Single Wire Earth Return for Remote Rural Distribution

Reducing Costs and Improving Reliability

Conrad W. Holland
Maunsell Ltd., an AECOM Company

47 George Street, Newmarket

Auckland, New Zealand

1
Single Wire Earth Return for Remote Rural Distribution – Reducing Costs and
Improving Reliability

Conrad W. Holland, Maunsell Ltd., an AECOM Company

Abstract

Single Wire Earth Return (SWER) has been used in New Zealand since the 1930s and is still
actively used in rural New Zealand, Australia, South Africa and parts of South East Asia. We
update the cost structure for SWER and look at modern innovations that can be applied to
drive down costs and improve reliability.

SWER in New Zealand

The early work on SWER in New Zealand was carried out by Loyd Mandeno, who for a time
held the SWER patent in Australia and New Zealand. Mandeno’s paper “Rural Power
Supply, Especially in Back Country Areas” is the classic reference for the technology and
established New Zealand as a SWER pioneer. Since the publication of Mandeno’s paper in
1947 things have moved on and we will examine the relevance of SWER today and explore
the enhancements carried out in the intervening years.

In New Zealand SWER is not as prevalent as it once was; the reasons for this include:

Higher household after-diversity maximum demands

Limitation of the maximum earth current to 8 Amps by NZECP 41:1993
Better access to power in rural areas
Higher load densities which mean that two-wire-single phase or three-wire
three-phase distribution is more suitable
Higher quality of supply expectations
Demand for three-phase supply for large motors
Declining interest in the use of the technology.

The technology is still however valuable in some of the more remote areas of the country,
particularly where modern enhancements can be applied to extend the life of existing
systems, to delay a costly upgrade to two-wire or three-wire reticulation.

SWER in Australia

After the early development of SWER for rural electrification in New Zealand, the
technology was further developed by the Australians who used it for electrification of their
vast, sparsely populated outback. Further details of the use of SWER in Australia are outlined
in Table 1.

“Throughout western Queensland, Ergon Energy operates one of the lowest customer density
networks in the western world which includes around 65,000 kilometres of SWER lines. This
network poses unique challenges in providing a cost effective and reliable electricity supply.”

Most of the enhancements to SWER technology are now coming from Australia. In particular
Ergon Energy of Queensland are pursuing ways to improve the voltage performance of long

2
SWER lines under increasing loads, Country Energy of New South Wales and Power and
Water of the Northern Territory have developed design manuals and standards for SWER that
serve as a valuable introduction to anyone contemplating using SWER. Australian Inland
Energy actively uses SWER, with some feeders reaching 300 km in length.

Table 1 - Distribution Overhead Lines in Australia (2002)

STATE Conventional 22 kV Conventional 11 kV SWER, at 19.1 kV

single and three and below single or 12.7 kV
phase and three phase
circuit kilometres circuit kilometres circuit kilometres
NEW SOUTH 30,596 108,794 30,075
WALES & ACT
VICTORIA 59,304 1,597 28,274
QUEENSLAND 0 61,610 64,375
SOUTH AUSTRALIA 0 15,720 31,382
WESTERN 14,555 1,750 41,253
AUSTRALIA1
TASMANIA 11,253 2,999 614
NORTHERN Under 11 kV 2,989 12
TERRITORY
TOTAL 115,708 195,459 195,9852

SWER World Wide

SWER is being used world wide as one of the tools to supply electricity to the 2 billion
people who currently depend on traditional fuels for cooking and lighting. 3 For electrifying
rural communities from the grid or from islanded mini grids, SWER serves as a low cost
entry level technology. In this role it is best suited to areas where a) the initial energy demand
(kWh) per household is low, e.g. 30 to 100 kWh per month; b) the after diversity maximum
demand per household in the first 10 years of electrification is below 500 VA; c) lower
population densities prevail.

SWER is being used for rural electrification in Lao PDR by Electricité du Laos, in Cambodia
by Electricité du Cambodge in parts of rural Vietnam by the PECs and in the Republic of
South Africa by Eskom Distribution, etc. The ongoing development of SWER by Eskom
Distribution is particularly interesting as they appear to be developing the technology from a
zero base and as a result have a fresh and new view to offer; this contrasts with New Zealand
and Australia where development of the technology is somewhat evolutionary. In South
Africa SWER is now “considered as the first option when network development plans are
compiled”.

1
Western Power, Western Australia operate a SWER variant which includes a strung suspended earth wire, in a similar manner to the North
American method of single phase distribution.
2
This compares with a total system length for conventional distribution at all voltages in New Zealand of 111,841 overhead circuit
kilometres, www.comcom.govt.nz.
3
Rural Energy and, Development Improving Energy Supplies for Two Billion People, The World Bank 1996.

3
South African Initiatives

Micro SWER – One of the major costs, complications and technical challenges to
implementing SWER systems is the isolating transformer; this means that SWER is seldom
economic for extensions of less than 3 kilometres. The South African concept of micro
SWER addresses this by allowing SWER extensions without isolating transformers for loads
under 5 kVA. This type of supply is principally aimed at supplying remote mobile phone
repeater sites.

Formalising the SWER Design Process – The design and installation of SWER has been
formalised through the ESKOM distribution standard scsasabb6 for MV reticulation by
19 kV single-wire earth return. Where this differs from Australian guidelines is that the
standard is more prescriptive and is therefore useful for individuals and organisations
considering the use of SWER for the first time. It also a) clearly explains when and where to
use SWER in preference to 2 wire single phase or 3 wire construction; b) contains a thorough
treatment of protection of SWER lines using a combination of reclosers, electronic fuses and
repeater fuses; c) deals effectively with surge protection; d) shows how SWER can be used
for the vexed question of large motors for irrigation; e) promotes the use of an under-strung
neutral/earth wire to reduce costs in remote village reticulation or in areas of high earth
resistivity; f) includes a full set of construction drawings.

SWER Technology Development

When looked at in isolation, SWER as a technology has barely moved since Mandeno
published his first paper in 1947. However if we look more closely, we can see the
technology has improved significantly and is well suited to modern grid connected
distribution for remote customers with low loads. The areas where the technology has
improved includes:

Insulators - Pin insulators were once widely used throughout the industry. There are now
other options such as a) post insulators or pin post insulators for in-line and small angle
structures; and b) polymer insulators for strain structures. In former times, the standard
insulators available were 11 kV or 33 kV pin insulators for 12.7 kV or 19.1 kV SWER; now
22 kV pin post insulators can be used. These insulators also offer a future upgrade path to
11 kV or 22 kV two wire/three wire construction.

Vibration Damage - To get the maximum reduction in costs, SWER construction uses long
spans. These spans can be up to 300 metres on 12 metre poles over level ground, longer spans
can be used over undulating country. To achieve these long spans, the conductor is strung
with everyday tension of greater than 18%, which can accelerate vibration damage to the
conductor. Nowadays preformed spiral vibration dampers can be retrofitted to existing lines
and armour rods and preformed ties can be used for new construction to reduce conductor
damage from unrestrained aeolian vibration. Another option to reduce vibration damage is to
use suspension insulators on longer spans.

Conductors - Where previously Nº 8 galvanised fence wire was a common choice for SWER
conductor, there are now families of conductor that are more suitable. Australian conductor
manufacturers make galvanised steel conductors to AS1222.1 and aluminium-clad steel

4
conductors to AS1222.2. Aluminium-clad steel has an aluminium cladding with a radial
thickness not less than 5% of the overall wire diameter. Conductors incorporating aluminium-
clad steel for reinforcement have lower electrical resistance and provide better protection
against corrosion than those using galvanised steel. It has also been noted that angular cross-
sectioned conductors such as are available in the above series, e.g. 3/2.75 are less prone to
vibration damage than round ones.

Voltage Regulation - Once customers were happy just to have electricity and quality of
supply issues were not a concern; this is no longer the case. SWER systems have inherently
poor regulation due to the Ferranti effect coupled with long line lengths. Poor regulation for
SWER systems has been further aggravated by increase in load over time. To counter this,
shunt reactors can be applied to the line in conjunction with voltage regulators. Intelligent
voltage regulators such as the Coopers’ V32 voltage regulator in conjunction with electronic
controllers are available. Coopers now also offer a voltage regulator with an improved load
drop compensation setting range, suitable for SWER loading.

System Modelling - In order to confirm the adequate performance of SWER systems at the
design stage, accurate computer based load flow studies can be carried out. For example,
PSS/Adept software from PTI can be used to model SWER systems during the design phase
or later should problems with voltage regulation be encountered in older installations. Once
the modelling has been carried out the following can be considered:

Installation of shunt reactors and voltage regulators at optimal positions along the
feeder
Increasing the SWER voltage in the case of older SWER systems
Reconductoring
Load balancing up stream of isolating transformers
Converting the initial section of the feeder to two-wire single-phase or three-phase
configurations
Splitting feeders
Calculating peak losses and energy losses to aid with economic and financial analysis
of alternative upgrade strategies
Calculating theoretical reliability of supply for various configurations
Carrying out motor starting studies to ensure compliance with maximum voltage
depression recommendations.

System Remote Control and SCADA - In general SWER systems are very robust as there is
no possibility of clashing, there are fewer poles and less line hardware than for two-wire
reticulation. When faults occur, line patrols have to traverse large lengths to isolate sections
and then identify and repair faults. This method of fault restoration can take many hours
depending on the location of the fault. System remote control and SCADA can be
conveniently located at auto-reclosers and regulators to minimise the fault outage duration,
and remotely collect demand data for system planning purposes.

Protection and Switchgear - With SWER, there is always a residual current flowing through
the earth, between the distribution transformer and the isolating transformer. Sensitive earth
fault protection is therefore difficult to apply down-stream of the isolating transformer to
sectionalise the feeder using auto reclosers. This is further complicated as the maximum

5
allowable earth return current in a SWER system in New Zealand is 8 A, so that
discrimination between load and fault currents for remote end faults is difficult. In recent
years, Nulec have developed the W series single-pole recloser which includes sensitive earth
fault protection that can be used to sectionalise faulted segments of SWER feeders so that
reliability is improved. Vacuum interruption technology also means that a high number of
recloser operations can be carried out before any maintenance is needed. Detection of low
level earth faults on SWER systems still remains a problem.

The detection of low level earth faults on SWER systems is similar to the problems
associated with detection of low level earth faults on the North American two-wire and four-
wire multiple-earthed MV distribution. The American literature refers to these as HiZ faults
or “faults that do not produce enough fault current to be detectable by conventional over
current relays or fuses”. There are presently three systems that can be used or are under
development to detect HiZ faults;

High impedance fault analysis systems that measures the third harmonic current phase
angle with respect to the fundamental voltage to determine faults
Open conductor detection that detects loss of voltage to determine a broken
conductor, this form of protection detects a down stream loss of voltage and through
logic and communication channels opens up stream breakers and reclosers
Signature based HiZ detection, performs expert system pattern recognition on the
harmonic energy levels of currents in arcing faults.

Motor Starting -Voltage depression during motor starting is an issue for SWER and
conventional distribution systems. In Maunsell’s work on rural electrification in developing
countries, inability to run large motors is the major objection to installing SWER in
preference to three-phase networks. This is especially so in regions where large motors are
required for irrigated agriculture. The issue of motor starting and selection of motors for
SWER systems can be broadly categorised into the following bands:

Small motors – conventional 230 volt induction motors can be used in ratings of up to
5 horsepower using conventional motors and starters. Specialty 460 volt single phase
motors for use with 230-0-230 distribution transformers can also be used.
10 to 15 horsepower motors – specialty single phase motors and electronic starters,
connected 460 V for use with 230-0-230 V distribution transformers
15 horsepower and above motors – Written-Pole single-phase motors can be
considered in order to reduce voltage depression during motor start. The unique
characteristics of electric motors based on this technology enable them to produce
significant starting torque while minimizing starting demand on the network. Starting
demand of Written-Pole(R) single-phase motors are generally 25 to 35 percent of the
starting demand exhibited by conventional single or three-phase induction motors of
similar ratings. As the energy efficiency of these motors is equivalent to that of a
three-phase induction motor, they can also serve to reduce peak demand.

6
Table 2 - Written Pole Motors Starting and Running Current Comparison

Description Written Pole Conventional Written-Pole Conventional

Single-Phase Single-Phase Single-Phase Three-Phase
Rated Output 15 15 30 30
(hp)
Rated Voltage 230 230 230 230
Full Load 56 68 104 70
Current (amps)
Starting 120 380 200 495
Current (amps)
Efficiency (%) 90.2% 82.0% 93.6% 93.6%
Power Factor Unity 0.88 Unity 0.85
Input Power 12.9 kW 13.8 kW 23.9 kW 23.9 kW
(kW)
Input Demand 12.9 kVA 15.6 kVA 23.9 kVA 28.1 kVA
(kVA)

SWER Cost Structure

The following table updates the cost structure for SWER so that indicative costs may be
derived when carrying out economic and financial analysis of proposed SWER installations.
The costs were based on 2003 costs for SWER materials and equipment purchased in Lao
P.D.R using international competitive bidding. A breakdown of these costs is attached in the
appendices. The labour costs, overhead costs, taxes and duties will be greater in the New
Zealand situation.

Table 3 – SWER Unit Costs

Construction Unit Unit Price Unit Price

USD NZD 4
12.7 kV, 1-phase SWER Overhead Circuit
Line kilometer 3,067 5,590
12.7/0.46/0.23 kV, SWER Each
Distribution Transformer, 16 kVA 1,925 3,509
12.7/0.46/0.23 kV, SWER Each
Distribution Transformer, 25 kVA 2,184 3,981
22/12.7/0.23 kV, SWER, 2 Pole, Each
Isolating Transformer, 160 kVA 4,314 7,864

Conclusion

It can be seen from the above that SWER has developed considerably since its inception.
Modern materials, equipment and planning methods can be used to enhance new installations,
and extend the life of existing installations. In New Zealand it is the life extension of existing
installations that is probably more important than developing the technology further for new
installations. This is particularly applicable when existing SWER feeders are at the 8 A limit
set by NZECP 41 and there is likely to be low demand growth going forward. Applying the
methods outlined above the life of existing SWER feeders can be extended, so avoiding
costly upgrades to marginal assets.

4
Converted from United States Dollars at the exchange rate on 17 March 2003, USD/NZD, 0.5486

7
In the context of rural electrification for developing countries, SWER is still an ideal
technology to employ in the initial stages of electrification. The important issue is to plan the
network with an upgrade path from SWER to two-wire and then three-wire three-phase
distribution. The upgrade path includes the use of common materials and equipment that
remain in service as demand develops and the electrification ratio increases.

References

1 Mandeno, L., Rural Power Supply Especially in Back Country Areas, Proceedings of the New Zealand
Institute of Engineers, 1947, Volume 33
2 Mandeno, L., Australian Patent No. 115, 154, issued to L Mandeno, New Zealand
3 The Electricity Authority of New South Wales, High Voltage Earth Return Distribution for Rural
Areas, Fourth Edition, June 1978
4 Australian Standard AS2558-1982, Transformers for use on single wire earth return distribution
systems
5 Drew N. P., Postlethwaite D.J., Single Wire Earth Return Distribution Systems – Economic Rural
Electrification, Paper No. 3-62, 7th CEPSI Conference Brisbane Australia, October 1988
6 Taylor J., Effeney T.J., Service Experience with Single Wire Earth Return Distribution Systems in
Central Queensland, Paper No. 3-64, , 7th CEPSI Conference Brisbane Australia, October 1988
7 Neaves D.B., Rural Electricity Supply in Western Australia, 1991 Electric Energy Conference, Darwin,
June 1991
8 Varma C.V.J., Lingaih H.M.S., Rao A.R.G., Single Wire Earth Return Distribution Systems – The
Indian Paradigm, 1991 Electric Energy Conference, Darwin, June 1991
9 Effeney T.J., Roughan J.C., Thomas R.H., Options and Evaluations for the Refurbishment of Vibration
Damaged SWER Lines, Distribution 2000, 9-12 November, 1993 Melbourne Australia
10 Chapman N., When One Wire is Enough, Transmission and Distribution World, April 2001, Volume
53. No. 4. Page 56
11 Paterson R., Feasibility Study of Remote Control of SWER Networks, Distribution 2001
12 Loveday Anthony, Turner Jonathan, Voltage Unbalance on Three Phase Distribution Feeders, Power
Transmission and Distribution Magazine, August September 2004.

8
Appendix 1 – SWER Unit Costs

Cost of 12.7 kV, 1-phase SWER Overhead Line, Cost per kilometre

The following is based on 6 poles per kilometre, including 2 strain poles and one angle pole.
The labour costs, overhead costs, taxes and duties will be greater for a New Zealand situation.
The construction is based on 24 kV material so that there is a future upgrade path to two-wire
22 kV single phase distribution, with the addition of intermediary poles cross arms, insulators
and a second conductor.

Material Quantity Unit Price Total Price

USD USD
Pole, 12 metre 6 119 716
Concrete m3, foundation 3 35 105
Linepost Insulators 6 10.89 65
Tension Insulators 4 17.05 68
Tension Insulator hardware 4 2.77 11
Braces and Bolts 6 4.40 26
Stays 2 38 75
Misc 1 200 200
1,267
Installation
Line Route Clearing 1 100 100
Poletop Assembly 6 10 60
Pole Setting 6 10 60
Foundations, Anchors 1 50 50
Guy Assembly 1 50 50
Grounding Installation 1 44 44
Conductor Stringing 1 60 60
Transportation & Tools 1 215 215
Fuel 1 323 323
962
Other
Design, Survey, Staking 1 376 376
Tax (import, turnover) 0
376
Conductor
SC/AC 3/2.75 1150 0.40 462

Total Cost SC/AC

3/2.75/km 3,067

9
Cost of 12.7/0.46/0.23 kV, SWER, 1 Pole, Distribution Transformer

The following is based on the cost of a) a 16 kVA SWER distribution transformer and b) a 25
kVA SWER distribution transformer. The labour costs, overhead costs, taxes and duties will
be greater for the New Zealand situation.

Material Quantity Unit Price Total Price

USD USD
Pole, 12 metre 1 119 119
Concrete m3 0.5 35 18
Crossarms 2 9 19
Line Post Insulator 1 10.89 11
Fuse Cut-outs 1 48.40 48
HV Surge Arresters 1 55.11 55
LV Insulator 4 1 4
LV Surge Arresters 2 6 11
Earthing 1 10.23 10
HV and LV
Connectors 1 0.75 1
Braces and Bolts 4 3.124 12
Stay 1 37.51 38
HV Conductor m 10 3.41 34
LV Conductor m 12 1.20 14
Earthing Conductor m 20 0.78 16
LV Fuse Switch 2 31 62
Misc 1 50 50
522
Installation
Line Route Clearing 0 100 0
Poletop Assembly 1 10 10
Pole Setting 1 10 10
Foundations, Anchors 1 50 50
Guy Assembly 0 50 0
Grounding Installation 1 44 44
Conductor Stringing 0 60 0
Transportation &
Tools 1 215 215
Fuel 1 323 323
652
Other
Design, Survey,
Staking 0.5 376 188
Tax (import, turnover) 0 0 0
188
Transformers
1-phase 16 kVA 1 563 563
1-phase 25 kVA 1 822 822
Total Cost 16 kVA 1,925
Total Cost 25 kVA 2,184

10
Cost of 22/12.7/0.23 kV, SWER, 2 Pole, Isolating Transformer

The following is based on the cost of a two pole isolating transformer including a 230 volt
winding for local supply. The labour costs, overhead costs, taxes and duties will be greater
for the New Zealand situation.

Material Quantity Unit Price Total Price

USD USD
Pole, 12 metre 2 119 239
Concrete m3 1 35 35
Crossarms 2 9 19
Linepost Insulators 1 10.89 11
Tension Insulators 6 59 354
Fuse Cut-outs 3 48.40 145
HV Surge Arrestors 3 55.11 165
LV Surge Arrestors 4 6 23
LV Insulator 6 1 6
HV & LV Connectors 1 0.75 1
Braces and Bolts 4 3.124 12
Steelwork 1 134 134
Stay 1 37.51 38
HV Conductor m 10 3.41 34
LV Conductor m 12 2.15 26
Earthing Conductor m 80 0.78 62
Earthing 3 10.23 31
LV Fuse Switch 2 30.8 62
Misc 1 50 50
1,446
Installation
Line Route Clearing 0 100 0
Poletop Assembly 2 10 20
Pole Setting 2 10 20
Foundations, Anchors 1 50 50
Guy Assembly 0 50 0
Grounding Installation 1 44 44
Conductor Stringing 0 60 0
Transportation & Tools 1 215 215
Fuel 1 323 323
672
Other
Design, Survey, Staking 0.5 376 188
Tax (import, turnover) 0 0 0
188
Transformer
Transformer 160 kVA 1 2009 2,009

Total Cost Isolating Tx 4,314

11