQbX >v
p`Bb QT+BQM2b T` 2H2;B` 2H TmMiQ H [m2 HH2;M HQb #B;Qi2bX 1Mi`2
Qi`b QT+BQM2b Hb /Qb K€b ?#BimH2b bQM,

RX Zm2 HH2;m2M H KőMBKQ v H K€tBKQ /2 HQb /iQbX

kX Zm2 HH2;m2M H KőMBKQ v H K€tBKQ /2 HQb /iQb [m2 2bi€M 2M

2H BMi2`pHQ [m2 iB2M2 TQ` 2ti`2KQ BM72`BQ` 2H T2`+2MiBH /2H k8W
j lM #m2M 2tTHB++BƦM b2 Tm2/2 +QMbmHi` 2M
?iiT,ff2MXrBFBT2/BXQ`;frBFBf"QtnTHQiX
 k9 *SŐhlGP kX 1ah.ŐahA* .1a*_AShAo

K2MQb RX8 p2+2b 2H `M;Q BMi2`+m`iőHB+Q v TQ` 2ti`2KQ bmT2`BQ`

2H T2`+2MiBH /2H d8W Kb RX8 p2+2b 2H `M;Q BMi2`+m`iőHB+QX 1bi2
pHQ` /2 RX8 Q#pBK2Mi2 TQ/2KQb KQ/B}+`HQX

amTQM;KQb [m2 MQb THMi2KQb `2T`2b2Mi` mM /B;`K /2 +Db /2

iQ/ H Km2bi`X 1M H };m` kXj i2M2KQb 2H `2bmHi/QX

/7 4 /iX7`K2UtV
;;THQiU/7-2bUv4tVVY;2QKn#QtTHQiUV

oKQb  Ƣ/B`  HQb /iQb [m2 i2M2KQb mMQb +mMiQb pHQ`2b 2t@
i`2KQbX 1M +QM+`2iQ [m2 b2M Km+?Q KvQ`2b [m2 HQb [m2 i2M2KQb

6B;m` kXj, .B;`K /2 +DbX tR 4 +Ut-+Ud-NVV

_2T`2b2MiKQb 2H /B;`K /2 +Db +QM HQb Mm2pQb /iQb 2M H

};m` kX9X

/7 4 /iX7`K2UtRV
;;THQiU/7-2bUv4tRVVY;2QKn#QtTHQiUV

LQ T`2+2 [m2 b2 H K2DQ` QT+BƦM U2b mM QTBMBƦM +H`QVX ZmBx€b
H KvQ` miBHB// /2 mM /B;`K /2 +Db 2b +QKT`` bm#Km2bi`b-
2biQ 2b- T`i2b /BbiBMib /2 H Km2bi`X SQ` 2D2KTHQ- T` HQb ;`mTQb
/2}MB/Qb TQ` H p`B#H2 +i2;Ʀ`B+ v U};m` kX8VX
6B;m` kX9, .B;`K /2 +Db
Ƣ/B2M/Q +bQb 2ti`2KQbX
/7 4 /iX7`K2Ut-vV
;;THQiU/7-2bUv4t-;`QmT4vVVY;2QKn#QtTHQiUV

1b mM /B#mDQ bBKTH2 [m2 MQb T`QTQ`+BQM mM +QKT`+BƦM `€TB/

/2 Hb /Qb Km2bi`bX

kXjX8 1biBK/Q`2b F2`M2H /2 H /2MbB//

lM ;`€}+Q Hi2`MiBpQ Uv /2 Km+? K€b +HB//V 2b 2H 2biBK/Q`
F2`M2H /2 H /2MbB// +mv 2tT`2bBƦM pB2M2 // TQ`
6B;m` kX8, .B;`K /2 +Db n
1

xi − x

+QKT`M/Q Km2bi`bX fˆ(x) =
X
K ,
i
nh h

/QM/2 H 7mM+BƦM K 2b MQ M2;iBp v p2`B}+

Z +∞
K(u)du = 1,
−∞

v
K(−u) = K(u),
2b /2+B`- 2b bBKûi`B+ `2bT2+iQ /2H Q`B;2MX .Bp2`bQb 2D2KTHQb b2 Tm2/2M
2M+QMi`` 2M ?iiTb,ff2MXrBFBT2/BXQ`;frBFBfE2`M2HnUbiiBbiB+bVX
1M H };m` kXe T`2+2 mM 2biBK/Q` F2`M2H /2 H /2MbB// miBHB@
xM/Q mM 7mM+BƦM F2`M2H ;mbbBMX
kXjX .1a*_AS*APL1a :_6A*a .1 GPa .hPa k8

/7 4 /iX7`K2UtV
;;THQiU/7-2bUt4tVVY;2QKn/2MbBivUV

kXjXe 6mM+BƦM /2 /Bbi`B#m+BƦM Km2bi`H

./Qb HQb /iQb x1 , . . . , xn - H 7mM+BƦM /2 /Bbi`B#m+BƦM Km2bi`H b2
/2}M2 +QKQ
|{xi : xi ≤ x}|
Fn (x) = , UkXeV
n
/QM/2 | · | /2MQi 2H +`/BMH- 2biQ 2b- 2H MȹK2`Q /2 2H2K2MiQb /2H 6B;m` kXe, 1biBK/Q` F2`M2H /2 H
7mM+BƦM /2 /2MbB//X
+QMDmMiQX S` +/ TmMiQ x +QMbB/2`KQb 2H +QMDmMiQ 7Q`K/Q TQ`
iQ/Qb HQb /iQb xi [m2 bQM K2MQ`2b Q B;mH2b [m2 xX *QMiKQb 2H
MȹK2`Q /2 TmMiQb 2M 2bi2 +QMDmMiQ Ubm +`/BMHV v HQ /BpB/BKQb TQ` 2H
iQiH /2 /iQbX 1M `2bmK2M- Fn (x) MQb / H T`QTQ`+BƦM /2 /iQb [m2
bQM K2MQ`2b Q B;mH2b [m2 xX u 2biQ HQ +QMbB/2`KQb T` iQ/Qb HQb
pHQ`2b /2 x TQbB#H2bX
oKQb  +QMbB/2`` /Qb 7mM+BQM2b T` Q#i2M2` H 7mM+BƦM /2 /Bb@
i`B#m+BƦM Km2bi`HX G T`BK2` 2b H 7mM+BƦM 2+/7 v TQ/2KQb p2`H 2M
Hb };m`b kXd v kX3X

/7 4 /iX7`K2UtV
;;THQiU/7-2bUt4tVVYbiin2+/7U;2QK 4 ]TQBMi]V

/7 4 /iX7`K2UtV
;;THQiU/7-2bUt4tVVYbiin2+/7U;2QK 4 ]bi2T]V

aB [m2`2KQb +QMQ+2` 2H pHQ` /2 Fn 2M mM pHQ` /2i2`KBM/Q- TQ` 6B;m` kXd, 6mM+BƦM /2 /Bbi`B#m@
+BƦM Km2bi`HX
2D2KTHQ T` x = 37 TQ/2KQb ?+2`

2+/7UtVUjdV

OO (R) R

Q #B2M 2M 9y-

2+/7UtVU9yV

OO (R) R
6B;m` kX3, 6mM+BƦM /2 /Bbi`B#m@
+BƦM Km2bi`HX
kXjXd "mb+M/Q /iQb MƦKHQb
h2M2KQb mMQb /iQb MmKû`B+Qb x1 , . . . , xn v [m2`2KQb b#2` bB ?v
H;mMQ [m2 b2 bH2 /2 K/`2X aB ?v H;mMQ [m2 2bi€ Kmv H2D/Q /2 HQb
/2K€bX Zm2 2b MƦKHQX GQ T`BK2`Q 2b T`2+Bb` [mû 2Mi2M/2KQb TQ`
/iQ MƦKHQX9 oKQb  p2` Hb /Qb /2}MB+BQM2b K€b ?#BimHK2Mi2
miBHBx/bX 1M H T`BK2` miBHBxKQb K2/B v /2bpB+BƦM 2bi€M/`X 1M
H b2;mM/ miBHBxKQb +m`iBH2bX
G T`BK2` 2b H [m2 K€b i`/B+BƦM iB2M2X ./Qb HQb /iQb +H+mH@
KQb bm K2/B v /2bpB+BƦM iőTB+ Km2bi`H2b, x̄ v sX a2 2MiB2M/2 TQ`
/iQ MƦKHQ [mûH [m2 2bi€ 7m2` /2H BMi2`pHQ
[x̄ − 3s, x̄ − 3s],
9 G 2tT`2bBƦM BM;H2b 2b QmiHB2`X
ke *SŐhlGP kX 1ah.ŐahA* .1a*_AShAo

2b /2+B`- [m2 Q #B2M 2b 2ti`2KQ TQ`[m2 2b K2MQ` [m2 x̄ − 3s Q #B2M 2b

2ti`2KQ TQ`[m2 2b KvQ` [m2 x̄ + 3sX
oKQb  Ƣ/B`  Mm2bi`Qb /iQb /Qb /iQb 2ti`2KQb TQ` ``B# v
mMQ TQ` #DQX

tk 4 +Ut-+Uy-N-R9VV

u p2KQb bB bQM MƦKHQb 2M 2H b2MiB/Q [m2 +#KQb /2 /2}MB`X

tk(tk I K2MUtkV @ j b/UtkV)

OO MmK2`B+UyV

o2KQb [m2 2H pHQ` [m2 Ƣ/BKQb TQ` /2#DQ MQ 2b /2i2+i/QX

ǯu HQb /Qb pHQ`2b ;`M/2b\

tk(tk = K2MUtkV Y j b/UtkV)

OO (R) R9

o2KQb [m2 bQHK2Mi2 /2i2+iKQb mMQ /2 2HHQbX aB MQ bQKQb iM

2tB;2Mi2b U+QKQ b2 bm2H2 b2` TQ` +B2`iQV v bBKTH2K2Mi2 +QMbB/2`KQb
[m2 2H /iQ b2 H2D2 /2 H K2/B 2M /Qb /2bpB+BQM2b iőTB+b TQ` ``B#
Q TQ` #DQ 2MiQM+2b b2 /2i2+iM HQb bB;mB2Mi2b

tk(tk I K2MUtkV @ k b/UtkV)

OO MmK2`B+UyV

tk(tk = K2MUtkV Y k b/UtkV)

OO (R) R9

2b /2+B`- 2H KBbKQX
1H b2;mM/Q T`Q+2/BKB2MiQ miBHBx HQb +m`iBH2bX .2MQi2KQb TQ` q25
v q75 HQb T2`+2MiBH2b /2 Q`/2M k8W v d8W- 2biQ 2b- HQb +m`iBH2b BM72`BQ`
v bmT2`BQ`X 1H `M;Q BMi2`+m`iőHB+Q b2`ő

IQR = q75 − q25 .

G b2;mM/ 7Q`K /2 +QMbB/2`` mM /iQ +QKQ 2ti`2KQ 2b +QMbB/2``

[m2 HQ 2b bB 2bi€ 7m2` /2H BMi2`pHQ

[q25 − 1.5 × IQR, q75 + 1.5 × IQR].

Sm2/2 b2` 2ti`2KQ TQ` #DQ bB 2b K2MQ` [m2 q25 − 1.5 × IQR Q TQ`
``B# bB 2b KvQ` [m2 q75 + 1.5 × IQRX .2i2`KBM2KQb HQb 2ti`2KQb
/2H BMi2`pHQX

UHr 4 [mMiBH2Utk-T`Q#b4yXk8V @ RX8 AZ_UtkVV

OO k8W
OO @9Xk9

UmT 4 [mMiBH2Utk-T`Q#b4yXd8V Y RX8 AZ_UtkVV

OO d8W
OO dXe3
kXjX .1a*_AS*APL1a :_6A*a .1 GPa .hPa kd

u p2KQb bB ?v TmMiQb 2ti`2KQb TQ` #DQ

tk(tk I Hr)

OO MmK2`B+UyV

.2i2+i 2H TmMiQ Ƣ/B/Q TQ` MQbQi`QbX u TQ` ``B#X

tk(tk = mT)

OO (R) N R9

.2i2+i HQb /Qb TmMiQb 2ti`2KQb TQ` ``B#X 1M }M- MQ MQb ? B/Q
KH +QM 2bi2 KûiQ/Q /2 /2i2++BƦMX LQ Q#biMi2- 2H K€b ?#BimH 2b 2H
T`BK2`Q /2 HQb T`Q+2/BKB2MiQb T`QTm2biQbX

kXjX3 1D2`+B+BQb
1DX 9 ě oKQb  `2HBx` /BbiBMib `2T`2b2Mi+BQM2b ;`€}+b +QM HQb
/iQb /2H 2D2`+B+BQ jX a2 TB/2 HQ bB;mB2Mi2,
RX_2HBx` /BbiBMiQb ?BbiQ;`Kb /2 HQb /iQb [m2 T`2+2M 2M 2H
2D2`+B+BQ j KQ/B}+M/Q 2H MȹK2`Q /2 +Hb2bX ǯ>v mM +QKTQ`i@
KB2MiQ +QMbBbi2Mi2 2M H `2T`2b2Mi+BƦM ;`€}+\
kX_2T`2b2Mi` ;`€}+K2Mi2 mM 2biBK/Q` F2`M2H /2 H /2MbB//X
P#b2`p` 2H pHQ` [m2 b2 ? miBHBx/Q T` 2H M+?Q /2 #M/X
jXJQ/B}+` 2H pHQ` /2H M+?Q /2 #M/ Q#b2`p/Q 2M 2H T`i/Q
k /Q#HM/Q bm pHQ` v pQHp2`  `2T`2b2Mi` 2H 2biBK/Q` F2`M2H /2
H /2MbB//X
9XJQ/B}+` 2H pHQ` /2H M+?Q /2 #M/ Q#b2`p/Q 2M 2H T`i/Q
k +QMbB/2`M/Q H KBi/ /2 bm pHQ` v pQHp2`  `2T`2b2Mi` 2H
2biBK/Q` F2`M2H /2 H /2MbB//X
8X*QKT`` HQb i`2b 2biBK/Q`2b F2`M2H [m2 ?2KQb Q#i2MB/QX ǯZmû
Q+m``2 +mM/Q BM+`2K2MiKQb 2H M+?Q /2 #M/\ ǯu +mM/Q HQ
/BbKBMmBKQb\

1DX 8 ě *QMbB/2`KQb HQb /iQb /2H 2D2`+B+BQ jX G Km2bi` BMB+BH

H /2MQiKQb TQ` x KB2Mi`b [m2 HQb /iQb KTHB/Qb HQb /2MQiKQb
TQ` xxX amTQM;KQb [m2 HQb /iQb x ?M bB/Q Q#i2MB/Qb 2M /BbiBMib
HQ+HBx+BQM2bX 1M +QM+`2iQ Hb HQ+HBx+BQM2b Hb i2M2KQb +Q/B}+/b
/2 mM KQ/Q MmKû`B+QX aQM Hb bB;mB2Mi2bX
a2 TB/2,
RXAMi`Q/m+B` 2biQb /iQb 2M mM p2+iQ` 2M _ [m2 /2MQi`2KQb TQ` y
miBHBxM/Q H 7mM+BƦM +UV /2 +QM+i2M+BƦMX
kX_2HBx` mM /B;`K /2 +Db /2 H p`B#H2 xX
jX_2HBx` /B;`Kb /2 #``b /2 HQb pHQ`2b [m2 i2M2KQb 2M H p@
`B#H2 x T` Hb /BbiBMib HQ+HBx+BQM2b [m2 MQb pB2M2M BM/B+/b
TQ` H p`B#H2 yX
9XGQb /iQb /B+BQMH2b [m2 T`2+2M 2M 2H p2+iQ` xx ?M bB/Q Q#@
i2MB/Qb 2M mM +m`i HQ+HBx+BQMX *QKTH2i` 2H p2+iQ` yy T`
BM+HmB` 2bi HQ+HBx+BƦM- 2b /2+B`- 2M xx i2M2KQb HQb /iQb KTHB@
/Qb KB2Mi`b [m2 2M yy i2M/`2KQb Hb HQ+HBx+BQM2b KTHB/bX
8XJm2bi` mM /B;`K /2 #``b +QKT`iBpQ /2 HQb pHQ`2b xx
T` Hb /BbiBMib HQ+HBx+BQM2b [m2 T`2+2M 2M yyX
k3 *SŐhlGP kX 1ah.ŐahA* .1a*_AShAo

1DX e ě *QMbB/2`2KQb Hb /Qb Km2bi`b bB;mB2Mi2bX

Ut 4 `MQ`KU8y-K2M4kj-b/4kXRkVV
OO (R) kjX3y939 kRXNj8yd kkXkNjey kyX39yek kyXdkd3y
OO (e) kjXe9j93 kjXN8yky kjXRRkjd k9XN88kR kdXj9eR3
OO (RR) kRXN8NyR R3XRy98e k8XRjkRd kRX9Ne9N kRX89R9k
OO (Re) k8XRd9kR kkXjNek3 kyX9Rky3 kjXj39je kkXdy888
OO (kR) kjXyRkkk kjX3RedN kkXkR9ky k9Xjeey3 kkX8jk8d
OO (ke) kjXdyjj3 k8Xjk8jy kjXNkk83 kkXjyNyj k8X9j89d
OO (jR) k8XRyekj k9XRekey kjX8yeRR kRXee339 k8X33983
OO (je) kRXdkd98 kdXejdR8 keXk9NRj kkX8yyjk kyX3kjNN
OO (9R) kRX9NjN9 kjX8998N kkX9ddyR kkXkejkR kyXN3k8d
OO (9e) kkXNy989 kRXjjeyy RNX9ejNe kkXRNjNk k9XN93kd
Uv 4 `MQ`KUdy-K2M4jj-b/49XRkVV
OO (R) jyXekN8d j8X8y93R keXjj9jk jkXddRy3 j8XRjNNe
OO (e) j9Xk9yd8 jjX9j8jN jyXjeykN kNX9NNkk k3Xd3y8N
OO (RR) jjX939dy kNXyNe9y jyXNd3Ny jRXN99Ny 9yX8NedR
OO (Re) jyXjRjNd jjXNeNdN jjXjkRky kNXyjdR8 jkXdyekR
OO (kR) j3XN8R88 j9X3eyky jjXReN33 jRXk8NjR k9X89yek
OO (ke) jdXeeRRR keXN3kRe jeXy9383 9yX3e88R kdXy8RRe
OO (jR) j8X3NRj8 jRXNRNd8 keX8kkdd keXd8N8d keX9yRed
OO (je) jyX3Rked keXNdd8d j8X3j9kk 9RXe8k98 kdXeNd9j
OO (9R) jeXk9893 jeXRe398 j9Xje3ed k3X3989N jkX8yd3e
OO (9e) jRX399dd j8XjRN8k jRX9e888 jdXyk8Rj jRX98edj
OO (8R) jdXjjdRd k3XeddjN kdX3y3Re 9eXj8jy3 jRXk3k88
OO (8e) j9Xkk3dy j8Xekked jRXyye3k j8XRkN9d j9X8kyRj
OO (eR) jkXRRkej jjXkeNyR jkX38Ne9 9RXdeNkk kNXN98dy
OO (ee) k3X9398y jjXR88eN j9XkdNR3 j9XdN393 jRXRRR8j
a2 TB/2,
RX_2T`2b2Mi` 2M /Qb ;`€}+Qb /BbiBMiQb HQb 2biBK/Q`2b F2`M2H /2
K#b /2MbB//2bX
kX_2T2iB` 2H T`i/Q Mi2`BQ` T2`Q 2M H KBbK ;`€}+X
jX_2T`2b2Mi` Hb 7mM+BQM2b /2 /Bbi`B#m+BƦM /2 H T`BK2` Km2bi`X
>+2/ HQ KBbKQ +QM H 7mM+BƦM /2 /Bbi`B#m+BƦM /2 H b2;mM/
Km2bi`X
9X_2T`2b2Mi/ Hb /Qb 7mM+BQM2b /2 /Bbi`B#m+BƦM 2M mM KBbKQ ;`€@
}+QX

kX9 lM /B#mDQ
1M 2bi b2++BƦM pKQb  `2HBx` mM /B#mDQ  T`iB` /2 mMQb /iQbX
1H Q#D2iBpQ 2b KQbi`` +ƦKQ 2bim/B` H `2H+BƦM 2Mi`2 /Qb p`B#H2b-
+ƦKQ ?+2`HQ +QM _ KQbi`M/Q Hb /B}+mHi/2b +QM Hb [m2 MQb 2M+QM@
i`KQbX GQb /iQb [m2 pKQb  miBHBx` bQM Hb i2KT2`im`b KőMBKb
v K€tBKb TQ` K2b 2M HB+Mi2 /2b/2 2H ƢQ RNjN ?bi 2H ƢQ kyRyX
G22KQb HQb /iQb v /DmMiKQb T` TQ/2` mb` HQb MQK#`2b /2 Hb
p`B#H2bX

ti 4 `2/Xi#H2U]XXf/ifHB+Mi2ni2KT2`im`bnMvQnRNjNnkyRyXiti]V
ti 4 bX/iX7`K2UtiV

LQb }DKQb 2M 2H K2b /2 2M2`QX Gb p`B#H2b [m2 MQb /M H i2K@
T2`im` KőMBK v K€tBK U2M /û+BKb /2 ;`/QV 2M 2M2`Q bQM iKBMR
v iKtR `2bT2+iBpK2Mi2X G p`B#H2 MvQ MQb BM/B+ 2H ƢQX
kX9X lL .A"lCP kN

6B;m` kXN, h2KT2`im`b KőMBKb 2M oH2M+BX

S`2+2 Mim`H 2bim/B` H p`B+BƦM /2 H i2KT2`im` KőMBK 

HQ H`;Q /2 HQb ƢQbX 1M H };m` kXN `2T`2b2MiKQb 2M #b+Bbb 2H ƢQ
v 2M Q`/2M/b H i2KT2`im` KőMBK 2M 2M2`QX S`2+2 HQ Mim`H
T` p2` H 2pQHm+BƦM i2KTQ`HX

HB#``vU;;THQikV
;;THQiU/i 4 ti-2bUt4MvQ-v4iKBMRVV Y ;2QKnTQBMiUV

OO q`MBM;, _2KQp2/ R `Qrb +QMiBMBM; KBbbBM; pHm2b

OO U;2QKnTQBMiVX

ǯ1b +Q``2+iQ 2bi2 /B#mDQ\ >2KQb miBHBx/Q TmMiQb 2M 2H ;`€}+QX aBM

2K#`;Q- 2M 2bi2 +bQ T` b2;mB` H 2pQHm+BƦM 2b T`2+2 T`272`B#H2
mMB` HQb TmMiQb +QMb2+miBpQb K2/BMi2 b2;K2MiQbX 1M H };m` kXRy
i2M2KQb 2H `2bmHi/QX

;;THQiU/i 4 ti-2bUt4MvQ-v4iKBMRVV Y ;2QKnHBM2UV

1M Mm2bi`Qb /iQb iK#BûM MQb T`2+2 H i2KT2`im` K€tBK 2M

2M2`QX ǯSQ` [mû MQ `2T`2b2Mi`H DmMiQ +QM H KőMBK\ .2 2bi2 KQ/Q
TQ/2KQb p2` T` +/ K2b H p`B+BƦMX

T 4 ;;THQiU/i 4 ti-2bUt4MvQ-v4iKBMRVV Y ;2QKnHBM2UV

T Y ;2QKnHBM2U2bUt4MvQ-v4iKtRVV

1M H };m` dk p2KQb [m2 Hb 2iB[m2ib [m2 miBHBx T` Hb #b+Bbb
v Q`/2M/b MQ bQM Kmv /2+m/bX lb 2H MQK#`2 /2 Hb p`B#H2bX
oKQb  +K#B`Hb BM/B+M/Q T` #b+Bbb H 2iB[m2i dzƢQǴ v T`
Q`/2M/b dzh2KT2`im`ǴX

T 4 ;;THQiU/i 4 ti-2bUt4MvQ-v4iKBMRVV Y ;2QKnHBM2UV

T 4 T Y ;2QKnHBM2U2bUt4MvQ-v4iKtRVV
T Y tH#U]ƛQ]V Y vH#U]h2KT2`im`]V
jy *SŐhlGP kX 1ah.ŐahA* .1a*_AShAo

6B;m` kXRy, h2KT2`im`b KőMBKb 2M oH2M+BX

6B;m` kXRR, h2KT2`im`b KőMBKb v K€tBKb 2M oH2M+BX

6B;m` kXRk, h2KT2`im`b KőMBKb v K€tBKb 2M oH2M+BX

kX9X lL .A"lCP jR

6B;m` kXRj, h2KT2`im`b KőMBKb v K€tBKb 2M oH2M+B +QM /B@

p2`bQb Ƣ/B/Qb T` T2`/2` mM TQ+Q 2H iB2KTQX

LQb p [m2/M/Q #B2M 2H /B#mDQX oKQb  K2DQ``HQX SQ/2KQb BM@

/B+` +QM /Qb HőM2b ?Q`BxQMiH2b Hb K2/Bb /2 H KőMBK v H K2/B
/2 H K€tBKX S`BK2`Q ?2KQb /2 +H+mH` H K2/B /2 HQb KőMBKQb +QM

K2MUti(-]iKBMR])V

OO (R) L

h2M2KQb mM T`Q#H2KX LQb / [m2 MQ HQ Tm2/2 +H+mH` TQ`[m2 H2

7Hi 2H /iQ T` RN9RX G2 BM/B+KQb [m2 MQb +H+mH2 H K2/B /2 HQb
/2K€bX

UKR 4 K2MUti(-]iKBMR])-MX`K4h_l1VV

OO (R) ekXjN9jd

hK#BûM +H+mHKQb H K2/B /2 Hb i2KT2`im`b K€tBKbX

UKk 4 K2MUti(-]iKtR])-MX`K4h_l1VV

OO (R) RedXy8ej

1M H };m` kXRj i2M2KQb 2H /B#mDQX

T ;;THQiU/i 4 ti-2bUt4MvQ-v4iKBMRVV Y ;2QKnHBM2UV

4
T T Y ;2QKnHBM2U2bUt4MvQ-v4iKtRVV
4
T T Y tH#U]ƛQ]V Y vH#U]h2KT2`im`]V
4
T T Y ;2QKn?HBM2UvBMi2`+2Ti4KR-
4
HBM2ivT24]/b?2/]- +QHQ` 4 ]`2/]V
T Y ;2QKn?HBM2UvBMi2`+2Ti4Kk-
HBM2ivT24]/b?2/]- +QHQ` 4 ]`2/]V

LQb ? [m2//Q mM /B#mDQ TƢ/QX *QMi2MiQb +QM 2HHQ /2+B/BKQb

;m`/`HQ 2M mM }+?2`Q T` Hm2;Q BMb2`i`HQ 2M H;ȹM /Q+mK2MiQX am@
TQM;KQb [m2 MQb [m2`2KQb ;m`/`HQ +QKQ mM BK;2M TM; v [m2@
`2KQb [m2 2H }+?2`Q b2 HHK2 iKBM@Kt@HB+Mi2@RNjN@kyRyXTM;X
1biQ HQ ?+2KQb +QM
jk *SŐhlGP kX 1ah.ŐahA* .1a*_AShAo

TM;U]7B;m`2bf7B;RyyNRN2XTM;]V
T 4 ;;THQiU/i 4 ti-2bUt4MvQ-v4iKBMRVV Y ;2QKnHBM2UV
T 4 T Y ;2QKnHBM2U2bUt4MvQ-v4iKtRVV
T 4 T Y tH#U]ƛQ]V Y vH#U]h2KT2`im`]V
T 4 T Y ;2QKn?HBM2UvBMi2`+2Ti4K2MUiKtR-MX`K4h_l1V-
HBM2ivT24]/b?2/]- +QHQ` 4 ]`2/]V
T Y ;2QKn?HBM2UvBMi2`+2Ti4K2MUiKBMR-MX`K4h_l1V-
HBM2ivT24]/b?2/]- +QHQ` 4 ]`2/]V
/2pXQ77UV
*TőimHQ j

S`Q##BHB//
k k
@ Ab ?2 BM\
Ab ?2 BM\
Li?25
jXR 1tT2`BK2MiQ- bm+2bQ v T`Q##BHB// >2 +MǶi ?2` vQm i?`Qm;?
vQm`XXX
LQb KQp2KQb +QMbiMi2K2Mi2 2M bBim+BQM2b 2M [m2 MQ TQ/2KQb i`BTH2 #HQQ/v ;HxBM;X
T`2/2+B` [mû p  Q+m``B`XR _2HBxKQb mM pBD2 2M +Q+?2 2Mi`2 /Qb a+`BTi, 6mHH JQMiv URNNdV
+Bm//2b //bX 1H iB2KTQ [m2 i`/KQb 2M `2HBx` 2H pBD2 /2T2M/2
/2 Km+?Qb 7+iQ`2b [m2 ?+2M BM+B2`iQ 2H `2bmHi/QX LQb bQK2i2KQb
 mM QT2`+BƦM [mB`ȹ`;B+X 1H `2bmHi/Q iK#BûM 2b BM+B2`iQX ZmBx€b
HQb 2D2KTHQb K€b bBKTH2b v- TQ` 2HHQ- HQb [m2 b2 bm2H2M miBHBx` 2bi€M
bQ+B/Qb +QM Dm2;Qb /2 x`X GMxKQb mM //Q- 2H `2bmHi/Q [m2 Q#@
i2M2KQb MQ HQ TQ/2KQb T`2/2+B`X u 2H MȹK2`Q /2 2D2KTHQb 2b BM}MBiQX
LQb 2M+QMi`KQb 2M bBim+BQM2b 2M /QM/2 MQ TQ/2KQb T`2/2+B` HQ [m2
p  Q+m``B`X

1tT2`BK2MiQ 1bib bBim+BQM2b bQM HQ [m2 HHKKQb 2tT2`BK2MiQbX

./Q mM +QMDmMiQ /2 +QM/B+BQM2b MQ TQ/2KQb T`2/2+B` 2H `2@
bmHi/QX GQb 2tT2`BK2MiQb K€b bBKTH2b /2 MHBx` bm2H2M 2bi`
HB;/Qb  Dm2;Qb /2 x`X

RX lM 2tT2`BK2MiQ Tm2/2 b2` HMx` mM KQM2/ 2M /QM/2 MQ

TQ/2KQb T`2/2+B` bB 2H `2bmHi/Q p  b2` [m2 bH2 mM +`
Q #B2M [m2 bH2 mM +`mxX
kX 1H 2tT2`BK2MiQ Tm2/2 b2` HMx` mM //QX ő i2M2KQb
b2Bb TQbB#H2b `2bmHi/Qb U+/ mM /2 Hb +`b /2H //QVX
hK#BûM 2b mM 2tT2`BK2MiQ +QM `2bmHi/Q BM+B2`iQ bB Dm;@
KQb  H HQi2`őX ő 2H `2bmHi/Q b2`€ 2H MȹK2`Q [m2 bH2
T`2KB/Q 2M mM bQ`i2QX

1bT+BQ Km2bi`H 1M 2biQb 2D2KTHQb b#2KQb [mû +Qbb Tm2/2M T@

b`- 2H +QMDmMiQ /2 TQbB#H2b `2bmHi/Qb H [m2 b2 H2 HHK 2bT+BQ
Km2bi`H v b2 bm2H2 /2MQi` +QM H H2i` ΩX aBM 2K#`;Q- +mM@
/Q `2HBxKQb 2H 2tT2`BK2MiQ MQ b#2KQb 2t+iK2Mi2 [mû p
 Tb`X LQ b#2KQb [mû `2bmHi/Q 2Mi`2 HQb TQbB#H2b b2 p 
T`Q/m+B` 2t+iK2Mi2X
1M 2H 2tT2`BK2MiQ +QMbBbi2Mi2 2M HMx` mM KQM2/ i2M2KQb
/Qb TQbB#H2b `2bmHi/Qb, 2H `2bmHi/Q +` v 2H `2bmHi/Q +`mxX SQ`
R GQ +mH MQ 2b /2 Mm2bi`Q ;`/QX S2`Q H pB/ 2b bőX

jj
j9 *SŐhlGP jX S_P""AGA..

2HHQ TQ/2KQb /2MQi` 2H 2bT+BQ Km2bi`H +QKQ

Ω = {cara, cruz}.

aB HMxKQb 2H //Q TQ/`őKQb `2T`2b2Mi` 2H 2bT+BQ Km2bi`H

+QKQ
Ω = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6},
/QM/2 2H MȹK2`Q k bB;MB}+ [m2 +mM/Q HMxKQb 2H //Q bH2
2H MȹK2`Q k v bő bm+2bBpK2Mi2X
1M mM HQi2`ő 2M H [m2 b2 Dm2;M R8yyy MȹK2`Qb HQb TQbB#H2b
`2bmHi/Qb bQM +/ mMQ /2 2biQb MȹK2`QbX SQ` iMiQ- 2H 2bT+BQ
Km2bi`H b2`ő
Ω = {1, 2, . . . , 15000}.

am+2bQ H2iQ`BQ a2 HHK bm+2bQ H2iQ`BQ  +mH[mB2` +QMDmMiQ /2

`2bmHi/QbX SQ` 2D2KTHQ- bB HMxKQb mM //Q- mM bm+2bQ Tm2/2
b2` b#2` bB Q#i2M2KQb mM MȹK2`Q T`X 1bi2 bm+2bQ 2b 2H +QMDmMiQ
7Q`K/Q TQ` i`2b `2bmHi/QbX GQ `2T`2b2MiKQb +QKQ

A = {2, 4, 6}.

LQb Tm2/2 BMi2`2b` b#2` bB 2H MȹK2`Q [m2 Q#i2M2KQb 2b mM

pHQ` KvQ` Q B;mH  9X 1bi2 2b 2H bm+2bQ

A = {4, 5, 6}.

./Q mM bm+2bQ [m2 MQb BMi2`2b Mm2bi`Q T`Q#H2K 2b b#2` +ƦKQ

/2 T`Q##H2 2b [m2 b2 T`Q/mx+X u +QMQ+2` 2biQ Mi2b /2 `2HBx`
2H 2tT2`BK2MiQX
S`Q##BHB// *QMbB/2`2KQb 2H 2tT2`BK2MiQ 2M [m2 HMxKQb mM
KQM2/X *QMQ+2KQb 2H +QMDmMiQ /2 `2bmHi/Qb [m2 b2 Tm2/2M
T`Q/m+B`- 2H 2bT+BQ Km2bi`H, Ω = {1, 2, . . . , 6}X LQb THMi2KQb
H bB;mB2Mi2 T`2;mMi, ǯZmû T`Q##BHB// i2M;Q /2 Q#i2M2` mM
MȹK2`Q T`\ aB 2H //Q 2bi€ #B2M +QMbi`mB/Q MQ 2bT2`KQb [m2
mM `2bmHi/Q Q+m`` +QM K€b 7`2+m2M+B [m2 Qi`QX LQ 2bT2`KQb
[m2 mM `2bmHi/Q b2 K€b T`Q##H2 [m2 Qi`QX 1biKQb mbM/Q H
TH#` T`Q##BHB// 2M bm mbQ /2H H2M;mD2 +QKȹMX 1H iû`KBMQ b2
mb /2 mM KQ/Q BKT`2+BbQ T2`Q +QKT`2MbB#H2 TQ` iQ/QbX .B`ő@
KQb [m2 HQb `2bmHi/Qb bQM 2[mBT`Q##H2b Q [m2 iB2M2M H KBbK
T`Q##BHB//X 1M mM 2tT2`BK2MiQ MQ [m2`2KQb b#2` [mû p 
Tb`X LQ iB2M2 Km+?Q b2MiB/Q THMi2`MQb 2biQ TQ`[m2 2b H2@
iQ`BQ bBMQ [m2 MQb +QM7Q`KKQb +QM b#2` H T`Q##BHB// /2 HQ
[m2 Tm2/2 Tb`X 1M 2H 2D2KTHQ /2H //Q T`2+2 `xQM#H2 /2+B`
[m2 H T`Q##BHB// /2 mM MȹK2`Q T` b2`ő
3
P (P#i2M2KQb mM MȹK2`Q T`) = P ({2, 4, 6}) = .
6
ǯSQ` [mû\ aB iQ/Qb HQb `2bmHi/Qb bQM 2[mBT`Q##H2b 2MiQM+2b H
T`Q##BHB// T`2+2 `xQM#H2 +QMbB/2`` [m2 b2`ő 2H MȹK2`Q /2
`2bmHi/Qb [m2 +Q``2bTQM/2M +QM bHB` mM MȹK2`Q T` /BpB/B/Q
TQ` 2H MȹK2`Q /2 `2bmHi/Qb [m2 b2 Tm2/2M T`Q/m+B`X 1M `2bm@
K2M- 2H MȹK2`Q /2 `2bmHi/Qb [m2 bQM 7pQ`#H2b  HQ [m2 K2
BMi2`2b U[m2 bH; mM MȹK2`Q T`V /BpB/B/Q TQ` 2H MȹK2`Q iQ@
iH /2 `2bmHi/QbX 1M 2H KBbKQ 2tT2`BK2MiQ, ǯ[mû T`Q##BHB//
i2M2KQb /2 mM MȹK2`Q KvQ` Q B;mH  9\
jXRX 1sS1_AJ1LhP- al*1aP u S_P""AGA.. j8

3
P (JvQ` Q B;mH  9) = P ({5, 5, 6}) = .
6
ǯZmû T`Q##BHB// i2M2KQb /2 Q#i2M2` mM +` H HMx` mM
KQM2/\ SQ` 2H KBbKQ `xQMKB2MiQ,
1
P (*`) = P ({Cara}) = .
2
lM `2bmHi/Q 2b 7pQ`#H2 v /Qb `2bmHi/Qb bQM TQbB#H2b +mM/Q
HMxKQb H KQM2/X
h2M2KQb 2M _ mM 7mM+BƦM [m2 MQb bB`p2 T` 2H2;B` H x` /2 mM
;`mTQ /2 2H2K2MiQb T`2pBK2Mi2 /2}MB/Qb v /2 mM KQ/Q 2[mBT`Q##H2
2Mi`2 HQb TQbB#H2b `2bmHi/Qb /2H 2tT2`BK2MiQX 1b H 7mM+BƦM bKTH2X
1D2KTHQ jXR UGMxKQb mM KQM2/ Km+?b p2+2bV o2KQb +Ʀ@
KQ HMx` mM KQM2/ +QM _X G2 /2+BKQb +m€H 2b 2H 2bT+BQ Km2bi`H

PK2; 4 +U]+`]-]+`mx]V

v Hm2;Q 2H2;BKQb mMQ H x` 2M 2H 2bT+BQ Km2bi`HX

bKTH2UPK2;-RV

OO (R) ]+`mx]

oQHpKQb  HMx` H KQM2/X

bKTH2UPK2;-RV

OO (R) ]+`]

u mM i2`+2` p2xX

bKTH2UPK2;-RV

OO (R) ]+`]

.2 +QMiBMm` B`őKQb Q#i2MB2M/Q mM b2`B2 /2 `2bmHi/Qb +` Q

+`mxX GM+2KQb jy p2+2b H KQM2/ v p2KQb [mû TbX

bKTH2UPK2;-jy-`2TH+24h_l1V

OO (R) ]+`] ]+`mx] ]+`] ]+`mx] ]+`] ]+`mx]

OO (d) ]+`] ]+`] ]+`] ]+`mx] ]+`mx] ]+`]
OO (Rj) ]+`] ]+`mx] ]+`] ]+`] ]+`mx] ]+`]
OO (RN) ]+`mx] ]+`mx] ]+`mx] ]+`mx] ]+`mx] ]+`mx]
OO (k8) ]+`mx] ]+`mx] ]+`] ]+`mx] ]+`] ]+`]

u Qi`b jy p2+2bX

bKTH2UPK2;-jy-`2TH+24h_l1V

OO (R) ]+`mx] ]+`mx] ]+`mx] ]+`] ]+`] ]+`]

OO (d) ]+`] ]+`] ]+`] ]+`mx] ]+`mx] ]+`mx]
OO (Rj) ]+`] ]+`mx] ]+`] ]+`mx] ]+`] ]+`mx]
OO (RN) ]+`] ]+`mx] ]+`mx] ]+`] ]+`] ]+`mx]
OO (k8) ]+`mx] ]+`] ]+`mx] ]+`mx] ]+`mx] ]+`mx]
je *SŐhlGP jX S_P""AGA..

SQ/2KQb +QMi` +m€Mib p2+2b MQb ? bHB/Q +` v +`mx U2H [m2
[mB2` Tm2/2 ?+2`HQ KMmHK2Mi2VX

t 4 bKTH2UPK2;-jy-`2TH+24h_l1V
i#H2UtV

OO t
OO +` +`mx
OO Rj Rd

aB /BpB/BKQb TQ` 2H iQiH /2 HMxKB2MiQb i2M2KQb H 7`2+m2M+B

`2HiBp /2 p2+2b [m2 MQb ? bHB/Q +/ mMQ /2 HQb /Qb TQbB#H2b `2@
bmHi/QbX 1M Mm2bi`Q +bQ i2M2KQb Hb bB;mB2Mi2b 7`2+m2M+Bb `2HiBpb
Q#b2`p/b,

i#H2UtV f jy

OO t
OO +` +`mx
OO yX9jjjjjj yX8eeeeed

oKQb  HMx` Ryy p2+2b H KQM2/ v +H+mHKQb Hb 7`2+m2M+Bb

`2HiBpbX

t 4 bKTH2UPK2;-Ryy-`2TH+24h_l1V
i#H2UtV f Ryy

OO t
OO +` +`mx
OO yX88 yX98

ǯu TQ` [mû MQ HMx` H KQM2/ Ryyy p2+2b\

t 4 bKTH2UPK2;-Ryyy-`2TH+24h_l1V
i#H2UtV f Ryyy

OO t
OO +` +`mx
OO yX93R yX8RN

u T` +#` +QM H 2tT2`B2M+B pKQb  HMx`H Ryyyyy p2+2bX

t 4 bKTH2UPK2;-Ryyyyy-`2TH+24h_l1V
i#H2UtV f Ryyyyy

OO t
OO +` +`mx
OO yX9NNNj yX8yyyd

1b +H`Q [m2 +QM7Q`K2 `2T2iBKQb 2H 2tT2`BK2MiQ v Q#b2`pKQb H

7`2+m2M+B `2HiBp /2 p2+2b [m2 Q+m``2 +/ `2bmHi/Q MQb +2`+KQb
+/ p2x K€b H pHQ` 0.5 T` +/ mMQ /2 HQb TQbB#H2b `2bmHi/QbX
1M H };m` jXR `2T`2b2MiKQb 2M 2H 2D2 /2 #b+Bbb 2H MȹK2`Q /2
p2+2b [m2 HMxKQb H KQM2/ v 2M Q`/2M/b H 7`2+m2M+B `2HiBp
/2 p2+2b [m2 b2 ? Q#b2`p/Q +`X SQ/2KQb p2` +ƦKQ Hb 7`2+m2M+Bb
`2HiBpb /2 T`B+BƦM /2 +` pM T`ƦtBKM/Qb2 H pHQ` 0.5X
jXRX 1sS1_AJ1LhP- al*1aP u S_P""AGA.. jd

7`2+m2M+Bb 4 `2/Xi#H2U]7`2+m2M+BbnKQM2/Xiti]V
T 4 ;;THQiU7`2+m2M+Bb-2bUt47`2+m2M+Bb(-R)-v47`2+m2M+Bb(-k)VV
T 4 T Y ;2QKnHBM2UV Y tH#U]GMxKB2MiQb]V Y vH#U]6`2+m2M+B `2HiBp /2 +`]V

amTQM;KQb [m2 MQb }DKQb 2M H 7`2+m2M+B `2HiBp /2 T`B+BƦM

/2 Hb +`m+2bX 1M H };m` jXk `2T`2b2MiKQb 2M #b+Bbb 2H MȹK2`Q
/2 HMxKB2MiQb v 2M Q`/2M/b H 7`2+m2M+B `2HiBp /2 T`B+BƦM /2
+`m+2bX o2KQb +ƦKQ b2 2bi#BHBx H 7`2+m2M+B H`2/2/Q` /2H pHQ` 0.5X

1D2KTHQ jXk UGMxKB2MiQ /2 mM //QV ǯ*ƦKQ HMxKQb mM /@

/Q +QM _\ Sm2b H 7mM+BƦM bKTH2 2b /2+m/X 1KT2xKQb /2}MB2M/Q
6B;m` jXR, 6`2+m2M+Bb `2HiBpb
2H 2bT+BQ Km2bi`HX /2 T`B+BƦM /2 +` 2M bm+2bBpQb
HMxKB2MiQb /2 mM KQM2/ +Q@
UPK2; 4 R,eV ``2+iX

OO (R) R k j 9 8 e

u ?Q` HMxKQb 2H //QX

bKTH2UPK2;-RV

OO (R) R

P #B2M HQ HMxKQb ky p2+2bX

bKTH2UPK2;-ky-`2TH+24h_l1V
6B;m` jXk, 6`2+m2M+Bb `2HiBpb
/2 T`B+BƦM /2 +`mx 2M bm+2bBpQb
OO (R) j 9 j 8 9 9 9 e R e R R 9 j R j k 9 j R HMxKB2MiQb /2 mM KQM2/ +Q@
``2+iX
1bT2`KQb [m2 +mM/Q HQ HMxKQb mM ;`M MȹK2`Q /2 p2+2b H
7`2+m2M+B /2 p2+2b [m2 Q+m``2 +/ `2bmHi/Q b2 T`QtBK2  61 X

t 4 bKTH2UPK2;-Ryyy-`2TH+24h_l1V
i#H2UtV f Ryyy

OO t
OO R k j 9 8 e
OO yXR9k yXRe9 yXRey yXRej yXRd9 yXRNd

*QKQ bő TQ/2KQb +QKT`Q#`X

1M 2bi2 iBTQ /2 2tT2`BK2MiQb +QM `2bmHi/Qb 2[mBT`Q##H2b H T`Q@

##BHB// /2 +mH[mB2` bm+2bQ A pB2M2 // TQ` 2H +Q+B2Mi2 2Mi`2 2H
MȹK2`Q /2 `2bmHi/Qb [m2 iB2M2 A U HQb [m2 b2 bm2H2 HHK` +bQb 7@
pQ`#H2b  H Q+m``2M+B /2 AV v 2H MȹK2`Q iQiH /2 `2bmHi/Qb Q +bQb
TQbB#H2bX
aB /2MQiKQb 2H +`/BMH Q MȹK2`Q /2 2H2K2MiQb /2 A +QM |A|
2MiQM+2b- +mM/Q HQb `2bmHi/Qb bQM 2[mBT`Q##H2b- TQ/2KQb /2}MB` H
T`Q##BHB// /2H bm+2bQ A +QKQ

|A| *bQb 7pQ`#H2b  [m2 Q+m`` 

P (A) = = . UjXRV
|Ω| *bQb TQbB#H2b

a2 bm2H2 +QMQ+2` +QKQ H /2}MBƦM /2 T`Q##BHB// /2 GTH+2X .2b+`B#2

+QM T`2+BbBƦM bBim+BQM2b +QKQ Hb /2b+`Bib bQ+B/b  H;mMQb Dm2;Qb
j3 *SŐhlGP jX S_P""AGA..

/2 x` v H;ȹM Qi`Q +bQ /2 BMi2`ûb T2`Q- /2b/2 Hm2;Q- MQ iQ/Qb HQb
TQbB#H2b 2tT2`BK2MiQb 2M [m2 2biKQb BMi2`2b/QbX
P#b2`p2KQb [m2- 2M H /2}MB+BƦM /2 GTH+2- bB iQKKQb mM bm+2bQ
7Q`K/Q TQ` mM bQHQ `2bmHi/Q 2MiQM+2b
1 1
P ({ω}) = = . UjXkV
|Ω| *bQb TQbB#H2b
G T`Q##BHB// /2 +` 2b 1/2X G T`Q##BHB// /2 +`mx iK#BûM 2b
1/2X G T`Q##BHB// /2 mM b2Bb +mM/Q HMxKQb mM //Q 2b 1/6X
hK#BûM HQ 2b H /2 Q#i2M2` mM 5X P mM 4X 6BMHK2Mi2 p2KQb [m2
X 1
P (A) = .
|Ω|
ω∈A

jXRXR *QMiM/Q, p`B+BQM2b- T2`Kmi+BQM2b v +QK@

#BM+BQM2b
1M 2tT2`BK2MiQb +QM `2bmHi/Qb 2[mBT`Q##H2b ?v [m2 +QMi` 2H
MȹK2`Q iQiH /2 `2bmHi/Qb v 2H MȹK2`Q /2 +bQb [m2 +QMiB2M2 2H bm+2bQ
H2iQ`BQ /2 BMi2`ûb- 2biQ 2b- ?2KQb /2 +QMi` +bQb 7pQ`#H2b v +bQb
TQbB#H2bX
S` 2HHQb 2b 7mM/K2MiH mM #`2p2 `2TbQ /2 +QK#BMiQ`B, p`B@
+BQM2b- T2`Kmi+BQM2b v +QK#BM+BQM2bX
o`B+BQM2b bBM `2T2iB+BƦM amTQM;KQb [m2 i2M2KQb mM +QMDmMiQ
/2 M 2H2K2MiQb UTQ` 2D2KTHQ- 2H +QMDmMiQ {1, . . . , n} v T`2i2M@
/2KQb b#2` +m€Mib b2+m2M+Bb Q`/2M/b /2 F 2H2K2MiQb U+QM
k < nV TQ/2KQb 7Q`K`X S` 2Mi2M/2` 2H T`Q#H2K bmTQM;KQb
[m2 n = 3 v k = 2X 1MiQM+2b Hb TQbB#H2b b2+m2M+Bb b2`őM

Rk kR Rj jR kj jk

h2M2KQb b2Bb b2+m2M+Bb TQ`[m2 +QMbB/2`KQb /BbiBMib Rk v kRX

ǯ*ƦKQ +QMi`Hb bBM 2MmK2``Hb iQ/b 2HHb\ 1H `xQMKB2MiQ
2b b2M+BHHQX S` H T`BK2` TQbB+BƦM i2M2KQb j TQbB#BHB//2bX
lM p2x 2H2;B/Q 2H MȹK2`Q [m2 Q+mT H T`BK2` TQbB+BƦM MQb
[m2/M k TQbB#BHB//2b T` 2H b2;mM/QX 1M iQiH 3 × 2X
1M ;2M2`H- bB +QMbB/2`KQb n v k i2M2KQb M TQbB#BHB//2b T`
2H T`BK2`QX ./ H 2H2++BƦM MQb [m2/M (n − 1) 2H2++BQM2b T`
2H b2;mM/QX ./b Hb /Qb T`BK2`b 2H2++BQM2b MQb [m2/M (n−2)
2H2++BQM2b T` 2H i2`+2`QX S` H ȹHiBK TQbB+BƦM MQb [m2/`€M
(n − k + 1) TQbB#H2b 2H2++BQM2bX 1M iQiH i2M/`2KQb

n × (n − 1) × . . . × (n − k + 1).

1biQ `2+B#2 2H MQK#`2 /2 p`B+BQM2b bBM `2T2iB+BƦMX

S2`Kmi+BQM2b ǯ.2 +m€Mib KM2`b TQ/2KQb Q`/2M` n 2H2K2M@
iQb /BbiBMiQb\ SQ/2KQb b2;mB` +QM 2H `xQMKB2MiQ /2H T€``7Q
Mi2`BQ`X *mM/Q Q`/2MKQb n 2H2K2MiQb i2M2KQb [m2 2H2;B` 2H
T`BK2`Q /2 2HHQb- +QM n TQbB#H2b 2H2K2MiQbX lM p2x i2M2KQb 2H
T`BK2`Q- T` 2H b2;mM/Q i2M2KQb n − 1 v bő bm+2bBpK2Mi2X SQ@
/2KQb p2` [m2 i2M2KQb p`B+BQM2b bBM `2T2iB+BƦM /QM/2 n = kX
SQ` iMiQ 2H MȹK2`Q iQiH /2 T2`Kmi+BQM2b 2b

n! = n × (n − 1) × . . . × 1.
jXRX 1sS1_AJ1LhP- al*1aP u S_P""AGA.. jN

*QK#BM+BQM2b ǯ*m€MiQb +QMDmMiQb /BbiBMiQb /2 k 2H2K2MiQb TQ/2@

KQb 7Q`K` +QM mM iQiH /2 n\ 1biKQb 2M mM bBim+BƦM bBKBH`
 Hb p`B+BQM2b bBM `2T2iB+BƦM bHpQ [m2 MQ [m2`2KQb [m2 BMi2`@
p2M; 2H Q`/2MX SQ` 2D2KTHQ- Hb b2+m2M+Bb

Rk kR

bQM /BbiBMib +QKQ b2+m2M+BbX aBM 2K#`;Q- HQb +QMDmMiQb

&R-k' &k-R'

bQM 2H KBbKQX lM p2x ?2KQb 2H2;B/Q HQb 2H2K2MiQb /2 mM +QM@

DmMiQ UTQ` 2D2KTHQ- HQb 2H2K2MiQb R v kV ?2KQb /2 THMi2`MQb
+m€Mib b2+m2M+Bb Q`/2M/b TQ/2KQb 7Q`K`- 2! 2M 2H 2D2KTHQX
1M `2bmK2M- /2 mM +QMDmMiQ /2 k 2H2K2MiQb TQ/2KQb 7Q`K`
k! b2+m2M+Bb UQ`/2M/bV /BbiBMibX h2M2KQb n 2H2K2MiQbX *QM
2HHQb TQ/2KQb 7Q`K` n × (n − 1) × . . . × (n − k + 1) b2+m2M+Bb
Q`/2M/bX S2`Q +/ k! /2 2bib b2+m2M+Bb i2M2KQb HQb KBbKQb
2H2K2MiQbX 1M `2bmK2M- 2H MȹK2`Q /2 +QMDmMiQb /BbiBMiQb /2 k
2H2K2MiQb [m2 TQ/2KQb 7Q`K` +QM n 2H2K2MiQb /BbiBMiQb 2b
 
n n × (n − 1) × . . . × (n − k + 1)
= .
k k!
6€+BHK2Mi2 TQ/2KQb +QKT`Q#` [m2
 
n n!
= .
k k!(n − k)!

1H MȹK2`Q nk `2+B#2 2H MQK#`2 /2 +QK#BM+BQM2b /2 M 2H2@

K2MiQb iQK/Qb /2 F 2M FX

1D2KTHQ jXj U6+iQ`BH v +QK#BM+BQM2bV ./Q mM pHQ` /2 n-

TQ` 2D2KTHQ- n = 10 TQ/2KQb Q#i2M2` 2H pHQ` /2 10! +QM

7+iQ`BHURyV

OO (R) jek33yy

Gb +QK#BM+BQM2b /2 M 2H2K2MiQb iQK/Qb /2 F 2M F T` n = 10

v k = 5 Hb Q#i2M2KQb +QM

+?QQb2URy-8V

OO (R) k8k

P#pBK2Mi2 2biKQb 2HB;B2M/Q 8 2H2K2MiQb /2 mM iQiH /2 RyX .2

?ő 2H MQK#`2 /2 H 7mM+BƦMX

1D2KTHQ jX9 USƦ[m2`V amTQM;KQb 2H TƦ[m2` +2``/Q bBM +QKQ/B@

M2bX LQb THMi2KQb H T`Q##BHB// /2 [m2 MQb bB`pM 2M mM KMQ
2t+iK2Mi2 mM T`2DX 1biKQb 2M mM bBim+BƦM /2 `2bmHi/Qb 2[mB@
T`Q##H2bX GQb `2bmHi/Qb TQbB#H2b bQM iQ/Qb HQb TQbB#H2b bm#+QMDmMiQb
/2 8 2H2K2MiQb /2H iQiH /2 8k +`ibX SQ` iMiQ- 2H MȹK2`Q /2 KMQb
/BbiBMib b2`€  
52
.
5
9y *SŐhlGP jX S_P""AGA..

*QMi2KQb ?Q` 2H MȹK2`Q /2 KMQb [m2 +QMiB2M2M 2t+iK2Mi2 mM

T`2D Uv MQ /Qb T`2Db Q mM i`őQVX oKQb +QMiM/QX S`BK2`Q 2H2;BKQb
2H MȹK2`Q /2H +mH 7Q`KKQb H T`2DX h2M2KQb Rj TQbB#BHB//2bX lM
p2x 2H2;B/Q

2H THQ i2M2KQb +mi`Q +`ib +QM 2H KBbKQ MȹK2`Q- TQ`
iMiQ- 42 TQbB#H2b T`2Db +QM 2b2 MȹK2`QX ?Q` ?2KQb /2 2H2;B` HQb
Qi`Qb i`2b MȹK2`Qb [m2 MQb T`2+2M 2M H KMQX h2M2KQb Rk MȹK2`Q
/BbTQMB#H2b U[mBiKQb 2H [m2 ?2KQb miBHBx/Q
T` 7Q`K` H T`2DV
v 2H2;BKQb i`2b MȹK2`Qb +QM mM iQiH /2 12 3 TQbB#BHB//2bX S2`Q mM
p2x 2H2;B/Qb HQb MȹK2`Qb i2M2KQb +mi`Q +`ib /2 +/ MȹK2`QX SQ`
HQ iMiQ- TQ` +/ 2H2++BƦM /2 MȹK2`Qb i2M2KQb

4 X 1M iQiH +QKQ
3

+bQb 7pQ`#H2b MQb 2M+QMi`KQb +QM 13 2 3 4 +bQb 7pQ`#H2bX

4 12 3

G T`Q##BHB// #mb+/ 2b

13 42 12


3
4
52

3 .
5

G TQ/2KQb +H+mH` +QM _X

U+bQb7pQ`#H2b 4 Rj +?QQb2U9-kV +?QQb2URk-jV 9jV

OO (R) RyN3k9y

U+bQbTQbB#H2b 4 +?QQb2U8k-8VV

OO (R) k8N3Ney

+bQb7pQ`#H2b f +bQbTQbB#H2b

OO (R) yX9kk8eN

h2M2KQb mM T`Q##BHB// /2 kXjeeX

1biQ 2b +QKQ b2 /2#2 /2 ?+2`X u ?Q` +QKQ MQ b2 /2#2 /2 ?+2`X
oKQb  Dm;` +QM _X 1KT2xKQb /2}MB/Q Hb +`ib [m2 i2M2KQb

U+`ib 4 `2TUR,Rj-9VV

OO (R) R k j 9 8 e d 3 N Ry RR Rk Rj R k
OO (Re) j 9 8 e d 3 N Ry RR Rk Rj R k j 9
OO (jR) 8 e d 3 N Ry RR Rk Rj R k j 9 8 e
OO (9e) d 3 N Ry RR Rk Rj

u ?Q` 2ti`2KQb H x` mM KMQX

UKMQ 4 bKTH2U+`ib-8VV

OO (R) 3 Rk Ry RR k

ǯ*ƦKQ bû [m2 i2M2KQb mM T`2D\ lM 7Q`K b2M+BHH 2b +QMi`

H 7`2+m2M+B /2 +/ MȹK2`QX

U+QMi2QbKMQ 4 i#H2UKMQVV

OO KMQ
OO k 3 Ry RR Rk
OO R R R R R

u p2` +m€MiQb +QMi2Qb K2 /2pm2Hp2X

jXRX 1sS1_AJ1LhP- al*1aP u S_P""AGA.. 9R

H2M;i?U+QMi2QbKMQV

OO (R) 8

aB K2 /2pm2Hp2 8 [mB2`2 /2+B` [m2 MQ b2 `2TBi2 MBM;ȹM MȹK2`QX aB

K2 /2pm2Hp2 9 [mB2`2 /2+B` [m2 ?v mM T`2D 2t+iK2Mi2X *QMi2KQb
Tm2b 2H MȹK2`Q /2 p2+2b [m2 b2 T`Q/m+2 2bi bBim+BƦM v `2TBiKQb H
2tT2`B2M+B Km+?b p2+2bX G 7`2+m2M+B `2HiBp /2 ûtBiQb MQb ? /2
/` H T`Q##BHB//X lM TQ+Q /2 +Ʀ/B;Q K€b +QKTHB+/Q /2 _X

MbBKmH+BQM2b 4 Ryyy
2tBiQb 4 y
7Q`UB BM R,MbBKmH+BQM2bV&
KMQ 4 bKTH2U+`ib-8V
+QMi2QbKMQ 4 i#H2UKMQV
B7UH2M;i?U+QMi2QbKMQV 44 9V 2tBiQb 4 2tBiQb Y R
'
2tBiQb f MbBKmH+BQM2b

OO (R) yX9R8

jXRXk lM TQ+Q /2 i2Q`ő

k

1M HQ Mi2`BQ` ?2KQb pBbiQ 2D2KTHQb /2 2tT2`BK2MiQb H2iQ`BQb

/QM/2 iQ/Qb HQb `2bmHi/Qb bQM 2[mBT`Q##H2b v TQ` 2HHQ H T`Q##BHB//
/2 +/ bm+2bQ MQ 2` K€b [m2 2H MȹK2`Q /2 2H2K2MiQb [m2 +QMiB2M2
U+bQb 7pQ`#H2bV /BpB/B/Q TQ` 2H iQiH /2 `2bmHi/Qb TQbB#H2b U+bQb
TQbB#H2bVX ǯ1bi2 2b 2H ȹMB+Q +bQ [m2 MQb 2M+QMi`KQb /2 2tT2`BK2MiQ
H2iQ`BQ\ .2b/2 Hm2;Q [m2 MQX .2 ?2+?Q- mM T`Q##BHB// 2b +mH[mB2`
7mM+BƦM [m2  HQb bm+2bQb H2b / pHQ`2b 2Mi`2 y v R p2`B}+M/Q H;mMQb
T`BM+BTBQb UQ tBQKbV `xQM#H2bX

.2}MB+BƦM jXR US`Q##BHB//V lM 7mM+BƦM /2 +QMDmMiQ- P - /2}@

MB/ bQ#`2 HQb bm+2bQb 2b mM T`Q##BHB// bB p2`B}+

RX P (A) ≥ 0 T` iQ/Q bm+2bQ AX

kX P (Ω) = 1X

jX P 2b σ@/BiBp- 2b /2+B`- bB {An }n≥1 bQM bm+2bQb /BbDmMiQb /Qb

 /Qb 2MiQM+2b
[ n
X
P( An ) = P (An ).
n≥1 n≥1

 T`iB` /2 H /2}MB+BƦM Mi2`BQ` b2 /2/m+2M H;mMb T`QTB2//2b

Kmv ȹiBH2bX

RX G T`Q##BHB// /2H p+őQ 2b +2`Q, P (∅) = 0X

kX aB i2M2KQb bm+2bQb iH2b [m2 A ⊂ B 2MiQM+2b P (A) ≤ P (B)X

k 1bi b2++BƦM BM+Hmv2 H;Q /2 i2Q`őX am H2+im` MQ 2b Kmv M2+2b`B T` b2;mB`

2H +m`bQ mM[m2 bő [m2 2b +QMp2MB2Mi2X LQ ?v M/ iM T`€+iB+Q +QKQ H i2Q`őX
9k *SŐhlGP jX S_P""AGA..

jX aB HQb bm+2bQb A1 , . . . , An MQ bQM /BbDmMiQb 2MiQM+2b

! n "
[
P Ai =
i=1
n
P (Ai ∩ Aj ) + . . . + (−1)n+1 P (A1 ∩ . . . ∩ UjXjV
X X
P (Ai ) − An ).
i=1 i<j

1M T`iB+mH` bB i2M2KQb /Qb bm+2bQb

P (A1 ∪ A2 ) = P (A1 ) + P (A2 ) − P (A1 ∩ A2 ). UjX9V

9X  T`iB` /2H TmMiQ Mi2`BQ` 2b BMK2/BiQ [m2

P (Ac ) = 1 − P (A). UjX8V

8X ./Qb HQb bm+2bQb A1 , . . . , An - H `2H+BƦM 2tBbi2Mi2 2Mi`2 H T`Q@

##BHB// /2 H mMBƦM /2 HQb Ai v H T`Q##BHB// /2 +/ mMQ
/2 2HHQb 2b H bB;mB2Mi2,
! n " n
[ X
P Ai ≤ P (Ai ).
i=1 i=1

jXk 1D2`+B+BQb

1D2`+B+BQ d
a2Bb T2`bQMb b2 bB2MiM  +QK2` 2M mM `2bim`Mi2X >v b2Bb bBHHb
H`2/2/Q` /2 H K2bX
RX ǯ.2 +m€Mib 7Q`Kb /BbiBMib Tm2/2M b2Mi`b2\
kX amTQM;KQb [m2 Hb bBHHb 2bi€M 2M7`2Mi/b- i`2b 2M mM H/Q /2
H K2b v Qi`b i`2b H Qi`Q H/QX /2K€b Hb b2Bb T2`bQMb bQM
i`2b T`2Db [m2 ?M [m2//Q  +2M`X aB;mB2M/Q mM MiB;m
+QbimK#`2 b2 bB2MiM  mM H/Q HQb ?QK#`2b v H Qi`Q H/Q Hb
KmD2`2bX ǯ.2 +m€Mib 7Q`Kb /BbiBMib b2 Tm2/2M b2Mi`\

1D2`+B+BQ 3
amTQM;KQb 2H TƦ[m2` +2``/Q bBM +QKQ/BM2bX *H+mH` H T`Q#@
#BHB// /2 Q#i2M2` mM TƦ[m2` +mM/Q MQb /M mM KMQX

1D2`+B+BQ N
*QMbB/2`2KQb 2H 2tT2`BK2MiQ H2iQ`BQ +QMbBbi2Mi2 2M HMx` /Qb
p2+2b mM //QX a2 TB/2,
RX ǯZmû T`Q##BHB// i2M2KQb /2 Q#i2M2` /Qb p2+2b 2H MȹK2`Q e\
kX ǯu /2 Q#i2M2` 2H T` /2 pHQ`2b R v 8\
jX ǯZmû T`Q##BHB// i2M2KQb /2 [m2 +QBM+B/M 2H T`BK2` v 2H b2@
;mM/Q `2bmHi/Q- 2biQ 2b- /2 [m2 2H T`BK2` HMxKB2MiQ b2 mM
mMQ v 2H b2;mM/Q iK#BûM Q /2 [m2 2H T`BK2` HMxKB2MiQ b2
mM /Qb v 2H b2;mM/Q iK#BûM- 2i+\
9X ǯZmû T`Q##BHB// i2M2KQb /2 [m2 H bmK /2 HQb /Qb pHQ`2b
b2 d\ ǯu /2 [m2 H bmK /2 HQb /Qb pHQ`2b b2 KvQ` Q B;mH
[m2 d\ ǯu /2 [m2 b2 KvQ` [m2 d\
jXjX o_A"G1 G1hP_A 9j

jXj o`B#H2 H2iQ`B

amTQM;KQb 2H 2tT2`BK2MiQ +QMbBbi2Mi2 2M 2H2;B` H x` Q H2iQ@
`BK2Mi2  mM BM/BpB/mQ /2 H *QKmMB// oH2M+BMX P#pBK2Mi2
2H 2bT+BQ Km2bi`H 2bi€ 7Q`K/Q TQ` HQb /BbiBMiQb BM/BpB/mQbX aB HQb
MmK2`KQb i2M2KQb Ω = {ωi }N i=i /QM/2 N 2b 2H MȹK2`Q iQiH /2 T2`@
bQMb /2 H *QKmMB//X 1H2++BƦM H x` bmTQM2 [m2 +/ BM/BpB/mQ
iB2M2 H KBbK T`Q##BHB// /2 b2` 2H2;B/QX SQ` iMiQ i2M2KQb
1
P ({ωi }) = .
N
1H `2bmHi/Q KBbKQ MQ bm2H2 i2M2` mM BMi2`ûb 2bT2+BH T` MQbQi`QbX
a2H2++BQMKQb H2iQ`BK2Mi2 2bib T2`bQMb TQ`[m2 i2M2KQb BMi2`ûb
2M bmb BM;`2bQb- 2M 2H MȹK2`Q /2 T2`bQMb [m2 +QMpBp2M +QM 2H Q 2HH-
bB 2bi€ +b/ Q 2b bQHi2`- bm ;Hm+Qb Q i2MbBƦM `i2`BHX aQM 2D2KTHQb
/2 pHQ`2b [m2 MQb Tm2/2M BMi2`2b` /2H BM/BpB/mQ b2H2++BQM/Q /2T2M@
/B2M/Q /2 [m2 2bi2KQb `2HBxM/Q mM 2bim/BQ /2 iBTQ bQ+BQ 2+QMƦKB+Q
Q #B2M mM 2bim/BQ /2 bHm/X SQ` 2HHQ Mm2bi`Q BMi2`ûb MQ 2bi€ 2M 2H BM/B@
pB/mQ ω [m2 Q#i2M2KQb +mM/Q b2H2++BQMKQb  mM T2`bQM H x`
bBMQ [m2 Mm2bi`Q BMi2`ûb 2b mM pHQ` bQ+B/Q  ω [m2 /2MQiKQb TQ`
X(ω) v [m2 Tm2/2 b2` bm i2MbBƦM `i2`BHX GQ [m2 2b H2iQ`BQ 2b ω
TQ`[m2 HQ b2H2++BQMKQb H2iQ`BK2Mi2X lM p2x i2M2KQb ω 2H pHQ`
X(ω) = x pB2M2 //QX 1H2;BKQb H x`  mM T2`bQM- mM p2x 2H2;B/
bm 2// MQ 2b H2iQ`B- 2b H [m2 iB2M2X 1H2;BKQb H x` mM Km2bi`
/2 ;m 2M mM THMi /2 i`iKB2MiQ /2 ;mb `2bB/mH2bX Gm2;Q /2@
i2`KBMKQb H /2KM/ [mőKB+ /2 Qtő;2MQX  H 7mM+BƦM [m2 bQ+B
 mM `2bmHi/Q mM pHQ` MmKû`B+Q b2 H2 HHK p`B#H2 H2iQ`BX GQ
TQ/2KQb /2MQi` +QKQ

X:Ω → R
ω → X(ω) = x.

jXjXR o`B#H2 H2iQ`B /Bb+`2i

1b mM p`B#H2 H2iQ`B [m2 iQK mM MȹK2`Q }MBiQ /2 pHQ`2b Q
#B2M iQK mM MȹK2`Q BM}MBiQ /2 TQbB#H2b pHQ`2b [m2 TQ/2KQb MmK2@
``X j
lM 2D2KTHQ Kmv bBKTH2 v ?#BimH 2b H 2// /2 mM BM/BpB/mQ
b2H2++BQM/Q H x`X G 2// bm2H2 +mMiB}+`b2 +QM pHQ`2b 2Mi2`QbX
.2+BKQb [m2 mM T2`bQM iB2M2 k9 ƢQb Q [m2 iB2M2 k8 ƢQbX SQ` HQ
iMiQ 2b mM pHQ` 2Mi2`QX aB +mMiB}+KQb H 2// 2M ƢQb 2MiQM+2b HQb
pHQ`2b TQbB#H2b /2 H p`B#H2 H2iQ`B bQM 0, 1, 2, . . . X 1M +mH[mB2`
+bQ mM MȹK2`Q }MBiQ /2 TQbB#H2b pHQ`2bX
Pi`Q 2D2KTHQ Tm2/2 b2` 2H MȹK2`Q /2 Q`;MBbKQb [m2 Q#b2`pKQb
2M mM TH+ H KB+`Qb+QTBQ- 2H MȹK2`Q /2 ?m2pQb 2M mM #mBi`2`- 2H
MȹK2`Q /2 Tőt2H2b /272+imQbQb 2M mM KQMBiQ` /2 Q`/2M/Q`- 2H MȹK2`Q
/2 €`#QH2b /2Mi`Q /2 mM [m/`i 2M mM Km2bi`2Q 2bT+BHX hQ/Qb bQM
2D2KTHQb /2 p`B#H2 H2iQ`B /Bb+`2iX *QKQ p2KQb ?#BimHK2Mi2
bQM pHQ`2b [m2 `2bmHiM /2 +QMi`X 1b HQ K€b 7`2+m2Mi2 T2`Q MQ bB2KT`2
2b bőX
j S` b2` `B;m`QbQb mM p`B#H2 /Bb+`2i Tm2/2 iQK` iK#BûM mM MȹK2`Q BM@

}MBiQ MmK2`#H2 /2 pHQ`2bX 1M }M- /2iHH2b iû+MB+Qb  HQb [m2 MQ ?v [m2 T`2bi`
/2KbB/Q BMi2`ûb 2M mM +m`bQ +QKQ 2bi2X
 99 *SŐhlGP jX S_P""AGA..

amTQM;KQb [m2 /2MQiKQb TQ` D = {x1 , x2 , . . . , } 2H +QMDmMiQ

/2 pHQ`2b TQbB#H2b T` H p`B#H2X Gb T`Q##BHB//2b [m2 ?2KQb /2
+QMQ+2` bQM
P (X = xi ),
2b /2+B`- H T`Q##BHB// /2 [m2 H p`B#H2 iQK2 +/ mMQ /2 bmb pHQ@
`2b TQbB#H2bX 1bib T`Q##BHB//2b P (X = xi ) +QM i = 1, . . . , n `2+B#2M
2H MQK#`2 /2 7mM+BƦM /2 T`Q##BHB// /2 H p`B#H2 H2iQ`B XX
*mH[mB2` Qi` T`Q##BHB// [m2 MQb BMi2`2b2 H TQ/2KQb Q#i2M2` 
T`iB` /2 H 7mM+BƦM /2 T`Q##BHB//X
SQ` 2D2KTHQ- bmTQM;KQb D = {0, 1, . . . , 10} v H 7mM+BƦM /2 T`Q@
##BHB// T`2+2 2M H i#H jXRX

t yXyyy RXyyy kXyyy jXyyy 9Xyyy 8Xyyy eXyyy dXyyy 3Xyyy NXyyy RyXyyy
P (X = x) yXRyd yXke3 yXjyk yXkyR yXy33 yXyke yXyye yXyyR yXyyy yXyyy yXyyy

h#H jXR, 6mM+BƦM /2 T`Q##BHB// /2 mM p`B#H2 /Bb+`2iX 1M H T`BK2` }H 2H pHQ` v 2M H b2;mM/ H T`Q##BHB//
/2 iQK` 2bi2 pHQ`X

 T`iB` /2 H 7mM+BƦM /2 T`Q##BHB// P (X = xi ) TQ/2KQb +H+m@

H` +mH[mB2` Qi` T`Q##BHB//X SQ` 2D2KTHQ,
P (X ≤ 2) = P (X = 0) + P (X = 1) + P (X = 2),
Q #B2M-
P (X ≥ 7) = P (X = 7) + P (X = 8) + P (X = 9) + P (X = 10).
hK#BûM
P (4 ≤ X ≤ 7) = P (X = 4) + P (X = 5) + P (X = 6) + P (X = 7).
P (4 < X ≤ 7) = P (X = 5) + P (X = 6) + P (X = 7).
P (4 < X < 7) = P (X = 5) + P (X = 6).
.2 mM KQ/Q ;2Mû`B+Q TQ/2KQb 2b+`B#B` [m2
X
P (X ∈ A) = P (X = x),
x∈A

bB2M/Q A +mH[mB2` +QMDmMiQ UTQ` 2D2KTHQ- mM BMi2`pHQVX

jXjXk 1D2`+B+BQb

1D2`+B+BQ Ry
*QMbB/2`2KQb 2H 2tT2`BK2MiQ H2iQ`BQ +QMbBbi2Mi2 2M HMx` /Qb
p2+2b mM //QX lM `2bmHi/Q /2H 2tT2`BK2MiQ Tm2/2 b2` ω = (1, 3)
BM/B+M/Q [m2 2M T`BK2` Hm;` ?2KQb Q#i2MB/Q mM R v 2M 2H b2;mM/Q
HMxKB2MiQ ?2KQb Q#i2MB/Q mM jX *QMbB/2`KQb H p`B#H2 H2iQ`B
[m2 bQ+B H `2bmHi/Q Q#i2MB/Q H bmK /2 HQb pHQ`2b [m2 Q#i2M2@
KQb 2M 2H T`BK2` v 2M 2H b2;mM/Q HMxKB2MiQX aB ω = (i, j) 2MiQM+2b
X(ω) = i + jX
RX AM/B+` [mû pHQ`2b Tm2/2 iQK` H p`B#H2 XX
kX P#i2M2` H 7mM+BƦM /2 T`Q##BHB// /2 H p`B#H2 XX
jX P#i2M2` Hb T`Q##BHB//2b bB;mB2Mi2b, P (X ≤ 1), P (X ≤ 2), P (X >
2), P (X ≤ 4), P (4 ≤ X ≤ 6), P (4 < X ≤ 6), P (4 ≤ X < 6).
jXjX o_A"G1 G1hP_A 98

jXjXj o`B#H2 H2iQ`B +QMiBMm

*QMbB/2`2KQb 2H bB;mB2Mi2 2tT2`BK2MiQX *Q;2KQb mM Km2bi` /2
TM; pB2iMKBi v K2/BKQb H +QM+2Mi`+BƦM /2 K2`+m`BQ 2M /B+?
Km2bi`X 1H `2bmHi/Q ω 2b H Km2bi` [m2 ?2KQb iQK/QX .2 2bi
Km2bi` MQb BMi2`2b bQHK2Mi2 H +QM+2Mi`+BƦM /2 K2`+m`BQX LQb BM@
i2`2b 2H pHQ` bQ+B/Q  H Km2bi` v MQ H Km2bi` KBbKX SQ` 2HHQ
TQ/2KQb /2}MB` X(ω) = x /QM/2 x 2b H +QM+2Mi`+BƦM K2/B/ /2
K2`+m`BQX 1H pHQ` H2iQ`BQ [m2 Q#b2`pKQb HQb /2MQiKQb TQ` X- H
p`B#H2 H2iQ`BX lM p2x ?2KQb Q#b2`p/Q 2H pHQ`- 2biQ 2b- mM p2x
b2 ? `2HBx/Q H /2i2`KBM+BƦM /2 K2`+m`BQ 2H pHQ` v MQ 2b H2iQ`BQX
1b mM pHQ` //Q- TQ` 2D2KTHQ- mM +QM+2Mi`+BƦM /2 0.5 KBHB;`KQb
TQ` FBHQ;`KQX 1bi2 pHQ` v MQ HQ /2MQiKQb +QM H H2i` Kvȹb+mH
bBMQ +QM H H2i` 2M KBMȹb+mH- tX ǯZmû MQb BMi2`2b +QMQ+2` bQ#`2
2biQb pHQ`2b H2iQ`BQb\ SQbB#H2K2Mi2 Km+?b +Qbb T2`Q HQ K€b #€@
bB+Q Uv /2 HQ +mH b2 /2/m+2 +mH[mB2` Qi`V 2b +QMQ+2` H T`Q##BHB//
[m2 i2M2KQb /2 [m2 2H pHQ` [m2 Q#b2`p2KQb 2biû 2Mi`2 /Qb MȹK2`QbX
ǯZmû T`Q##BHB// i2M2KQb /2 [m2 H Km2bi` [m2 MHB+2KQb /2 mM
pHQ` 2Mi`2 0.3 v 0.6\ ǯZmû T`Q##BHB// ?v /2 Q#b2`p` mM pHQ`
2Mi`2 0.4 v 0.8\ P #B2M- bB mM +B2`i MQ`KiBp }`K [m2 mM pHQ`
TQ` 2M+BK /2 0.5 MQ b2 T2`KBi2 2MiQM+2b T`2+2 Mim`H THMi2`@
b2, ǯ+m€H 2b H T`Q##BHB// /2 Q#b2`p` mM Km2bi` TQ` 2M+BK /2
2bi2 pHQ`\ P TQ` 2H +QMi``BQ, ǯ+QM [mû 7`2+m2M+B Q#b2`pKQb Km2b@
i`b [m2 MQ H+M+2 2H pHQ` 0.5\ Gb T`Q##BHB//2b [m2 +#KQb
/2 BM/B+` b2 /2MQiM +QKQ, P (0.3 ≤ X ≤ 0.6)- P (0.4 ≤ X ≤ 0.8)-
P (X ≥ 0.5) v P (X ≤ 0.5)X aBM i2M2` [m2 `272`B`MQb  pHQ`2b +QM+`2@
iQb TQ/2KQb /2MQi` /2 mM KQ/Q ;2Mû`B+Q iQ/Qb HQb +bQb Mi2`BQ`2b
+QKQ P (a ≤ X ≤ b) /QM/2  v # iQKM HQb pHQ`2b [m2 [m2`KQbX
*mM/Q +QMbB/2`KQb P (0.3 ≤ X ≤ 0.6) 2biKQb iQKM/Q a = 0.3
v b = 0.6X hK#BûM P (X ≥ 0.5) iB2M2 2bi 7Q`K v [m2 2biKQb iQ@
KM/Q a0 = .5 v b = +∞X P#pBK2Mi2- P (X ≤ 0.5) +Q``2bTQM/2 +QM
a = −∞ v b = 0.5X
1M `2bmK2M- +mM/Q i`#DKQb +QM mM p`B#H2 H2iQ`B HQ 7mM@
/K2MiH 2b +QMQ+2` Hb T`Q##BHB//2b P (a ≤ X ≤ b) /QM/2 a v b bQM
MȹK2`Qb `2H2b Q a = −∞ Q b = +∞X
*mM/Q mM p`B#H2 2b +QMiBMm 2MiQM+2b H T`Q##BHB// Mi2`BQ`
b2 Tm2/2 +H+mH` +QKQ
Z b
P (a < X ≤ b) = f (x)dx.
a

G 7mM+BƦM f `2+B#2 2H MQK#`2 /2 7mM+BƦM /2 /2MbB// U/2 T`Q#@

#BHB//V /2 H p`B#H2 XX
.2 ?2+?Q b2 iB2M2 [m2
Z b
P (a < X ≤ b) = P (a ≤ X < b) = P (a ≤ X ≤ b) = f (x)dx.
a

1D2KTHQ jX8 UlMB7Q`K2 2M 2H BMi2`pHQ mMBi`BQV lM p`B#H2

H2iQ`B mMB7Q`K2 2M 2H BMi2`pHQ [0, 1] 2b mM 2tT2`BK2MiQ [m2 v
?2KQb pBbiQX 1M Hb +H+mH/Q`b bm2H2 ?#2` mM 7mM+BƦM +QMQ+B/
+QKQ `M/ [m2 +mM/Q H mbKQb MQb /2pm2Hp2 mM pHQ` 2Mi`2 y v RX
G B/2 2b [m2 2b BKT`2pBbB#H2 2H pHQ` v MQ 2bT2`KQb [m2 T`2x+
H`2/2/Q` /2 M/X aBKTH2K2Mi2 /2Mi`Q /2H BMi2`pHQX G 7mM+BƦM /2
/2MbB// pB2M2 // TQ`
 9e *SŐhlGP jX S_P""AGA..

1.00 
1 si 0≤x≤1
f (x) =
0 si x < 0 Ʀ x > 1.
0.75

G TQ/2KQb p2` `2T`2b2Mi/ 2M H };m` jXjX

0.50
amTQM;KQb [m2 iQKKQb 0 ≤ a ≤ b ≤ 1 2MiQM+2b

0.25
Z b Z b
P (a ≤ X ≤ b) = f (x)dx = dx = b − a,
a a
0.00

2b /2+B`- H T`Q##BHB// /2 [m2 H p`B#H2 2bi€ 2M 2H BMi2`pHQ [a, b]

0.0 0.4 0.8 1.2

6B;m` jXj, 6mM+BƦM /2 /2MbB//

/2T2M/2 bQHK2Mi2 /2 H HQM;Bim/ /2H BMi2`pHQ v MQ /2 /ƦM/2 2bi€
/2 mM p`B#H2 mMB7Q`K2 2M 2H BM@ +QHQ+/Q /2Mi`Q /2H BMi2`pHQ [0, 1]X
i2`pHQ [0, 1]X ǯSQ/2KQb ;2M2`` mM pHQ` H2iQ`BQ [m2 b2 +QKTQ`i2 +QKQ mM
mMB7Q`K2 2M [0, 1]\ aBKTH2K2Mi2 +QM

`mMB7UR-KBM4y-Kt4RV

OO (R) yX3jky83j

.2 ?2+?Q- TQ/2KQb bBKmH` 2H MȹK2`Q /2 TmMiQb [m2 [m2`KQbX

SQ` 2D2KTHQ- ;2M2`2KQb ky pHQ`2bX9

`mMB7Uky-KBM4y-Kt4RV

OO (R) yXeRd39jyR yXkR3djjR8 yXRe8jykyd yXk9Rj98e8

OO (8) yXeNRdydye yXk8ykk9jN yXyejy9d83 yXj3R93ye9
OO (N) yX9y9R3899 yXkeNN39ek yXe8kRRkNd yX8eek3y3R
OO (Rj) yXjRkdj9dR yX9k99k3ke yXeR8N8ek3 yX3e9jj9eN
OO (Rd) yX9y8yjeje yXk89dy3dd yXdR99de3e yXj98kyeRR

1D2KTHQ jXe hK#BûM TQ/2KQb +QMbB/2`` H mMB7Q`K2 2M mM BMi2`@

pHQ `#Bi``BQ [a, b] /QM/2 a v b bQM MȹK2`Qb `#Bi``BQb bB2M/Q a
K2MQ` [m2 bX G 7mM+BƦM /2 /2MbB// /2 H p`B#H2 2b
0.3

1

b−a si a≤x≤b
f (x) =
0.2
0 2M Qi`Q +bQX

amTQM;KQb a = 2 v b = 5X G 7mM+BƦM /2 /2MbB// H TQ/2KQb

p2` 2M H };m` jX9X
0.1

/2K€b- bB +QMbB/2`KQb mM T` /2 TmMiQb c v d iH2b [m2 a ≤ c ≤

0.0 d ≤ b 2MiQM+2b,
0 2 4 6

d d
1 d−c
Z Z
6B;m` jX9, 6mM+BƦM /2 /2MbB// P (c ≤ X ≤ d) = f (x)dx = dx = .
/2 mM p`B#H2 mMB7Q`K2 2M 2H BM@ c c b−a b−a
i2`pHQ [2, 5]X
Pi` p2x H T`Q##BHB// /2 [m2 2H pHQ` H2iQ`BQ /2 X 2biû 2M 2H
BMi2`pHQ [c, d] bQHK2Mi2 /2T2M/2 /2 HQ H`;Q [m2 2b 2H BMi2`pHQ v MQ
/2 /ƦM/2 2bi€ /2Mi`Q /2 [a, b]X
9 J€b MQ [m2 Q+mT /2KbB/Q 2bT+BQX 1M +mH[mB2` +bQ TQ/2KQb T`Q#` 

+K#B` 2H pHQ` ky TQ` 2H MȹK2`Q /2 pHQ`2b [m2 MQb T2i2x+ bBKmH`X

jXjX o_A"G1 G1hP_A 9d

jXjX9 1D2`+B+BQb
1DX RR ě *QMbB/2`2KQb mM p`B#H2 H2iQ`B mMB7Q`K2 2M 2H BMi2`@
pHQ [0, 1]X a2 TB/2,
RXǯZmû T`Q##BHB// i2M2KQb /2 [m2 H p`B#H2 b2 K2MQ` Q B;mH
[m2 0.5\ 1M Qi`b TH#`b, ǯ+m€MiQ pH2 P (X ≤ 0.5)\
kXǯu P (X < 0.5)\
jX*H+mH` P (X ≥ 0.5) v P (X > 0.5)X
9X.2i2`KBM` Hb bB;mB2Mi2b T`Q##BHB//2b, P (0.6 < X ≤ 0.9)-
P (0.6 ≤ X < 0.9) v P (0.6 ≤ X ≤ 0.9)X

1DX Rk ě *QMbB/2`2KQb mM p`B#H2 H2iQ`B mMB7Q`K2 2M 2H BMi2`@

pHQ [0, 8]X a2 TB/2,
RXǯZmû T`Q##BHB// i2M2KQb /2 [m2 H p`B#H2 b2 K2MQ` Q B;mH
[m2 0.5\ 1M Qi`b TH#`b, ǯ+m€MiQ pH2 P (X ≤ 0.5)\
kXǯu P (X < 0.5)\
jX*H+mH` P (X ≥ 0.5) v P (X > 0.5)X
9X.2i2`KBM` Hb bB;mB2Mi2b T`Q##BHB//2b, P (0.6 < X ≤ 0.9)-
P (0.6 ≤ X < 0.9) v P (0.6 ≤ X ≤ 0.9)X

jXjX8 6mM+BƦM /2 /Bbi`B#m+BƦM

./ mM p`B#H2 H2iQ`B X b2 /2}M2 H 7mM+BƦM /2 /Bbi`B#m+BƦM
UQ 7mM+BƦM /2 /Bbi`B#m+BƦM +mKmH/V +QKQ H 7mM+BƦM [m2 T` pHQ`
`2H x MQb / H T`Q##BHB// /2 [m2 H p`B#H2 b2 K2MQ` Q B;mH [m2
2bi2 pHQ`- 2b /2+B`-
FX (x) = F (x) = P (X ≤ x). UjXeV
P#pBK2Mi2 bB H p`B#H2 [m2 i2M2KQb 2b /Bb+`2i v iQK pHQ`2b 2M
{x1 , x2 , . . .} 2MiQM+2b
X
FX (x) = P (X = xi ),
xi :xi ≤x

2b /2+B`- bmKKQb H T`Q##BHB// /2 [m2 H p`B#H2 iQK2 +/ mMQ

/2 HQb pHQ`2b [m2 Tm2/2 iQK` v [m2 bQM K2MQ`2b Q B;mH2b H pHQ`
xX 0.3 ●

1D2KTHQ jXd *QMbB/2`KQb H p`B#H2 H2iQ`B /Bb+`2i iH [m2 bm

7mM+BƦM /2 T`Q##BHB// T`2+2 2M H i#H jXRX oKQb  /2i2`KBM`
Función de probabilidad

0.2 ●

H 7mM+BƦM /2 /Bbi`B#m+BƦMX Gb T`Q##BHB//2b [m2 T`2+2M 2M H i#H

jXR T`2+2M `2T`2b2Mi/b 2M H };m` jX8X G 7mM+BƦM /2 /Bbi`B#m+BƦM
H ?2KQb `2T`2b2Mi/ 2M H };m` jXeX
●
0.1
●

1M 2H +bQ /2 mM p`B#H2 [m2 b2 +QMiBMm b2 iB2M2 H B;mH// ●

●
Z x 0.0 ● ● ● ●

0.0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0

FX (x) = f (t)dt. x

−∞
6B;m` jX8, S`Q##BHB//2b /2 H
1M ;2M2`H b2 iB2M2 H bB;mB2Mi2 BKTQ`iMi2 B;mH//X i#H jXRX

P (a < X ≤ b) = F (b) − F (a) +QM a ≤ b, a, b ∈ R. UjXdV stepfun(ee$x, c(0, cumsum(ee$probabilidad)))

G B;mH// }`K [m2 H T`Q##BHB// /2 [m2 H p`B#H2 b2 2bi`B+@

1.0

iK2Mi2 KvQ` [m2  v K2MQ` Q B;mH [m2 # HQ TQ/2KQb Q#i2M2` +QKQ

0.8

H /B72`2M+B /2 H 7mM+BƦM /2 /Bbi`B#m+BƦM 2M HQb 2ti`2KQbX

0.6
F

0.4
0.2
0.0

0 2 4 6 8 10

6B;m` jXe, 6mM+BƦM /2 /Bbi`B#m@

+BƦM /2 H p`B#H2 +QM 7mM+BƦM /2
T`Q##BHB// 2M H i#H jXRX
 93 *SŐhlGP jX S_P""AGA..

jXjXe 6mM+BƦM /2 /Bbi`B#m+BƦM Km2bi`H Q 2KTB`B+

h2M2KQb mM Km2bi` /2 /iQb MmKû`B+Qb [m2 /2MQiKQb TQ`
{x1 , . . . , xn }8 ǯZmû 2b H /Bbi`B#m+BƦM 2KTő`B+ /2 2biQb pHQ`2b\ am@
TQM;KQb mM 2tT2`BK2MiQ [m2 +QMbBbi2 2M 2H2;B` mMQ /2 HQb pHQ`2b xi
+QKTH2iK2Mi2 H x` Q- /2 Qi`Q KQ/Q- +QM H KBbK T`Q##BHB//X
a2`ő mM 2tT2`BK2MiQ [m2 /2 mM KQ/Q 2[mBT`Q##H2 T`Q/m+2 +/ HQb
`2bmHi/Qb {x1 , . . . , xn }X 1bi /Bbi`B#m+BƦM /2 T`Q##BHB// b2 +QMQ+2
+QKQ /Bbi`B#m+BƦM 2KTő`B+ v  H +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2 7mM+BƦM /2 /Bb@
i`B#m+BƦM +QKQ H 7mM+BƦM /2 /Bbi`B#m+BƦM 2KTő`B+ Q Km2bi`HX
1b- TQ` iMiQ- H /Bbi`B#m+BƦM /2 T`Q##BHB// [m2 / T`Q##BHB// n1
 +/ mMQ /2 HQb /iQbX .2 Qi`Q KQ/Q mM 2tT2`BK2MiQ [m2 T`Q/m+2 2H
pHQ` xi +QM T`Q##BHB// 1/nX ./Qb HQb /iQb x1 , . . . , xn - H 7mM+BƦM
/2 /Bbi`B#m+BƦM Km2bi`H b2 /2}M2 +QKQ
|{xi : xi ≤ x}|
Fn (x) = , UjX3V
n
/QM/2 | · | /2MQi 2H +`/BMH- 2biQ 2b- 2H MȹK2`Q /2 2H2K2MiQb /2H
+QMDmMiQX S` +/ TmMiQ x +QMbB/2`KQb 2H +QMDmMiQ 7Q`K/Q TQ`
iQ/Qb HQb /iQb xi [m2 bQM K2MQ`2b Q B;mH2b [m2 xX *QMiKQb 2H
MȹK2`Q /2 TmMiQb 2M 2bi2 +QMDmMiQ Ubm +`/BMHV v HQ /BpB/BKQb TQ` 2H
iQiH /2 /iQbX 1M `2bmK2M- Fn (x) MQb / H T`QTQ`+BƦM /2 /iQb [m2
bQM K2MQ`2b Q B;mH2b [m2 xX u 2biQ HQ +QMbB/2`KQb T` iQ/Qb HQb
pHQ`2b /2 x TQbB#H2bX
oKQb  +QMbB/2`` /Qb 7mM+BQM2b T` Q#i2M2` H 7mM+BƦM /2 /Bb@
ecdf(y)

i`B#m+BƦM Km2bi`HX G T`BK2` 2b H 7mM+BƦM 2+/7 v TQ/2KQb p2`H 2M

1.0

● ●
●
● ●●
●●
●●

H };m` jXdX
●●
●
0.8

●●
●●
●
●
●
●●
●
●
●
●
●●
0.6

●
●
●
●
Fn(x)

●●

THQiU2+/7UvVV
●
●
●●
●
●
●●
0.4

●
●
●●
●
●
●
●●
●
●
●●
0.2

aB [m2`2KQb +QMQ+2` 2H pHQ` /2 Fn 2M mM pHQ` /2i2`KBM/Q- TQ`

●●
●
●
●
●●
●
●
●●

2D2KTHQ T` x = 37 TQ/2KQb ?+2`

●
●
0.0

25 30 35 40 45

2+/7UvVUjdV
6B;m` jXd, 6mM+BƦM /2 /Bbi`B#m@
+BƦM Km2bi`H +QM H 7mM+BƦM 2+/7X OO (R) yX3dR9k3e

Q #B2M 2M 9y-

2+/7UvVU9yV

OO (R) yXNk38dR9

G b2;mM/ QT+BƦM 2b H 7mM+BƦM 1+/7 /2H T[m2i2 (e- >KBb+)X T@

`2+2 2M H };m` jX3X
1.0
0.8

HB#``vU>KBb+V
Proportion <= x

0.6

1+/7UvV
0.4
0.2
0.0

25 30 35 40 45 jXjXd 1D2`+B+BQb
1DX Rj ě *QMbB/2`2KQb 2H 2tT2`BK2MiQ H2iQ`BQ +QMbBbi2Mi2 2M HM@
y
n:70 m:0

x` /Qb p2+2b mM //QX lM `2bmHi/Q /2H 2tT2`BK2MiQ Tm2/2 b2` ω =

6B;m` jX3, 6mM+BƦM /2 /Bbi`B#m@
+BƦM Km2bi`H +QM H 7mM+BƦM 1+/7X 8 1M 2bib MQib TQ/`őM b2` Hb 2tT`2bBQM2b  MBp2H /2 bQM/ /2 mM KB+`Q``vX
jX9X J1.A u o_ALw 9N

(1, 3) BM/B+M/Q [m2 2M T`BK2` Hm;` ?2KQb Q#i2MB/Q mM R v 2M 2H b2@

;mM/Q HMxKB2MiQ ?2KQb Q#i2MB/Q mM jX *QMbB/2`KQb H p`B#H2
H2iQ`B [m2 bQ+B H `2bmHi/Q Q#i2MB/Q H bmK /2 HQb pHQ`2b [m2
Q#i2M2KQb 2M 2H T`BK2` v 2M 2H b2;mM/Q HMxKB2MiQX aB ω = (i, j)
2MiQM+2b X(ω) = i + jX a2 TB/2,
RX.2i2`KBM` H 7mM+BƦM /2 /Bbi`B#m+BƦM /2 H p`B#H2 H2iQ`B XX
kX_2T`2b2Mi` /2 mM KQ/Q KMmH H 7mM+BƦM /2 /Bbi`B#m+BƦM [m2
?2KQb /2i2`KBM/Q 2M 2H TmMiQ RX
jX_2T`2b2Mi` H 7mM+BƦM /2 /Bbi`B#m+BƦM miBHBxM/Q H 7mM+BƦM bi2T@
7mMX

1DX R9 ě amTQM;KQb mM p`B#H2 mMB7Q`K2 2M 2H BMi2`pHQ [2, 6]

[m2 /2MQiKQb +QKQ X ∼ U (2, 6)X a2 TB/2,
RX.2i2`KBM` H 7mM+BƦM /2 /Bbi`B#m+BƦM /2 H p`B#H2 H2iQ`B XX
kX_2T`2b2Mi` ;`€}+K2Mi2 H 7mM+BƦM /2 /Bbi`B#m+BƦM /2 H p`B#H2
H2iQ`B XX

1DX R8 ě amTQM;KQb mM p`B#H2 mMB7Q`K2 2M 2H BMi2`pHQ [2, 6]

[m2 /2MQiKQb +QKQ X ∼ U (2, 6)X a2 TB/2,
RX_2T`2b2Mi` ;`€}+K2Mi2 H 7mM+BƦM /2 /Bbi`B#m+BƦM miBHBxM/Q
Hb 7mM+BQM2b THQi v TmMB7X

jX9 J2/B v p`BMx

lM p`B#H2 bm2H2 /2b+`B#B`b2 /2 mM KQ/Q bBKTH2 K2/BMi2 bm
K2/B v bm p`BMxX G K2/B MQb / mM B/2 /2 H`2/2/Q` /2 [mû
pHQ` b2 T`Q/m+2M HQb pHQ`2b H2iQ`BQb /2 H p`B#H2 KB2Mi`b [m2
H p`BMx +mMiB}+ H /BbT2`bBƦM /2 2biQb pHQ`2b H`2/2/Q` /2 H
K2/BX

jX9XR J2/B /2 mM p`B#H2 H2iQ`B /Bb+`2i

1D2KTHQ jX3 UG K2/B +QKQ HőKBi2 /2 K2/Bb Km2bi`H2bV amTQM;KQb
[m2 i2M2KQb mM p`B#H2 [m2 Tm2/2 iQK` HQb pHQ`2b {0, 9} +QM T`Q@
##BHB//2b //b 2M H i#H jXkX 1H 2tT2`BK2MiQ bmTQM;KQb [m2
+QMbBbi2 2M 2H2;B` H x` mM pBpB2M/ 2M mM ;`M TQ#H+BƦM UTQ`
2D2KTHQ- oH2M+BV v Q#b2`p` 2H MȹK2`Q /2 T2`bQMb [m2 ?#BiM H
pBpB2M/X 1M H }H 2iB[m2i/ +QM t i2M2KQb 2H MȹK2`Q /2 T2`bQMb
v 2M H }H 2iB[m2i/ P (X = x) H 7`2+m2M+B /2 +/ pHQ` TQbB#H2
[m2 bmKBKQb +QMQ+B/bX

t yXyy RXyy kXyy jXyy 9Xyy 8Xyy eXyy dXyy 3Xyy NXyy
P (X = x) yXky yXRR yXRj yXk9 yXkd yXyk yXyR yXyR yXyy yXyR

h#H jXk, 6mM+BƦM /2 T`Q##BHB// /2 H p`B#H2 H2iQ`B [m2 MQb / 2H MȹK2`Q /2 T2`bQMb [m2 `2bB/2M 2M mM
pBpB2M/X

SQ/2KQb bBKmH` H b2H2++BƦM H2iQ`B /2 mM pBpB2M/ 2M 2b

TQ#H+BƦM miBHBxM/Q H 7mM+BƦM bKTH2X
8y *SŐhlGP jX S_P""AGA..

t 4 y,N
T`Q##BHB//2b 4 +UyXky-yXRR-yXRj-yXk9-yXkd-yXyk-yXyR8-yXyyN-
yXyyyN-yXyy8RV
bKTH2Ut-bBx24R-`2TH+24h_l1-T`Q#4T`Q##BHB//2bV

OO (R) j

amTQM;KQb [m2 `2T2iBKQb 2H T`Q+2bQ /2 2ti`++BƦM Ryy p2+2bX

M 4 Ryy
Uv 4 bKTH2Ut-bBx24M-`2TH+24h_l1-T`Q#4T`Q##BHB//2bVV

OO (R) 9 j 9 R j j 9 R j k 9 y 9 y y y j y y 9 j j
OO (kj) j y 9 k 9 j R y y k k y k 9 9 k y k 9 9 y 9
OO (98) j y j k k 9 R j j 9 9 j 9 y R y 9 R y 9 9 k
OO (ed) 9 9 y j 9 k j y 9 9 e j j k R j 9 y y j j y
OO (3N) j y 9 9 9 j y j j j R 9

Gb 7`2+m2M+Bb [m2 Q#b2`pKQb /2 +/ iBTQ bQM Hb bB;mB2Mi2b

T`QTXi#H2Ui#H2UvVV

OO v
OO y R k j 9 e
OO yXkj yXy3 yXRk yXke yXjy yXyR

ǯa2 T`2+2M\ 1M Hb +i2;Q`őb K€b T`Q##H2b #biMi2X _2TBiKQb

2H T`Q+2bQ +QM Ryyy Km2bi`bX

v 4 bKTH2Ut-bBx24Ryyy-`2TH+24h_l1-T`Q#4T`Q##BHB//2bV
T`QTXi#H2Ui#H2UvVV

OO v
OO y R k j 9 8 e d
OO yXRN8 yXyNe yXRjy yXkj9 yXkNe yXyR8 yXyRN yXyyN
OO N
OO yXyye

o2KQb +ƦKQ b2 T`2+2M K€b Hb 7`2+m2M+Bb Q#b2`p/b  Hb T`Q#@

#BHB//2b /2 +/ mMQ /2 HQb pHQ`2bX .2MQi2KQbPHQb n
pHQ`2b bBKmH/Qb
TQ` {y1 , . . . , yn }X am K2/B Km2bi`H b2`€ ȳn = i=1 T2`Q
yi
n
n n
X yi X nx
ȳn = = x
i=1
n x=0
n

/QM/2 nx /2MQi 2H MȹK2`Q /2 p2+2b [m2 T`2+2 2H `2bmHi/Q xX P#@

pBK2Mi2 +mM/Q 2H MȹK2`Q /2 /iQb [m2 ;2M2`KQb p +`2+B2M/Q H
7`2+m2M+B `2HiBp /2 p2+2b [m2 T`2+2 2H `2bmHi/Q x [m2 pB2M2 //
TQ` 2H +Q+B2Mi2 nx /n- b2 p T`QtBKM/Q  H T`Q##BHB// P (X = x)X
SQ` 2HHQ i2M/`2KQb [m2
n n
X nx X
ȳn = x −→ xP (X = x).
x=0
n x=0

1M Mm2bi`Q +bQ 2H MȹK2`Q K2/BQ /2 T2`bQMb [m2 pBp2M 2M H

pBpB2M/ p2M/`ő // TQ`
jX9X J1.A u o_ALw 8R

UKm 4 bmKUt T`Q##BHB//2bVV

3.0

OO (R) kX9deR

1M H };m` jXN ?2KQb `2T`2b2Mi/Q +QM mM HőM2 ?Q`BxQMiH +mv

2.5

Q`/2M/ 2b H K2/B [m2 +#KQb [m2 +H+mH`X Gm2;Q pKQb bBKm@

HM/Q pHQ`2b b2;ȹM H p`B#H2 /Bb+`2i [m2 +#KQb /2 T`QTQM2`X 2.0

y
1M 2H 2D2 /2 #b+Bbb +QMbB/2`KQb 2H MȹK2`Q /2 pHQ`2b [m2 pKQb
T`QK2/BM/QX o2KQb +ƦKQ H K2/B Km2bi`H b2 p T`QtBKM/Q H 1.5

pHQ` //Q /2 H K2/BX

.2}MB+BƦM jXk aB X 2b mM p`B#H2 H2iQ`B /Bb+`2i [m2 iQK HQb
1.0

0 2500 5000 7500 10000

pHQ`2b {x1 , x2 , . . .} 2MiQM+2b H K2/B /2 X b2 /2}M2 +QKQ

x

+∞ 6B;m` jXN, J2/Bb Km2bi`H2b /2H

MȹK2`Q /2 T2`bQMb [m2 ?#BiM
X
EX = µX = µ = xi P (X = xi ).
mM pBpB2M/ 2M 7mM+BƦM /2H iK@
i=1
ƢQ /2 H Km2bi`X G HőM2 ?Q`B@
1D2KTHQ jXN GMxKQb H KQM2/ bB bH2 +` H p`B#H2 X pH2 mMQ xQMiH TmMi2/ BM/B+ H K2/B
v bB bH2 +`mx H p`B#H2 X pH2 +2`QX ǯ*m€H 2b bm K2/B\ TQ#H+BQMHX

µ = 1 × p + 0 × (1 − p) = p.

jX9Xk o`BMx v /2bpB+BƦM iőTB+

.2}MB+BƦM jXj Uo`BMx v /2bpB+BƦM iőTB+V aB X 2b mM p@
`B#H2 H2iQ`B /Bb+`2i [m2 iQK HQb pHQ`2b {x1 , x2 , . . .} 2MiQM+2b H
p`BMx /2 X b2 /2}M2 +QKQ
+∞
X
var(X) = σ 2 = E(X − µ)2 = (xi − µ)2 P (X = xi ).
i=1

>#BimHK2Mi2 /2K€b /2 H p`BMx b2 bm2H2 miBHBx` T` K2/B`

p`B#BHB// H /2bpB+BƦM iőTB+ // TQ`
v
u+∞
p uX
σ = var(X) = t (xi − µ)2 P (X = xi ).
i=1

1M p`B#H2b +QMiBMmb Hb /2}MB+BQM2b /2 K2/B v p`BMx bQM Hb

M€HQ;b bmbiBimv2M/Q bmKiQ`BQb TQ` BMi2;`H2bX
.2}MB+BƦM jX9 aB X 2b mM p`B#H2 +QMiBMm +QM 7mM+BƦM /2 /2MbB@
// f 2MiQM+2b H K2/B /2 X b2 /2}M2 +QKQ
Z +∞
EX = µ = xf (x)dx
−∞

.2}MB+BƦM jX8 aB X 2b mM p`B#H2 +QMiBMm +QM 7mM+BƦM /2 /2MbB@

// f 2MiQM+2b H p`BMx /2 X b2 /2}M2 +QKQ
Z +∞
var(X) = σ 2 = (x − µ)2 f (x)dx,
−∞

KB2Mi`b [m2 H /2bpB+BƦM iőTB+ /2 X b2 /2}M2 +QKQ

sZ
+∞
σX = σ = (x − µ)2 f (x)dx.
−∞

>2KQb pBbiQ Mi2b [m2 bB pKQb Q#b2`pM/Q pHQ`2b /2 mM p`B@

#H2 2MiQM+2b Hb bm+2bBpb K2/Bb Km2bi`H2b b2 pM T`QtBKM/Q 
H K2/B TQ#H+BQMHX ǯP+m``2 H;Q bBKBH` +QM H p`BMx v +QM H
/2bpB+BƦM iőTB+\ SQ` bmTm2biQ [m2 bőX
8k *SŐhlGP jX S_P""AGA..

jX8 o`B#H2 "2`MQmHHB

1KT2xKQb +QM H;ȹM 2D2KTHQ [m2 KQiBp 2bi /Bbi`B#m+BƦMX

RX GMxKQb mM KQM2/ v MQb THMi2KQb bB bH2 +` Uv HQ HHK@

KQb ûtBiQV Q bB MQ bH2 +` Uv HQ HHKKQb 7`+bQVX LQb }DKQb
2M H Q+m``2M+B Q MQ /2 mM bm+2bQ, bHB` +`X h2M2KQb mM 2bT@
+BQ Km2bi`H Ω = {cara, cruz} v MQb THMi2KQb bB b2 T`Q/m+2
A = {cara}X

kX 1H2;BKQb H x`  mM T2`bQM 2M H TQ#H+BƦM /2 H *QKmMB@

// oH2M+BM v MQb }DKQb bB 2b /B#ûiB+Q Uv HQ +QMbB/2`KQb
ûtBiQV Q MQ HQ 2b U7`+bQVX 1M 2bi2 +bQ 2H 2bT+BQ Km2bi`H 2b
2H +QMDmMiQ /2 BM/BpB/mQb /2 H *QKmMB// v 2H bm+2bQ [m2 MQb
BMi2`2b b2`ő 2H +QMDmMiQ /2 BM/BpB/mQb [m2 bQM /B#ûiB+Qb 2M
/B+? *QKmMB//X

h2M2KQb- 2M HQb 2D2KTHQb Mi2`BQ`2b- /BbiBMiQb 2tT2`BK2MiQb /QM/2

MQb }DKQb 2M mM bm+2bQ A v MQb THMi2KQb bB Q+m``2 Q MQ Q+m``2
2bi2 bm+2bQX lM bBim+BƦM /2 2bi2 iBTQ `2+B#2 2H MQK#`2 /2 T`m2#
/2 "2`MQmHHBX ./ mM T`m2# /2 "2`MQmHHB +QMbB/2`KQb H p`B#H2
H2iQ`B [m2 MQb BM/B+ bB A b2 ? T`Q/m+B/Q- 2biQ 2b- H p`B#H2

X(ω) = 1A (ω),

/QM/2 1A (ω) = 1 bB ω ∈ A v +2`Q 2M Qi`Q +bQX .2H 2tT2`BK2MiQ [m2

`2HBxKQb bQHK2Mi2 MQb BKTQ`i b#2` bB mM /2i2`KBM/Q bm+2bQ ?
i2MB/Q Hm;`X .2 ?2+?Q- +QKQ ûtBiQ 2b [m2 2H `2bmHi/Q ω T2`i2M2x+
H bm+2bQ A 2MiQM+2b H T`Q##BHB// /2 ûtBiQ b2`€ p = P (A)X
1H `M;Q /2 H p`B#H2 2b {1, 0} /QM/2 R BM/B+ 2H ûtBiQ v y 2H 7`@
+bQX lM p`B#H2 /2 2bi2 iBTQ `2+B#2 2H MQK#`2 /2 p`B#H2 "2`MQmHHBX
1b 2H 2D2KTHQ K€b bBKTH2 /2 p`B#H2 H2iQ`BX am 7mM+BƦM /2 T`Q#@
#BHB// b2`ő, fX (1) = P (X = 1) = p v fX (0) = P (X = 0) = 1 − p
[m2- /2 mM KQ/Q +QMDmMiQ- TQ/2KQb `2T`2b2Mi` +QKQ

P (X = x) = px (1 − p)1−x T` x = 0, 1. UjXNV

aB mM p`B#H2 bB;m2 mM /Bbi`B#m+BƦM /2 T`Q##BHB// b2 /B+2 [m2 2b

mM p`B#H2 "2`MQmHHB Q [m2 b2 /Bbi`B#mv2 "2`MQmHHB v b2 /2MQi

X ∼ Bi(1, p).

1D2KTHQ jXRy UGMxKB2MiQ /2 KQM2/ +Q``2+iV G 7mM+BƦM /2

T`Q##BHB// 2b fX (1) = P (X = 1) = 1/2 v fX (0) = P (X = 0) = 1/2X

1D2KTHQ jXRR Ua2H2++BƦM H2iQ`B /2 mM BM/BpB/mQV a2H2++BQMKQb

 mM BM/BpB/mQ H x` 2M H TQ#H+BƦM /2 H *QKmMB// oH2M+BMX G
7mM+BƦM /2 T`Q##BHB// 2b fX (1) = P (X = 1) = p v fX (0) = P (X =
0) = 1 − pX 1H pHQ` /2 p MQb BM/B+ H T`QTQ`+BƦM `2H /2 /B#ûiB+Qb
2M H TQ#H+BƦMX >#BimHK2Mi2 2H pHQ` /2 p MQ 2b +QMQ+B/QX

jXe o`B#H2 #BMQKBH

*QMbB/2`2KQb mM 2tT2`BK2MiQ +QM /Qb TQbB#H2b `2bmHi/QbX  mMQ
/2 2HHQb H2 HHKKQb ûtBiQ v H Qi`Q H2 HHKKQb 7`+bQX amTQM2KQb
[m2 ?v mM T`Q##BHB// p /2 Q#i2M2` mM ûtBiQ U/QM/2 0 ≤ p ≤ 1V
jXeX o_A"G1 "ALPJAG 8j

v- TQ` HQ iMiQ- mM T`Q##BHB// 1 − p /2 Q#i2M2` mM 7`+bQX lM

2tT2`BK2MiQ /2 2bi2 iBTQ `2+B#2 2H MQK#`2 /2 T`m2# /2 "2`MQmHHBX
1H 2D2KTHQ K€b bBKTH2- HMxKB2MiQ /2 mM KQM2/ /QM/2 B/2MiB@
}+KQb bHB` +` +QM ûtBiQ v bHB` +`mx +QKQ 7`+bQX 1M 2bi2 +bQ- H
T`Q##BHB// /2 ûtBiQ 2b p = 0.5X
Pi`Q 2D2KTHQ- 2H2;BKQb H x`  mM T2`bQM /2 H TQ#H+BƦM 2bT@
ƢQH 2 B/2MiB}+KQb ûtBiQ +QM [m2 H T2`bQM i2M; mM +B2`iQ i`B#miQ
Ub2 /B#ûiB+Q TQ` 2D2KTHQV v 7`+bQ +QM [m2 MQ i2M; 2H i`B#miQX G
T`Q##BHB// /2 ûtBiQ T +QBM+B/2 +QM H T`QTQ`+BƦM [m2 `2HK2Mi2 ?v
/2 /B#ûiB+Qb 2M H TQ#H+BƦMX
_2T2iBKQb n p2+2b mM T`m2# /2 "2`MQmHHB BM/2T2M/B2Mi2K2Mi2
mM /2 Qi` UHMxKQb M p2+2b mM KQM2/V v Q#b2`pKQb H p`B#H2
H2iQ`B [m2 MQb / 2H MȹK2`Q iQiH /2 ûtBiQbX lM p`B#H2 /2 2bi2 iBTQ
`2+B#2 2H MQK#`2 /2 p`B#H2 #BMQKBH +QM n T`m2#b v mM T`Q##BHB//
/2 ûtBiQ T v b2 bm2H2 /2MQi` +QKQ

X ∼ Bi(n, p).

P#b2`p2KQb [m2 HQb pHQ`2b [m2 Tm2/2 iQK` 2bi p`B#H2 bQM 0, 1, 2, . . . , n-
2biQ 2b- /2b/2 +2`Q ûtBiQb ?bi M ûtBiQbX ǯZmû T`Q##BHB// i2M2KQb
/2 Q#b2`p` mM MȹK2`Q /2i2`KBM/Q /2 ûtBiQb\ 1bi T`Q##BHB//-
P (X = x) 2b H 7mM+BƦM /2 T`Q##BHB// /2 H #BMQKBH v b2 T`m2#
[m2 iB2M2 H bB;mB2Mi2 2tT`2bBƦMX
 
n x
P (X = x) = p (1 − p)n−x . UjXRyV
x

aB i2M2KQb mM p`B#H2 #BMQKBH X +QM n T`m2#b v mM T`Q#@

#BHB// /2 ûtBiQ p- X ∼ Bi(n, p)- 2MiQM+2b bm K2/B 2b
n  
n x
UjXRRV
X
EX = µ = x p (1 − p)n−x = np,
x=0
x

KB2Mi`b [m2 bm p`BMx pB2M2 // TQ`

n  
n x
p (1 − p)n−x = np(1 − p). UjXRkV
X
var(X) = σ 2 = (x − np)2
x=0
x

1D2KTHQ jXRk U6mM+BƦM /2 T`Q##BHB// /2 H #BMQKBHV G 7mM@

+BƦM /#BMQK MQb T2`KBi2 +H+mH` H 7mM+BƦM /2 T`Q##BHB// /2 mM
p`B#H2 #BMQKBHX SQ` 2D2KTHQ- ǯ[mû T`Q##BHB// i2M2KQb /2 Q#i2M2`
dy +`b bB HMxKQb Rkj p2+2b mM KQM2/X G `2bTm2bi 2b

/#BMQKUdy-bBx24Rkj-T`Q#4yX8V

OO (R) yXykkjyeRN

1D2KTHQ jXRj UaBKmH+BƦM /2 mM p`B#H2 #BMQKBHV amTQM;KQb

[m2 [m2`2KQb HMx` mM KQM2/ jy p2+2b +QM _Xe 1biQ HQ TQ/2KQb
?+2` +QM

e H;Q MQ /2KbB/Q ``Q mM[m2 Tm2/ T`2+2`HQX

89 *SŐhlGP jX S_P""AGA..

`#BMQKUjy-bBx24R-T`Q#4X8V

OO (R) R y R R R y R y y R R y R y y y y R R R y R y
OO (k9) y y y R y y R

1H mMQ +Q``2bTQM/2 +QM ûtBiQ U+`V v 2H +2`Q +QM 7`+bQX aB `2T2@

iBKQb 2H T`Q+2bQ TQbB#H2K2Mi2 MQ Q#i2M;KQb HQb KBbKQb `2bmHi/QbX

`#BMQKUjy-bBx24R-T`Q#4X8V

OO (R) y y y R R R R y y R R y R R y R y R R y R R R
OO (k9) R y R y y R R

_2HK2Mi2 MQb BMi2`2b 2H MȹK2`Q /2 ûtBiQb v MQ 2H Q`/2M 2M [m2

b2 T`Q/m+2MX 1biQ HQ TQ/2KQb ?+2` +QM

`#BMQKUR-bBx24jy-T`Q#4X8V

OO (R) Rk

aB HQ `2T2iBKQb TQbB#H2K2Mi2 MQ Q#i2M;KQb 2H KBbKQ MȹK2`Q /2

mMQbX

`#BMQKUR-bBx24jy-T`Q#4X8V

OO (R) R8

amTQM;KQb [m2 [m2`2KQb bBKmH` 9y p2+2b 2H 2tT2`BK2MiQ +QM@

bBbi2Mi2 2M HMx` jy p2+2b mM KQM2/ v +QMiKQb 2M +/ +bQ 2H
MȹK2`Q /2 mMQbX

`#BMQKU9y-bBx24jy-T`Q#4X8V

OO (R) Rd Rj R3 ky Re R8 Re Re RN ky R9 N Rd Rd RR
OO (Re) R8 ky R9 R9 R9 R3 Re R3 Ry Re Rd Ry RR Rj Re
OO (jR) RR Rd R3 RN R8 Rd R8 Ry Rk Re

aB H KQM2/ MQ 2bi€ #B2M +QMbi`mB/ v T`2i2M/2KQb [m2 H +@

` i2M; mM T`Q##BHB// /2 0.6- 2MiQM+2b `2T2iBKQb 2H 2tT2`BK2MiQ
Mi2`BQ` +QM

`#BMQKU9y-bBx24jy-T`Q#4XeV

OO (R) Re RN RN RN Re RN RN RN RN Rd RN kj Rd kR k9
OO (Re) RN Rk RN R8 R3 ky Rk R3 k8 R8 Re Rd RN Rj ky
OO (jR) RN Rd ky kj kR Rd R3 k9 RN kj

1D2KTHQ jXR9 U.2 +ƦKQ +H+mH` T`Q##BHB//2b /2 H /Bbi`B#m+BƦM #BMQKBHV

amTQM;KQb [m2 [m2`2KQb +H+mH` H T`Q##BHB// /2 Q#i2M2` kj ûtB@
iQb +mM/Q `2HBxKQb jy T`m2#b /2 "2`MQmHHB /QM/2 H T`Q##BHB//
/2 ûtBiQ 2b 0.6- 2b /2+B`- T`2i2M/2KQb +H+mH` T` X ∼ Bi(30, 0.6)
H 7mM+BƦM /2 T`Q##BHB// 2M x = 23 // TQ`
 
30
P (X = x) = (0.6)30 (1 − 0.6)30−23 . UjXRjV
23
jXeX o_A"G1 "ALPJAG 88

/#BMQKUkj-bBx24jy-T`Q#4XeV

OO (R) yXykej9RyN

SQ/2KQb +QMQ+2` Hb T`Q##BHB//2b /2 +/ mMQ /2 HQb TQbB#H2b

`2bmHi/Qb- 2b /2+B`- H 7mM+BƦM /2 T`Q##BHB// P (X = x)- +QM

/#BMQKUy,jy-bBx24jy-T`Q#4XeV

OO (R) RXR8kNkk2@Rk 8XR33R9d2@RR RXRk39kk2@yN

OO (9) RX8dNdNR2@y3 RX8NN8j32@yd RXk9de9y2@ye 0.15 ●

OO (d) dXdNdd932@ye 9XyRykdy2@y8 RXdkN9kN2@y9

●
●

OO (Ry) eXj9Rk9y2@y9 RXNNd9NR2@yj 8X99ddyk2@yj ●

●

OO (Rj) RXkNj3kN2@yk kXe3dR392@yk 9X3N98Rj2@yk 0.10

OO (Re) dX3jRkkR2@yk RXRyRke82@yR RXjeyj3d2@yR ●

●

y
OO (RN) RX9djd8k2@yR RXjNeR3e2@yR RXR8R3892@yR
OO (kk) 3Xkkd8kd2@yk 8Xy93dRy2@yk kXej9RyN2@yk
0.05 ●
●

OO (k8) RXR8k9kj2@yk 9XR93dkk2@yj RXRNed9d2@yj ● ●

OO (k3) kXe8N9jd2@y9 9Xkd9yNe2@y8 9X9kR9d32@ye ●

●
●

OO (jR) kXkRydjN2@yd
● ● ● ● ● ●
0.00 ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

0 10 20 30
x

1M H };m` jXRy i2M2KQb H `2T`2b2Mi+BƦM ;`€}+ /2 2bib T`Q@ 6B;m` jXRy, S` mM p`B#H2 #B@
##BHB//2bX MQKBH +QM n = 30 v mM T`Q#@
hK#BûM TQ/2KQb Q#i2M2` H 7mM+BƦM /2 H /Bbi`B#m+BƦM #BMQKBH #BHB// /2 ûtBiQ /2 p = 0.6 KQb@
i`KQb H 7mM+BƦM /2 T`Q##BHB//
2M +mH[mB2` TmMiQ- 2b /2+B`- H T`Q##BHB// P (X ≤ 12) 2b [m2 T` +/ x MQb / H T`Q#@
#BHB// /2 [m2 H p`B#H2 iQK2 2b2
T#BMQKURk-bBx24jy-T`Q#4XeV
0.20

pHQ`- P (X = x)X

OO (R) yXykRkjN33 0.15

G };m` jXRk Km2bi` H 7mM+BƦM /2 /Bbi`B#m+BƦM /2 mM p`B#H2 0.10

H2iQ`B +QM /Bbi`B#m+BƦM #BMQKBH +QM n = 30 T`m2#b v mM T`Q#@

#BHB// /2 ûtBiQ p = 0.6X 0.05

jXeXR 1D2`+B+BQb 0.00

5 10

1DX Re ě a2 TB/2,
RXaBKmH` Ryy pHQ`2b +QM /Bbi`B#m+BƦM #BMQKBH +QM ky T`m2#b v 6B;m` jXRR, 6mM+BƦM /2 /2MbB//
mM T`Q##BHB// /2 ûtBiQ 2M +/ T`m2# /2 0.3X :m`/` 2biQb /2 mM MQ`KH +QM K2/B d v p@
`BMx 9X
pHQ`2b 2M 2H p2+iQ` xX
kX*H+mH` H K2/B v p`BMx Km2bi`H2b /2 HQb pHQ`2b ;2M2`/QbX
1.00 ●
● ● ● ● ● ● ●

jX*QKT`` H K2/B Km2bi`H Q#b2`p/ +QM 20×0.3 v H p`BMx ●

Km2bi`H Q#b2`p/ +QM 20 × 0.3 × 0.7 [m2 +Q``2bTQM/2M +QM H

0.75
●

K2/B v H p`BMx i2Ʀ`B+bX

P(X <= x)

0.50

9X_2T2iB` HQb T`i/Qb Mi2`BQ`2b bmbiBimv2M/Q Hb Ryy bBKmH+BQ@ ●

M2b TQ` Ryyy- TQ` Ryyyy v TQ` RyyyyyX *QKT`` 2M +/ +bQ ●

HQb pHQ`2b i2Ʀ`B+Qb +QM HQb pHQ`2b Km2bi`H2bX

0.25

1DX Rd ě :2M2`KQb Ryyyy pHQ`2b +QM /Bbi`B#m+BƦM #BMQKBH +QM

●
0.00 ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

0 10 20 30

ky T`m2#b v mM T`Q##BHB// /2 ûtBiQ TQ` T`m2# /2 0.3X *QKT``

x

H 7mM+BƦM /2 /Bbi`B#m+BƦM Km2bi`H UpBbi 2M H T`€+iB+ Mi2`BQ`V +QM 6B;m` jXRk, 6mM+BƦM /2 /Bbi`B#m@
H 7mM+BƦM /2 /Bbi`B#m+BƦM i2Ʀ`B+ [m2 +#KQb /2 p2`X +BƦM /2 mM #BMQKBH +QM n =
30 T`m2#b v mM T`Q##BHB// /2
1DX R3 ě *QMbB/2`2KQb mM p`B#H2 H2iQ`B +QM /Bbi`B#m+BƦM #B@ ûtBiQ p = 0.6X S` +/ #+Bb x
MQKBH +QM 98 T`m2#b v mM T`Q##BHB// /2 ûtBiQ /2 0.67X a2 TB/2, i2M2KQb H T`Q##BHB// /2 [m2 H
p`B#H2 b2 K2MQ` Q B;mH [m2 2b2
pHQ` x- P (X ≤ x)X
8e *SŐhlGP jX S_P""AGA..

RXP (X ≤ 23)X
kXP (X < 23)X
jXP (X > 29)X
9XP (X ≥ 29)X
8XP (34 < X ≤ 45)X
eXP (34 ≤ X ≤ 45)X

1DX RN ě .Qb 2bT2+BHBbib 2M TH;b p2;2iH2b /B}2`2M 2M bm T`2@

+B+BƦM /2 H T`QTQ`+BƦM /2 THK2`b 72+i/b TQ` 2H TB+m/Q 2M H
*QKmMB// oH2M+BMX lMQ /2 2HHQb U2bT2+BHBbi V }`K [m2 mM
jy W /2 Hb THK2`b 2bi€M 72+i/bX 1H Qi`Q- 2bT2+BHBbi "- }`K
[m2 2b mM 98 W /2 Hb THK2`bX lM i2`+2` 2bT2+BHBbi /2+B/2 iQK`
mM Km2bi` H2iQ`B bBKTH2 /2 H TQ#H+BƦM iQiH /2 THK2`bX 1M
iQiH Km2bi`2 mM iQiH /2 jk8 THK2`b v Q#b2`p Rjj THK2`b 72+@
i/bX a2 TB/2,
RX*H+mH H T`Q##BHB// /2 Hb }`K+BQM2b /2 +/ mMQ /2 HQb
2bT2+BHBbibX
kXǯZmû }`K+BƦM 2b K€b T`Q##H2\ ǯ*QM +m€H /2 HQb /Qb DmB+BQb
MQb [m2/`őKQb\
jXaB 2b +B2`i H }`K+BƦM /2H 2bT2+BHBbi , ǯ[mû T`Q##BHB//
i2M2KQb /2 Q#b2`p` Rjj Q K2MQb\
9XaB 2b +B2`i H }`K+BƦM /2H 2bT2+BHBbi ", ǯ[mû T`Q##BHB//
i2M2KQb /2 Q#b2`p` Rjj Q K2MQb\
8Xa2 /2+B/2 +QMiBMm` 2H Km2bi`2Q v Q#b2`pKQb 2H 2bi/Q /2 R98
THK2`b K€b /2 Hb +mH2b 2bi€M 72+i/b 8eX liBHBxM/Q bQH@
K2Mi2 H Mm2p Km2bi` `2bTQM/2  Hb T`2;mMib R- k- j v 9X
eX_2bTQM/2` Hb T`2;mMib R- k- j v 9 miBHBxM/Q +QMDmMiK2Mi2
iQ/ H Km2bi`X

jXd .Bbi`B#m+BƦM SQBbbQM

1bi /Bbi`B#m+BƦM T`2+2 HB;/  2tT2`BK2MiQb 2M HQb [m2 MQb
BMi2`2b H Q+m``2M+B /2 mM /2i2`KBM/Q bm+2bQ  HQ H`;Q /2 mM BM@
i2`pHQ }MBiQ /2 iB2KTQd - p2`B}+€M/Qb2 Hb bB;mB2Mi2b +QM/B+BQM2b,

RX H T`Q##BHB// /2 [m2 2H bm+2bQ Q+m`` 2M mM BMi2`pHQ T2[m2ƢQ

/2 iB2KTQ 2b T`QTQ`+BQMH  H HQM;Bim/ /2H BMi2`pHQ- bB2M/Q λ
2H 7+iQ` /2 T`QTQ`+BQMHB//-

kX H T`Q##BHB// /2 [m2 2H bm+2bQ Q+m`` 2M /Qb Q K€b Q+bBQM2b

2M mM BMi2`pHQ T2[m2ƢQ /2 iB2KTQ 2b T`€+iB+K2Mi2 MmHX

62MƦK2MQb +QKQ 2H MȹK2`Q /2 T`iő+mHb [m2 HH2;M  mM +QMi/Q`

:2B;2` T`Q+2/2Mi2b /2 mM 7m2Mi2 `/B+iBp- 2H MȹK2`Q /2 HHK/b
[m2 HH2;M  mM +2Mi`HBi i2H27ƦMB+ /m`Mi2 mM BMi2`pHQ /2 iB2K@
TQ- Hb #QK#b +ő/b bQ#`2 H `2;BƦM /2 GQM/`2b /m`Mi2 H a2;mM/
:m2`` KmM/BH v Hb #+i2`Bb [m2 +`2+2M 2M H bmT2`}+B2 /2 mM +mHiB@
pQ- 2Mi`2 Qi`Qb- Tm2/2M b2` /2b+`BiQb K2/BMi2 mM p`B#H2 H2iQ`B
SQBbbQMX
d 1M mM THMi2KB2MiQ K€b ;2M2`H- 2H BMi2`pHQ }MBiQ /2 iB2KTQ Tm2/2 b2` bmb@

iBimB/Q TQ` mM bm#+QMDmMiQ +Qi/Q /2 Rk

jXdX .Aah_A"l*AƥL SPAaaPL 8d

G /Bbi`B#m+BƦM /2 SQBbbQM /2 T`€K2i`Q λ 2b mM /2 Hb /Bbi`B#m@

+BQM2b /2 T`Q##BHB// /Bb+`2ib K€b +QMQ+B/X .2MQi`2KQb [m2 H
p`B#H2 X bB;m2 mM /Bbi`B#m+BƦM /2 SQBbbQM +QM

X ∼ P o(λ).

1H bQTQ`i2 /2 H /Bbi`B#m+BƦM 2b DX = {0, 1, 2, 3, . . .} v bm 7mM+BƦM /2

T`Q##BHB// pB2M2 // TQ`
e−λ λx
fX (x) = P (X = x) = , si x = 0, 1, . . . UjXR9V
x!
v +2`Q 2M 2H `2biQX 3
G 7mM+BƦM /2 /Bbi`B#m+BƦM iB2M2 TQ` 2tT`2bBƦM
X e−λ λn
FX (x) = .
n!
n≤x

.B`2KQb [m2 X 2b mM p`B#H2 SQBbbQM /2 T`€K2i`Q λ Q [m2 X bB;m2

mM /Bbi`B#m+BƦM /2 SQBbbQM v HQ /2MQi`2KQb

X ∼ P o(λ).

ǯSQ` [mû 2b iM BKTQ`iMi2 H /Bbi`B#m+BƦM /2 SQBbbQM 2M Hb THB@

++BQM2b\ SQbB#H2K2Mi2N H `xƦM b2 [m2 T`QtBK  H /Bbi`B#m+BƦM
#BMQKBH +mM/Q i2M2KQb mM ;`M MȹK2`Q /2 T`m2#b v mM T2[m2Ƣ
T`Q##BHB// /2 ûtBiQ 2M +/ mM /2 2HHbX 1biQ 2b ?+2KQb Km+?b
T`m2#b T2`Q 2b Kmv ``Q [m2 i2M;KQb mM ûtBiQ 2M mM /2 2HHbX SQ`
2HHQ-  2bi /Bbi`B#m+BƦM b2 H2 bm2H2 HHK` H /Bbi`B#m+BƦM /2 HQb bm+2bQb
``QbX
S`QTQbB+BƦM jXR UG /Bbi`B#m+BƦM /2 SQBbbQM +QKQ HőKBi2 /2 /Bbi`B#m+BQM2b #BMQKBH2bV
a2 {Xn }n≥1 mM bm+2bBƦM /2 p`B#H2b iH2b [m2 Xn ∼ Bi(n, pn ) v
HBKn→+∞ npn = λ 2MiQM+2b

e−λ λx
HBK P (Xn = x) = .
n→+∞ x!
.2KQbi`+BƦM jXR *QMbB/2`2KQb H bm+2bBƦM /2 p`B#H2b H2iQ`Bb
Xn ∼ Bi(n, pn ) 2M H [m2  K2/B/ [m2 n mK2Mi- pn /BbKBMmv2 /2
7Q`K iH [m2 npn ≈ λX J€b +QM+`2iK2Mi2- npn → λX h2M/`2KQb
T` H 7mM+BƦM /2 T`Q##BHB// [m2
 
n x n!
P (Xn = x) = p (1 − pn )n−x = px (1 − pn )n−x ,
x n x!(n − x)! n
v T` n bm}+B2Mi2K2Mi2 ;`M/2-
 x  n−x
n! λ λ
P (Xn = x) ≈ 1−
x!(n − x)! n n
x
 n  −x
λ n(n − 1) · · · (n − x + 1) λ λ
= 1− 1− .
x! nx n n
3 1b 7€+BH +QKT`Q#` [m2 H 7mM+BƦM [m2 +#KQb /2 +QMbB/2`` 2M jXR9 2b /2

T`Q##BHB//X 1b MQ M2;iBp v
X
+∞
λx X λx
+∞
e−λ = e−λ = e−λ eλ = 1.
x=0
x! x=0
x!

N S`Q##H2K2Mi2 [m2/ K2DQ` 2M 2bib MQib

 83 *SŐhlGP jX S_P""AGA..

H Tb` H HőKBi2-
 n  −x
n(n − 1) · · · (n − x + 1) λ λ
→ 1, 1− → e−λ , 1− → 1,
nx n n
v i2M/`2KQb
e−λ λx
HBK fXn (x) = .
n→+∞ x!
G miBHB// /2 2bi2 `2bmHi/Q `2bB/2 2M T2`KBiB` H T`QtBK+BƦM /2 H
7mM+BƦM /2 +mMiő /2 mM #BMQKBH +QM M T`m2#b v T`Q##BHB// /2
ûtBiQ T- Bi(n, p)- K2/BMi2 H 7mM+BƦM /2 +mMiő /2 mM SQBbbQM +QM
T€`K2i`Q λ = np +mM/Q n 2b ;`M/2 v p T2[m2ƢQX

jX3 .Bbi`B#m+BQM2b ;2QKûi`B+ v #BMQKBH

M2;iBp
jX3XR .Bbi`B#m+BƦM ;2QKûi`B+
ǯ*m€H 2b 2H MȹK2`Q /2 HMxKB2MiQb /2 mM KQM2/ U+Q``2+iV [m2
?2KQb /2 `2HBx` Mi2b /2 Q#i2M2` H T`BK2` +`\ LQ T`2}DKQb
2H MȹK2`Q /2 HMxKB2MiQb /2 H KQM2/X aQHK2Mi2 T`2}DKQb [m2
[m2`2KQb H+Mx` 2H T`BK2` ûtBiQ- H T`BK2` +`- v +QMiKQb 2H
MȹK2`Q /2 HMxKB2MiQb [m2 ?2KQb `2HBx/QX
1M ;2M2`H- +QMbB/2`2KQb mM bm+2bBƦM /2 T`m2#b "2`MQmHHB UûtBiQ
Q 7`+bQV BM/2T2M/B2Mi2b +QM H KBbK T`Q##BHB// /2 ûtBiQ- pX G
p`B#H2 H2iQ`B [m2 MQb BMi2`2b 2b 2H MȹK2`Q /2 T`m2#b [m2 ?2KQb
/2 `2HBx` ?bi Q#i2M2` 2H T`BK2` ûtBiQ U/QM/2 MQ pKQb  +QMi`
2H ûtBiQVX G /2MQiKQb TQ` XX ǯ*m€H 2b bm 7mM+BƦM /2 T`Q##BHB//\
amTQM;KQb [m2 /2MQiKQb TQ` Ai 2H bȹ+2bQ +QMbBbi2Mi2 2M Q#i2M2`
ûtBiQ 2M H T`m2# B@ûbBKX 1b +H`Q [m2 {X = 0} = A1 v
P (X = 0) = P (A1 ) = p.
1M ;2M2`H bB x > 0 i2M2KQb
  x
Y
P (X = x) = P Ac1 ∩. . .∩Acx ∩Ax+1 = P (Ax ) P (Aci ) = p(1−p)x ,
i=1

/QM/2 H b2;mM/ B;mH// b2 bB;m2 /2 H BM/2T2M/2M+B /2 HQb bm+2bQb

Ai X 1M +QMb2+m2M+B- bB X bB;m2 mM /Bbi`B#m+BƦM ;2QKûi`B+ +QM T`Q@
##BHB// /2 ûtBiQ p 2MiQM+2b bm 7mM+BƦM /2 T`Q##BHB// pB2M2 //
TQ`
P (X = x) = p(1 − p)x bB x = 0, 1, . . . ,
v +2`Q 2M 2H `2biQX

jX3Xk .Bbi`B#m+BƦM #BMQKBH M2;iBp

j j
1M 2bi b2++BƦM 2bim/BKQb
H /Bbi`B#m+BƦM #BMQKBH M2@ *QMbB/2`2KQb T`m2#b "2`MQmHHB BM/2T2M/B2Mi2b +QM H KBbK T`Q@
;iBp 2M 2H KQ/Q 2M [m2 ##BHB// /2 ûtBiQ- p- 2M +/ mM /2 2HHbX 6BDKQb 2H MȹK2`Q /2
MQb `2bmHi ȹiBH +mM/Q 2bim@ 7`+bQb [m2 [m2`2KQb Q#i2M2`- TQ` 2D2KTHQ- r 7`+bQbX LQb THMi2@
/BKQb 2tT`2bBƦM /B72`2M+BH KQb 2H MȹK2`Q /2 ûtBiQb ?bi Q#i2M2` 2H `@ûtBKQ 7`+bQX G
miBHBxM/Q +QMi2QbX 7mM+BƦM /2 T`Q##BHB// p2M/`€ // TQ`
 
k+r−1 k
P (X = k) = p (1 − p)r UjXR8V
k
jXNX .Aah_A"l*AƥL LP_JG 8N

+QM k = 0, 1, . . . /QM/2 2H MQK#`2 /2 #BMQKBH M2;iBp 2b +QMb2+m2M+B

/2
 
k+r−1
=
k
(k + r − 1)! (k + r − 1) . . . r
= =
k!(r − 1)! k!
 
k (−r)(−r − 1) . . . (−r − k + 1) k −r
(−1) = (−1) . UjXReV
k! k

a2 /2Km2bi` [m2
pr
E(X) = µ = , UjXRdV
1−p
v [m2 bm p`BMx pB2M2 // TQ`
pr
var(X) = σ 2 = . UjXR3V
(1 − p)2

mM[m2 T2`/2KQb H BMi2`T`2i+BƦM TQ/2KQb miBHBx` mM pHQ` /2 r

[m2 b2 mM MȹK2`Q TQbBiBpQ +mH[mB2`- MQ M2+2b`BK2Mi2 mM MȹK2`Q
2Mi2`QX _2+Q`/2KQb [m2 H 7mM+BƦM ;KK /2 1mH2` ;2M2`HBx 2H +QM@
+2TiQ /2 MȹK2`Q 7+iQ`BHX G 7mM+BƦM ;KK b2 /2}M2 +QKQ Γ(r) =
x e dxX u- 2M T`iB+mH`- b2 iB2M2 [m2 Γ(r) = (r − 1)Γ(r − 1)X aB
R +∞ r −x
0
r 2b mM 2Mi2`Q TQbBiBpQ i2M/`2KQb Γ(r) = (r − 1)!X h2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi
2biQ 2b Mim`H H ;2M2`HBx+BƦMX

Γ(k + r) k
P (X = k) = p (1 − p)r UjXRNV
k!Γ(r)

+QM k = 0, 1, . . .
1M HQ Mi2`BQ` ?2KQb T`K2i`Bx/Q H 7KBHB miBHBxM/Q k v rX am@
TQM;KQb [m2 T`K2i`BxKQb miBHBxM/Q µ v rX h2M/`2KQb 2MiQM+2b
p = µ/(r + µ) v bmbiBimv2M/Q
 k  r
Γ(k + r) µ r
P (X = k) = . UjXkyV
k!Γ(r) r + µ r+µ

aB ?Q` /2}MBKQb 2H T`€K2i`Q φ = 1/r 2MiQM+2b H 7Q`K [m2 /QTi

H 7mM+BƦM /2 T`Q##BHB// 2b
 k  1/φ
Γ(k + 1/φ) µ 1
P (X = k) = . UjXkRV
k!Γ(1/φ) µ + 1/φ 1 + µφ

/2K€b b2 bB;m2 7€+BHK2Mi2 [m2

var(X) = σ 2 = µ + φµ2 . UjXkkV

SQ` 2HHQ 2H T`€K2i`Q φ- [m2 `2+B#2 2H MQK#`2 /2 T`€K2i`Q /2 /Bb@

T2`bBƦM- +mMiB}+ 2H BM+`2K2MiQ /2 H p`BMx `2bT2+iQ /2 H K2/BX

jXN .Bbi`B#m+BƦM MQ`KH

.2}MB+BƦM jXe Uo`B#H2 MQ`KHV lM p`B#H2 H2iQ`B X b2 /B@
+2 [m2 bB;m2 mM /Bbi`B#m+BƦM MQ`KH +QM K2/B µ v p`BMx σ 2 UQ-
 ey *SŐhlGP jX S_P""AGA..

bBKTH2K2Mi2- [m2 2b mM p`B#H2 H2iQ`B MQ`KHV v b2 /2MQi +QM

X ∼ N (µ, σ 2 )Ry bB bm 7mM+BƦM /2 /2MbB// pB2M2 // TQ`
1 1 (x−µ)
2

f (x) = √ e− 2 σ 2 UjXkjV
2πσ
.2 Qi`Q KQ/Q- bB iQKKQb /Qb pHQ`2b `#Bi``BQb a v b +QM a ≤ b
2MiQM+2b Z b
P (a ≤ X ≤ b) = f (x)dx.
a

1M 2bi b2++BƦM bmKBKQb bB2KT`2 [m2 H p`B#H2 H2iQ`B bB;m2 mM

/Bbi`B#m+BƦM MQ`KH +QM K2/B µ v +QM p`BMx σ 2 - X ∼ N (µ, σ 2 )X
1M H };m` jXRR T`2+2 mM 2D2KTHQ /2 H 7mM+BƦM /2}MB/ 2M jXkjX
1M +QM+`2iQ 2b mM MQ`KH +QM K2/B d v p`BMx 9X
u HQ BM/B+KQb 2M H T`QTB /2}MB+BƦM T2`Q b2 Tm2/2 /2KQbi``
[m2 H K2/B v p`BMx /2 mM MQ`KH bQM µ v σ 2 X 1M /2}MBiBp
2biKQb }`KM/Q [m2 b2 p2`B}+M Hb bB;mB2Mi2b 2+m+BQM2bX
Z +∞
µ = xf (x)dx,
−∞
Z +∞
σ2 = (x − µ)2 f (x)dx.
−∞

LQi jXR UG MQ`KH 2bi€M/`V lM p`B#H2 H2iQ`B Z b2 /B+2

[m2 iB2M2 mM /Bbi`B#m+BƦM MQ`KH 2bi€M/` +mM/Q bm K2/B 2b +2`Q
v bm p`BMx 2b mMQ, Z ∼ N (0, 1)X am 7mM+BƦM /2 /2MbB// 2b
0.4

1
UjXk9V
1 2
f (x) = √ e− 2 x .
0.3

2π
Densidad

G `2T`2b2Mi+BƦM ;`€}+ /2 2bi /2MbB// H i2M2KQb 2M H };m`

0.2

jXRjX
0.1

aB Z 2b mM MQ`KH 2bi€M/` 2MiQM+2b H 7mM+BƦM /2 /Bbi`B#m+BƦM-

2biQ 2b- H 7mM+BƦM [m2 T` +/ pHQ` z MQb / H T`Q##BHB// /2 [m2
0.0

H p`B#H2 b2 K2MQ` Q B;mH [m2 2bi2 pHQ` z 2b H bB;mB2Mi2

−6 −4 −2 0 2 4 6

x
Z z
1
UjXk8V
1 2
6B;m` jXRj, 6mM+BƦM /2 /2MbB// Φ(z) = √ e− 2 x dx.
/2 mM MQ`KH 2bi€M/` Q iőTB+X −∞ 2π
./Q mM TmMiQ z 2H pHQ` /2 H 7mM+BƦM Φ(z) MQb / 2H €`2 #DQ H
+m`p /2 H /2MbB// MQ`KH 2Mi`2 −∞ v 2H TmMiQ zX 1M H };m` jXR9
?2KQb `v/Q 2M M2;`Q 2bi xQM T` z = 1.3
>v i#Hb [m2 MQb T`QTQ`+BQMM 2H pHQ` /2 2bi 7mM+BƦM T` /B@
72`2Mi2b pHQ`2b /2 zXRR 1biQ 2` M2+2b`BQ +mM/Q MQ i2MőKQb ?2``@
KB2Mib BM7Q`K€iB+bX ?Q` HQ HƦ;B+Q 2b miBHBx` bQ7ir`2X 1M +QM+`2iQ
0.4
2H pHQ` /2 Φ(1.3) U€`2 /2 H xQM `v/ 2M M2;`Q 2M H };m` jXR9
HQ Q#i2M/`őKQb +QM _ /2H bB;mB2Mi2 KQ/QX
0.3

TMQ`KURXjV
Densidad

0.2

OO (R) yXNyjRNN8
0.1
1M H };m` jXR8 i2M2KQb `2T`2b2Mi/ H 7mM+BƦM ΦX
Ry hK#BûM
b2 /2MQi +QM 7`2+m2M+B X ∼ N (µ, σ)- 2b /2+B`- b2 BM/B+ H K2/B
0.0
µ v H /2bpB+BƦM iőTB+ Q 2bi€M/` σX
x
−6 −3 0
RR
3
aBKTH2K2Mi2 TQMB2M/Q 2M :QQ;H2 dzi#Hb /2 H MQ`KHǴ MQb T`2+2M mM KQM@
6

iƦM /2 i#HbX *mH[mB2` HB#`Q /2 i2tiQ /2 ?+2 mMQb ƢQb HH2p H }MH /2H i2tiQ
6B;m` jXR9, G 7mM+BƦM /2 /Bbi`B@ mMb i#Hb /2 H MQ`KHX
#m+BƦM /2 H MQ`KH 2bi€M/` 2M 2H
TmMiQ 1.3 +Q``2bTQM/2 +QM 2H €`2
/2 H xQM `v/X
1.00

0.75
jXNX .Aah_A"l*AƥL LP_JG eR

LQi jXk U1biM/`Bx+BƦM Q iBTB}++BƦMV aB i2M2KQb mM p`B@

#H2 H2iQ`B +QM /Bbi`B#m+BƦM MQ`KH +QM K2/B µ v p`BMx σ 2 2M@
iQM+2b H p`B#H2 H2iQ`B Z = X−µ
σ bB;m2 mM /Bbi`B#m+BƦM MQ`KH
+QM K2/B y v +QM p`BMx R- 2biQ 2b- b2 p2`B}+
0.4

X −µ
Z= ∼ N (0, 1). UjXkeV
σ 0.3

Rk
1bi i`Mb7Q`K+BƦM `2+B#2 2H MQK#`2 /2 iBTB}++BƦM Q 2biM/`B@ 0.2

x+BƦM /2 H p`B#H2 H2iQ`B XX

1M H };m` jXRe KQbi`KQb H /2MbB// /2 mM p`B#H2 X MQ`KH 0.1

+QM K2/B d v p`BMx 9 v H /2MbB// /2 H p`B#H2 iBTB}+/ ZX

LQi jXj U.2 +ƦKQ +H+mH#M HQb MiB;mQb Hb T`Q##BHB//2b +QM H MQ`KHV
0.0

0 10 20

ǯZmû T`Q#H2K MQb THMi2KQb\ amTQM2KQb [m2 mM +B2`i +MiB//

bB;m2 mM /Bbi`B#m+BƦM MQ`KH +QM mMQb T`€K2i`Qb UK2/B v p`BM@ 6B;m` jXRe, 6mM+BƦM /2 /2MbB//
xV //QbX LQb THMi2KQb +ƦKQ +H+mH` H T`Q##BHB// /2 [m2 H /2 mM MQ`KH +QM K2/B d v p@
`BMx 9 Up2`/2V v /2 mM MQ`KH
p`B#H2 2biû 2M mM +B2`iQ BMi2`pHQX SQ` 2D2KTHQ- b#2KQb [m2 2H p@ iőTB+ +QM K2/B y v p`BMx R
HQ` H2iQ`BQ [m2 Q#b2`pKQb bB;m2 mM /Bbi`B#m+BƦM MQ`KH +QM K2/B UxmHVX
8e v /2bpB+BƦM iőTB+ NX ǯZmû T`Q##BHB// i2M2KQb /2 [m2 H p`B#H2
H2iQ`B iQK2 mM pHQ` 2Mi`2 ey v ej\ LQb THMi2KQb 2H pHQ` /2 H
bB;mB2Mi2 T`Q##BHB//, P (60 ≤ X ≤ 63)X 1bi T`Q##BHB// +Q``2bTQM@
/2 +QM H xQM `v/ /2 M2;`Q 2M H };m` jXRdX S` +H+mH` 2bi2
€`2 b2 THB+#M Hb bB;mB2Mi2b B;mH//2b /QM/2 Z = (X − 56)/3-
 
60 − 56 X − 56 63 − 56
P (60 ≤ X ≤ 63) = P ≤ ≤ =
3 3 3
     
60 − 56 63 − 56 63 − 56 60 − 56
P ≤Z≤ =P Z≤ −P Z ≤ .
3 3 3 3
UjXkdV

S2`Q H p`B#H2 Z 2b mM MQ`KH 2bi€M/` TQ` HQ [m2

       
63 − 56 60 − 56 63 − 56 60 − 56
P Z≤ −P Z ≤ =Φ −Φ .
3 3 3 3

.2 mM KQ/Q ;2Mû`B+Q HQ [m2 +#KQb /2 BM/B+` 2b [m2 bB X ∼

N (56, 9) 2MiQM+2b
   
63 − 56 60 − 56
P (60 ≤ X ≤ 63) = Φ −Φ ,
3 3

bB2M/Q Φ H 7mM+BƦM /2 /Bi`B#m+BƦM /2 mM MQ`KH 2bi€M/`X

aB bmTQM2KQb [m2 X ∼ N (µ, σ 2 ) v iQKKQb /Qb MȹK2`Qb a v b 0.10

iH2b [m2 a ≤ b 2MiQM+2b

Densidad

   
b−µ a−µ
P (a ≤ X ≤ b) = Φ −Φ , UjXk3V 0.05

σ σ

Rk 1bi }`K+BƦM 2b bBKTH2K2Mi2 +QMb2+m2M+B /2 H bB;mB2Mi2 B;mH// Uv T2`@ 0.00

/ƦM TQ` H 2+m+BƦMV 50 55

x
60

Z (x−µ)2
Z b−µ
6B;m` jXRd, .2MbB// /2 mM
b 1 1
−1 σ 1 2
√ e 2 σ2 dx = √ e− 2 x dx.
a 2πσ a−µ 2π N (56, 9)X 1H €`2 /2 H xQM `v@
/ 2M M2;`Q +Q``2bTQM/2  H T`Q@
σ

##BHB// /2 [m2 H p`B#H2 2biû

2Mi`2 ey v ejX
 ek *SŐhlGP jX S_P""AGA..

1D2KTHQ jXR8 U*H+mHM/Q H 7mM+BƦM /2 /2MbB// /2 mM MQ`KHV

amTQM;KQb [m2 µ = 16 v σ 2 = 4X G 7mM+BƦM /2 /2MbB// 2M mM TmMiQ
H TQ/2KQb +H+mH` +QM

/MQ`KUR9-K2M4 Re- b/4 kV

OO (R) yXRkyN389

Q- 2M mM +QMDmMiQ /2 TmMiQb- +QM

ty 4 b2[URy-kk-RV
/MQ`KUty-K2M4 Re- b/4 kV

OO (R) yXyykkR8Nk9 yXyy3de9R8y yXykeNN893j

0.20 OO (9) yXye9d83dN3 yXRkyN38jek yXRdeyjkeej
OO (d) yXRNN9dRR9y yXRdeyjkeej yXRkyN38jek
0.15
OO (Ry) yXye9d83dN3 yXykeNN893j yXyy3de9R8y
OO (Rj) yXyykkR8Nk9

1M H };m` jXR3 T`2+2M i`2b /2MbB//2b MQ`KH2b +QM T`€K2@

0.10

i`Qb /BbiBMiQb /2 KQ/Q [m2 p2KQb 2H 272+iQ /2 KQ/B}+` H K2/B v

H p`BMxX 1M +QM+`2iQ b2 `2T`2b2MiM Hb /2MbB//2b /2 Hb /Bbi`B@
0.05

#m+BQM2b MQ`KH2b N (16, 4)- N (24, 4) v N (16, 9)X

0.00

1D2KTHQ jXRe SQ/2KQb ;2M2`` pHQ`2b H2iƦ`BQb +QM /Bbi`B#m+BƦM

10 20 30 40

6B;m` jXR3, 6mM+BQM2b /2 /2MbB@

MQ`KHX
// /2 mM MQ`KH +QM K2/B Re v
/2bpB+BƦM iőTB+ k UxmHV- /2 mM `MQ`KUky-K2M4 Re- b/4 kV
MQ`KH +QM K2/B Re v /2bpB+BƦM
iőTB+ j Up2`/2V v mM MQ`KH +QM OO (R) kyX83dRy RdXyyyd8 R8XyjkNR R3X88y8j ReXydjky
K2/B k9 v /2bpB+BƦM iőTB+ k U`Q@
DQVX OO (e) ReX9R93j RjXke98R ReXeeyjN ReXjk38N R9Xjddkk
OO (RR) R3XyeejN R8XkjNjj R8XRkkyj R9Xy9N8j RRX9jded
OO (Re) RNX99j9k RkXjjRy8 RdXyNddk ReXN98ed R3XkN3N9

1.00 G 7mM+BƦM /2 /Bbi`B#m+BƦM /2 H p`B#H2 X- 2b /2+B`- F (x) =

P (X ≤ x) H Q#i2M2KQb +QM
0.75

TMQ`KUR9-K2M4 Re- b/4 kV

OO (R) yXR83e88j
0.50
y

0.25
SQ/2KQb `2T`2b2Mi` 2bi 7mM+BƦM U};m` jXRNVX
hK#BûM TQ/2KQb THMi2` 2H T`Q#H2K BMp2`bQX *QMbB/2`KQb mM
0.00
T`Q##BHB//- TQ` 2D2KTHQ 0.34- v #mb+KQb 2H pHQ` /2 x /QM/2 P (X ≤
x) = 0.34 Q /B+?Q /2 Qi`Q KQ/Q 2H T2`+2MiBH /2 Q`/2M 0.34X
10 15 20
x

6B;m` jXRN, 6mM+BƦM /2 /Bbi`B#m@

+BƦM U+mKmH/V /2 H /Bbi`B#m@ [MQ`KUyXj9-K2M4 Re- b/4 kV
+BƦM MQ`KH +QM K2/B Re v /2b@
pB+BƦM 2bi€M/` kX OO (R) R8XRd8yd

LQi jX9 Uǯ*ƦKQ BMi2`T`2i` H /2bpB+BƦM iőTB+\V >2KQb pBb@

iQ +ƦKQ mM /2bpB+BƦM iőTB+ KvQ` bmTQM2 mM KvQ` p`B#BHB//X
G p`B#H2 H2iQ`BQ iB2M/2  T`Q/m+B` pHQ`2b K€b /BbT2`bQbX >2KQb
`2T`2b2Mi/Q H 7mM+BƦM /2 /2MbB// /2 /BbiBMib /Bbi`B#m+BQM2b MQ`@
KH2b v p2KQb +ƦKQ +mM/Q H /2bpB+BƦM iőTB+ 2b KvQ` 2MiQM+2b
jXNX .Aah_A"l*AƥL LP_JG ej

H ;`€}+ 2b K€b THMX GQb pHQ`2b MQ`KH2b b2 Q#b2`pM H`2/2/Q`

/2 H K2/B µ v 2bi€M K€b Q K2MQb /BbT2`bQb b2;ȹM 2H pHQ` /2 σ
b2 KvQ` Q K2MQ`X >v mM BMi2`T`2i+BƦM b2M+BHH /2 H /2bpB+BƦM
2bi€M/`X *QMbB/2`2KQb 2H BMi2`pHQ [µ − σ, µ + σ]- ǯ[mû T`Q##BHB//
i2M2KQb /2 [m2 mM p`B#H2 H2iQ`B +QM /Bbi`B#m+BƦM MQ`KH 2biû 2M
2bi2 BMi2`pHQ\
X −µ
P (µ − σ ≤ X ≤ µ + σ) = P (−1 ≤ ≤ 1) = P (−1 ≤ Z ≤ 1)
σ
UjXkNV
bB2M/Q Z mM p`B#H2 +QM /Bbi`B#m+BƦM MQ`KH 2bi€M/`- Z ∼ N (0, 1)X
S2`Q-

+1
1
Z
x2
P (−1 ≤ Z ≤ 1) = √ e− 2 dx =
−1 2π
+1 Z −11
1 − x2 1
Z
x2
√ e 2 dx − √ e− 2 dx = Φ(1) − Φ(−1). UjXjyV
−∞ 2π −∞ 2π
oKQb  +H+mH` H /B72`2M+B Mi2`BQ` miBHBxM/Q _X

TMQ`KUR-K2M4y-b/4RV @ TMQ`KU@R-K2M4y-b/4RV

OO (R) yXe3ke3N8

SQ` iMiQ- bB X 2b mM p`B#H2 H2iQ`B +QM /Bbi`B#m+BƦM MQ`KH

+QM K2/B µ v /2bpB+BƦM iőTB+ σ 2MiQM+2b H T`Q##BHB// /2 [m2 H
p`B#H2 2biû 2Mi`2 µ − σ v µ + σ 2b

P (µ − σ ≤ X ≤ µ + σ) = 0.6826895. UjXjRV

.2 mM KQ/Q M€HQ;Q bB +QMbB/2`KQb 2H BMi2`pHQ [µ − 2σ, µ + 2σ]

2MiQM+2b

P (µ − 2σ ≤ X ≤ µ + 2σ) = P (−2 ≤ Z ≤ 2) UjXjkV

[m2 pB2M2 //Q TQ`

TMQ`KUk-K2M4y-b/4RV @ TMQ`KU@k-K2M4y-b/4RV

OO (R) yXN899NNd

u }MHK2Mi2 bB +QMbB/2`KQb 2H BMi2`pHQ [µ − 2σ, µ + 2σ] b2 iB2M2

P (µ − 3σ ≤ X ≤ µ + 3σ) = P (−3 ≤ Z ≤ 3) UjXjjV

[m2 2b B;mH 

TMQ`KUj-K2M4y-b/4RV @ TMQ`KU@j-K2M4y-b/4RV

OO (R) yXNNdjyyk

1M H i#H jXj i2M2KQb Hb T`Q##BHB//2b [m2 ?2KQb +H+mH/QX

.2 mM KQ/Q b2M+BHHQ TQ/2KQb /2+B`, H p`B#H2 /Bbi /2 H K2/B
2M mM /2bpB+BƦM 2bi€M/` +QM mM T`Q##BHB// /2 yXe3-
2M /Qb /2bpB+BQM2b +QM mM T`Q##BHB// /2 yXN8 v 2M i`2b
/2bpB+BQM2b 2bi€M/` +QM mM T`Q##BHB// /2 yXNNX
e9 *SŐhlGP jX S_P""AGA..

P (µ − σ ≤ X ≤ µ + σ) yXe3ke3N8

P (µ − 2σ ≤ X ≤ µ + 2σ) yXN899NNd

P (µ − 3σ ≤ X ≤ µ + 3σ) yXNNdjyyk

h#H jXj, S`Q##BHB// /2 [m2 H p`B#H2 /Bbi2 /2 H K2/B 2M mM

MȹK2`Q //Q /2 /2bpB+BQM2b iőTB+b

jXRy 1D2`+B+BQb
1DX ky ě a2 TB/2,
RXaBKmH` Ryy pHQ`2b +QM /Bbi`B#m+BƦM MQ`KH +QM K2/B ky v /2b@
pB+BƦM iőTB+ jX :m`/` 2biQb pHQ`2b 2M 2H p2+iQ` xX
kX*H+mH` H K2/B v p`BMx Km2bi`H2b /2 HQb pHQ`2b ;2M2`/QbX
jX*QKT`` H K2/B Km2bi`H Q#b2`p/ +QM 20 v H p`BMx
Km2bi`H Q#b2`p/ +QM 9 [m2 +Q``2bTQM/2M +QM H K2/B v H
p`BMx i2Ʀ`B+bX
9X_2T2iB` HQb T`i/Qb Mi2`BQ`2b bmbiBimv2M/Q Hb Ryy bBKmH+BQ@
M2b TQ` Ryyy- TQ` Ryyyy v TQ` RyyyyyX *QKT`` 2M +/ +bQ
HQb pHQ`2b i2Ʀ`B+Qb +QM HQb pHQ`2b Km2bi`H2bX

1DX kR ě *QMbB/2`2KQb mM p`B#H2 H2iQ`B +QM /Bbi`B#m+BƦM MQ`@

KH +QM K2/B ky v /2bpB+BƦM iőTB+ jX a2 TB/2,
RXP (X ≤ 23)X
kXP (X < 23)X
jXP (X > 29)X
9XP (X ≥ 29)X
8XP (34 < X ≤ 45)X
eXP (34 ≤ X ≤ 45)X