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Unit1 PDF
Unit1 PDF
1.Signals
d@nD = :
1 if n = 0
0 otherwise
and it is plotted in figure 1.2.1, together with a general shifted version d@n - kD.
2 Unit1.nb
δ [n ] δ [n − k ]
1 1
n 0 k n
where each term x@kD d@n - kD in the summation expresses the n-th sample of the sequence.
x[n]
1. 5 1.6
1. 2
0.5
n
− 1.0 − 0. 5
1. 5δ [ n + 2]
1.5
The significance of this expansion is the fact that any signal, no matter how complicated, is decomposed
into elementary pulses properly scaled in amplitude and shifted in time.
Of particular interest is the Unit Step sequence
u@nD = :
1 if n ³ 0
0 otherwise
shown below. It is a simple exercise to show that
n
u@nD = S d@kD
k=-¥
u[n]
1
n
Unit Step Sequence
See if you are following. Click HERE for some Questions (not
graded)
4 Unit1.nb
Ù d HtL dt = Ù d HtL dt = 1.
+¥ 0+
-¥ 0-
and it is represented as in figure 1.2.3. It can be viewed as the limit of a sequence of a rectangular signal
of width T and height €€€
T , as T ® 0.
1
T →0 δ (t )
1
1 T
T
t
T T
Figure 1.2.3: Dirac "Delta" Function
Its significance is the fact that for any signal x HtL, continuous at time t, we can write
-¥ 0- 0-
-¥ -¥
The rightmost integral in the above expression is easily derived by a change in the integration variable.
Comparing to the equivalent expression in discrete time, which we recall here for convenience,
+¥
x@nD = S x@kD d@n - kD
k=-¥
we can see that in both cases we expand a signal (continuous time or discrete time) in terms of a
sequence of unit impulses.
Of particular interest is the Unit Step signal defined as
u HtL = :
1 if t ³ 0
0 otherwise
shown below. It is a simple exercise to show that
Unit1.nb 5
u HtL = Ù d HtL dt
t
-¥
u (t )
1
t
Unit Step Signal
See if you are following. Click HERE for some Questions (not
graded)
with A being the Amplitude. If the independent variable t denotes time, and it is measured in seconds,
then Wo indicates the angular frequency in radians per second, and a the phase in radians. Since the
cosinus, as all trigonometric functions, does not change when the argument is shifted by multiples of
2 p , we can see the periodicity of the sinusoidal signal from the expression
x HtL = Acos HW0 t + a + 2 pL = Acos HW0 Ht + T0L + aL = x Ht + T0L
2 p is the period in seconds (if t is in seconds). Amplitude and period are shown in
where T0 = €€€€€€
W0
figure 1.2.4 below.
6 Unit1.nb
x (t )
A
t
T0
Figure 1.2.4: Sinusoidal Signal showing Amplitude A and Period T0
For example a sinusoid with angular frequency W0 = 2000 p has a period
2p -3
T0 = €€€€€€€€
2000 €p€€ = 10 sec = 1 msec.
The inverse of the period F0 = €€€€
T0€ is the frequency, and it represents the number of repetitions per
1
second.
In the example above, the sinusoid has a period T0 = 1 msec, and therefore its frequency is
F0 = 1000 Hz , where the unit Hertz is defined as Hz = sec-1 .
The understanding of frequency and period will be at the basis of a good part of discussions in this
book, and it is summarized here for convenience:
2p
Angular Frequency W0 = 2 pF0 = €€€€€T0 € radians/sec
2p
Period T0 = €€€€
F0€ = €€€€€
1
W0 € seconds
W0
Frequency F0 = €€€€
T0€ = €€€€€
1
2 p€ Hz=sec-1
T0 = H €€€€€€
250€ L ‰ 10
Example: a sinusoid with frequency F0 =250kHz has a period
-3
1
sec = 4 ‰ 10-6 sec = 4 msec
A discrete time sinusoid is obtained by sampling a continuous time sinusoid with sampling interval Ts ,
as
x@nD = x HnTsL = Acos HW0 Ts n + aL
Unit1.nb 7
x (t ) x[ n ] = x ( nT s )
1
Fs =
Ts
n
t
Ts
w0 = 2 p €€€€
Fs€ radians
F0
See if you are following. Click HERE for some Questions (not
graded)
8 Unit1.nb
for any angle a. Therefore, substituting for the appropriate time varying angle, both continuous time and
discrete time sinusoidal signals can be expressed in terms of complex exponential signals as in the
following:
The reason why the exponential signal in general is more attractive than the sinusoidal signal, is because
a number of significant operations we perform on signals become just algebraic manipulations in com-
plex exponentials. For example:
a) Differentiation and Integration. Take any signal x HtL and compute its derivative or its integral
with respect to time, as yd HtL = €€€€dt€ x HtL or yI HtL = Ù x HtL dt . In general both
yd HtL and yI HtL have expressions different from x HtL, UNLESS x HtL is an exponen-
d
tial, in which case differentiation and integration are just algebraic operations as multiplication
and division:
yd HtL = €€€€
dt€ x HtL = €€€€
j2 p F0 t = Hj2pF L ej 2 pF0 t = Hj2pF L x HtL
b) Time Shift. Similarly, take any sequence x@nD and shift it in time as y@nD = x@n - LD, with L
being an integer. Again if x@nD is an exponential signal (and ONLY in this case), then the shifted
sequence is obtained just by multiplication, as
In more technical words we say that the complex exponential signal is an eigenfunction of Differential,
Integral and Time Shift operators. This means that, ONLY in the case of exponentials, these operations
are just algebraic manipulations. All other signals are not so lucky! This is at the basis of most (not all)
the transform techniques (Fourier, Laplace, z-, and all their relatives) which are introduced as tools to
analyze signals, systems and their interactions.
Unit1.nb 9
See if you are following. Click HERE for some Questions (not
graded)
t t0 t
x[n] x[n − n0 ]
n n
n0
Figure 1.2.6: Shift in Time
b) Time Scaling: this is easily defined in continuous time as x HatL. However in discrete time, since
the independent variable has to be an index, in general it is not defined, apart from some particular cases
which we are not going to present here. In the continuous time case, according to whether the constant a
is positive or negative, we have two different situations: in the latter (a < 0) the signal is also inverted
on the time axis. This is shown in figure 1.2.7 below.
10 Unit1.nb
x (at )
a>0
x (t )
t1 t2
a a
t
t1 t2 x (at )
t a<0
t2 t1 t
a a
Homework Problems