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eix = cos x + i sin x. This integral would be extremely tedious to solve using
trigonometric identities, but using Eulers identity makes
Substituting x for x gives the equation
it relatively painless:
cos2 x dx.
1 1 1
sin2 x cos 4x dx = sin 6x+ sin 4x sin 2x+C.
The standard approach to this integral is to use a half- 24 8 8
angle formula to simplify the integrand. We can use Eu-
lers identity instead:
4 Using real parts
( )2
2 eix + eix In addition to Eulers identity, it can be helpful to make
cos x dx = dx
2 judicious use of the real parts of complex expressions.
For example, consider the integral
1 ( 2ix )
= e + 2 + e2ix dx
4
At this point, it would be possible to change back to real
numbers using the formula e2ix + e2ix = 2 cos 2x. Alter- ex cos x dx.
natively, we can integrate the complex exponentials and
not change back to trigonometric functions until the end: Since cos x is the real part of eix , we know that
1
2 5 FRACTIONS
ex cos x dx = Re ex eix dx.
x ix e(1+i)x
e e dx = e(1+i)x dx = + C.
1+i
Thus:
( )
e(1+i)x
ex cos x dx = Re +C
1+i
( ix )
x e
= e Re +C
1+i
( ix )
e (1 i)
= ex Re +C
2
cos x + sin x
= ex + C.
2
5 Fractions
In general, this technique may be used to evaluate any
fractions involving trigonometric functions. For example,
consider the integral
1 + cos2 x
dx.
cos x + cos 3x
Using Eulers identity, this integral becomes
1 6 + e2ix + e2ix
dx.
2 eix + eix + e3ix + e3ix
i 1 + 6u2 + u4
du.
2 1 + u2 + u4 + u6
Any rational function is integrable (using, for example,
partial fractions), and therefore any fraction involving
trigonometric functions may be integrated as well.
3
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