Indonesia

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Coordinates:  5°S 120°E

Republic of Indonesia

Republik Indonesia  (Indonesian)

Flag

National emblem

Motto: Bhinneka Tunggal Ika (Old Javanese)

(English: "Unity in Diversity")
National ideology: Pancasila[1][2]

Anthem: Indonesia Raya
(English: "Great Indonesia")

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 Capital Jakarta
and largest city 6°10′S 106°49′E

Official language Indonesian

and national language

Regional languages Over 700 languages[3]

Ethnic groups Over 300 ethnic groups[4]

Religion  86.70% Islam
(2018) [5]
10.72% Christianity
1.74% Hinduism
0.77% Buddhism
0.03% Confucianism
0.04% Folk

Demonym(s) Indonesian

Government Unitary presidential constitutional
republic

• President Joko Widodo

• Vice President Ma'ruf Amin
• DPR Speaker Puan Maharani
• Chief Justice Muhammad Syarifuddin

Legislature People's Consultative Assembly (MPR)

• Upper house Regional Representative

Council (DPD)
• Lower house People's Representative Council (DPR)

Formation
• Hindu and Buddhist 2nd century
kingdoms
• Islamic sultanates 13th century
• Dutch East India 20 March 1602
Company
• Dutch East Indies 1 January 1800
• Japanese occupation 9 March 1942
• Independence proclaimed 17 August 1945
• Recognition 27 December 1949
• Unitary republic 17 August 1950

Area
• Land 1,904,569[6] km2 (735,358 sq mi) (14th)
• Water (%) 4.85

Population
• 2018 estimate  267,670,543[7][8]

• 2010 census 237,641,326[9] (4th)
• Density 138/km2 (357.4/sq mi) (88th)

GDP (PPP) 2020 estimate
• Total  $3.328 trillion[10] (7th)

• Per capita  $12,345[10] (95th)

GDP (nominal) 2020 estimate
• Total  $1.089 trillion[10] (15th)

• Per capita  $4,038[10] (108th)

Gini (2018)  37.8[11]
medium

HDI (2018)  0.707[12]
high · 111th

Currency Indonesian rupiah (Rp) (IDR)

Time zone UTC+7 to +9 (various)

Date format DD/MM/YYYY

Mains electricity 220 V–50 Hz

Driving side left

Calling code +62

 ISO 3166 code ID

Internet TLD .id

Indonesia (/ˌɪndəˈniːʒə/ ( listen) IN-də-NEE-zhə), officially the Republic of

Indonesia (Indonesian: Republik Indonesia [reˈpublik ɪndoˈnesia] ( listen)),[a] is a country
in Southeast Asia and Oceania, between the Indian and Pacific oceans. It consists of
more than seventeen thousand islands,
including Sumatra, Java, Borneo (Kalimantan), Sulawesi, and New Guinea (Papua).
Indonesia is the world's largest island country and the 14th-largest country by land area,
at 1,904,569 square kilometres (735,358 square miles). With over 267 million people, it
is the world's 4th-most-populous country as well as the most-populous Muslim-majority
country. Java, the world's most-populous island, is home to more than half of the
country's population.
The sovereign state is a presidential, constitutional republic with an elected legislature.
It has 34 provinces, of which five have special status. The country's capital, Jakarta, is
the second-most populous urban area in the world. The country shares land
borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, and the eastern part of Malaysia. Other
neighbouring countries include Singapore, Vietnam, the Philippines, Australia, Palau,
and India's Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Despite its large population and densely
populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support one of
the world's highest levels of biodiversity.
The Indonesian archipelago has been a valuable region for trade since at least the 7th
century when Srivijaya and later Majapahit traded with entities from mainland China and
the Indian subcontinent. Local rulers gradually absorbed foreign influences from the
early centuries and Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms flourished. Sunni traders
and Sufi scholars brought Islam, while Europeans
introduced Christianity through colonisation. Although sometimes interrupted by
the Portuguese, French and British, the Dutch were the foremost colonial power for
much of their 350-year presence in the archipelago. The concept of "Indonesia" as a
nation-state emerged in the early 20th century[13] and the country proclaimed its
independence in 1945. However, it was not until 1949 that the Dutch
recognised Indonesia's sovereignty following an armed and diplomatic conflict between
the two.
Indonesia consists of hundreds of distinct native ethnic and linguistic groups, with the
largest one being the Javanese. A shared identity has developed with the
motto "Bhinneka Tunggal Ika" ("Unity in Diversity" literally, "many, yet one"), defined by
a national language, ethnic diversity, religious pluralism within a Muslim-majority
population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. The economy of
Indonesia is the world's 16th largest by nominal GDP and 7th by GDP at PPP. The
country is a member of several multilateral organisations, including the United
Nations, World Trade Organization, International Monetary Fund, G20, and a founding
member of Non-Aligned Movement, Association of Southeast Asian Nations, Asia-
Pacific Economic Cooperation, East Asia Summit, Asian Infrastructure Investment
Bank, and Organisation of Islamic Cooperation.
 Contents

 1Etymology
 2History
o 2.1Early history
o 2.2Colonial era
o 2.3Modern era
 3Geography
o 3.1Climate
o 3.2Geology
o 3.3Biodiversity
o 3.4Environment
 4Government and politics
o 4.1Parties and elections
o 4.2Administrative divisions
o 4.3Foreign relations
o 4.4Military
 5Economy
o 5.1Transport
o 5.2Energy
o 5.3Science and technology
o 5.4Tourism
 6Demographics
o 6.1Ethnic groups and languages
o 6.2Religion
o 6.3Education and health
o 6.4Issues
 7Culture
o 7.1Art and architecture
o 7.2Music, dance and clothing
o 7.3Theatre and cinema
o 7.4Mass media and literature
o 7.5Cuisine
o 7.6Sports
 8See also
 9Notes
 10References
 11Bibliography
 12External links
o 12.1Government
o 12.2General

Etymology
Further information: Names of Indonesia
The name Indonesia derives from Greek Indos (Ἰνδός) and the word nesos (νῆσος),
meaning "Indian islands".[14] The name dates to the 18th century, far predating the
formation of independent Indonesia.[15] In 1850, George Windsor Earl, an
English ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians—and, his
preference, Malayunesians—for the inhabitants of the "Indian Archipelago or Malayan
Archipelago".[16] In the same publication, one of his students, James Richardson Logan,
used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago.[17][18] However, Dutch academics
writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia; they preferred Malay
Archipelago (Dutch: Maleische Archipel); the Netherlands East Indies (Nederlandsch
Oost Indië), popularly Indië; the East (de Oost); and Insulinde.[19]
After 1900, Indonesia became more common in academic circles outside
the Netherlands, and native nationalist groups adopted it for political expression. [19] Adolf
Bastian, of the University of Berlin, popularised the name through his book Indonesien
oder die Inseln des Malayischen Archipels, 1884–1894. The first native scholar to use
the name was Ki Hajar Dewantara when in 1913 he established a press bureau in the
Netherlands, Indonesisch Pers-bureau.[15]

History
Main article: History of Indonesia
Early history

A Borobudur ship carved on Borobudur temple, c. 800 CE. Outrigger boats from the archipelago may have
made trade voyages to the east coast of Africa as early as the 1st century CE. [20]

Fossilised remains of Homo erectus, popularly known as the "Java Man", suggest the
Indonesian archipelago was inhabited two million to 500,000 years ago. [21][22][23] Homo
sapiens reached the region around 43,000 BCE.[24] Austronesian peoples, who form the
majority of the modern population, migrated to Southeast Asia from what is now Taiwan.
They arrived in the archipelago around 2,000 BCE and confined the native Melanesian
peoples to the far eastern regions as they spread east. [25] Ideal agricultural conditions
and the mastering of wet-field rice cultivation as early as the eighth century
BCE[26] allowed villages, towns, and small kingdoms to flourish by the first century CE.
The archipelago's strategic sea-lane position fostered inter-island and international
trade, including with Indian kingdoms and Chinese dynasties, from several centuries
BCE.[27] Trade has since fundamentally shaped Indonesian history. [28][29]
From the seventh century CE, the Srivijaya naval kingdom flourished as a result of trade
and the influences of Hinduism and Buddhism.[30][31] Between the eighth and tenth
centuries CE, the agricultural Buddhist Sailendra and Hindu Mataram dynasties thrived
and declined in inland Java, leaving grand religious monuments such as
Sailendra's Borobudur and Mataram's Prambanan. The Hindu Majapahit kingdom was
founded in eastern Java in the late 13th century, and under Gajah Mada, its influence
stretched over much of present-day Indonesia. This period is often referred to as a
"Golden Age" in Indonesian history. [32]
The earliest evidence of Islamized populations in the archipelago dates to the 13th
century in northern Sumatra.[33] Other parts of the archipelago gradually adopted Islam,
and it was the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra by the end of the 16th century.
For the most part, Islam overlaid and mixed with existing cultural and religious
influences, which shaped the predominant form of Islam in Indonesia, particularly in
Java.[34]
Colonial era
Main article: Dutch East Indies

The submission of Prince Diponegoro to General De Kock at the end of the Java War in 1830

The first Europeans arrived in the archipelago in 1512, when Portuguese traders, led
by Francisco Serrão, sought to monopolise the sources of nutmeg, cloves, and cubeb
pepper in the Maluku Islands.[35] Dutch and British traders followed. In 1602, the Dutch
established the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and became the dominant European
power for almost 200 years. The VOC was dissolved in 1800 following bankruptcy, and
the Netherlands established the Dutch East Indies as a nationalised colony.[36]
For most of the colonial period, Dutch control over the archipelago was tenuous. Dutch
forces were engaged continuously in quelling rebellions both on and off Java. The
influence of local leaders such as Prince Diponegoro in central Java, Imam Bonjol in
central Sumatra, Pattimura in Maluku, and bloody 30-year war in Aceh weakened the
Dutch and tied up the colonial military forces.[37][38][39] Only in the early 20th century did
their dominance extend to what was to become Indonesia's current boundaries. [39][40][41][42]
The Japanese invasion and subsequent occupation during World War II ended Dutch
rule[43][44][45] and encouraged the previously suppressed independence movement. Two
days after the surrender of Japan in August 1945, Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta,
influential nationalist leaders, proclaimed Indonesian independence and were appointed
president and vice-president respectively.[46][47][48][46][49] The Netherlands attempted to re-
establish their rule, and a bitter armed and diplomatic struggle ended in December 1949
when the Dutch formally recognised Indonesian independence in the face of
international pressure.[50][48][51] Despite extraordinary political, social and sectarian
divisions, Indonesians, on the whole, found unity in their fight for independence. [52][53]
Modern era

Sukarno (left) and Hatta (right), Indonesia's founding fathers and the first President and Vice President

As president, Sukarno moved Indonesia from democracy towards authoritarianism and

maintained power by balancing the opposing forces of the military, political Islam, and
the increasingly powerful Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI).[54] Tensions between the
military and the PKI culminated in an attempted coup in 1965. The army, led by Major
General Suharto, countered by instigating a violent anti-communist purge that killed
between 500,000 and one million people. [55] The PKI was blamed for the coup and
effectively destroyed.[56][57][58] Suharto capitalised on Sukarno's weakened position, and
following a drawn-out power play with Sukarno, Suharto was appointed president in
March 1968. His "New Order" administration,[59] supported by the United States,[60][61]
[62]
 encouraged foreign direct investment,[63][64] which was a crucial factor in the subsequent
three decades of substantial economic growth.
Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the 1997 Asian financial crisis.[65] It brought
out popular discontent with the New Order's corruption and suppression of political
opposition and ultimately ended Suharto's presidency. [43][66][67][68] In 1999, East Timor
seceded from Indonesia, following its 1975 invasion by Indonesia[69] and a 25-year
occupation that was marked by international condemnation of human rights abuses. [70]
In the post-Suharto era, democratic processes have been strengthened by enhancing
regional autonomy and instituting the country's first direct presidential election in 2004.
[71]
 Political, economic and social instability, corruption, and terrorism remained problems
in the 2000s; however, in recent years, the economy has performed strongly. Although
relations among the diverse population are mostly harmonious, acute sectarian
discontent and violence remain a problem in some areas. [72] A political settlement to an
armed separatist conflict in Aceh was achieved in 2005 following the 2004 Indian Ocean
earthquake and tsunami that killed 130,000 Indonesians.[73] In 2014, Joko
Widodo became the first directly elected president from outside the military and political
elite.[74]

Geography
Main articles: Geography of Indonesia and List of islands of Indonesia

Mount Semeru and Mount Bromo in East Java. Indonesia's seismic and volcanic activity is among the world's
highest.

Indonesia lies between latitudes 11°S and 6°N, and longitudes 95°E and 141°E. It is the

largest archipelagic country in the world, extending 5,120 kilometres (3,181 mi) from
east to west and 1,760 kilometres (1,094 mi) from north to south.[75] According to the
country's Coordinating Ministry for Maritime and Investments Affairs, Indonesia has
17,504 islands (16,056 of which are registered at the UN), [76] scattered over both sides of
the equator, around 6,000 of which are inhabited. [77] The largest
are Java, Sumatra, Borneo (shared with Brunei and Malaysia), Sulawesi, and New
Guinea (shared with Papua New Guinea). Indonesia shares land borders
with Malaysia on Borneo and Sebatik, Papua New Guinea on the island of New Guinea,
and East Timor on the island of Timor, and maritime borders with Singapore,
Malaysia, Vietnam, the Philippines, Palau, and Australia.
At 4,884 metres (16,024 ft), Puncak Jaya is Indonesia's highest peak, and Lake Toba in
Sumatra is the largest lake, with an area of 1,145 km2 (442 sq mi). Indonesia's largest
rivers are in Kalimantan and New Guinea and
include Kapuas, Barito, Mamberamo, Sepik and Mahakam. They serve as
communication and transport links between the island's river settlements. [78]
Climate
Main article: Climate of Indonesia
Typical Indonesian rainforest, mostly found in Kalimantan and Sumatra

Indonesia lies along the equator, and its climate tends to be relatively even year-round.
[79]
 Indonesia has two seasons—a wet season and a dry season—with no extremes of
summer or winter.[80] For most of Indonesia, the dry season falls between May and
October with the wet season between November and April. [80] Indonesia's climate is
almost entirely tropical, dominated by the tropical rainforest climate found in every large
island of Indonesia. More cooling climate types do exist in mountainous regions that are
1,300 to 1,500 metres (4,300 to 4,900 feet) above sea level. The oceanic climate
(Köppen Cfb) prevails in highland areas adjacent to rainforest climates, with reasonably
uniform precipitation year-round. In highland areas near the tropical monsoon and
tropical savanna climates, the subtropical highland climate (Köppen Cwb) is prevalent
with a more pronounced dry season.[citation needed]

Köppen-Geiger climate classification map for Indonesia[81]

Some regions, such as Kalimantan and Sumatra, experience only slight differences in

rainfall and temperature between the seasons, whereas others, such as Nusa
Tenggara, experience far more pronounced differences with droughts in the dry season,
and floods in the wet. Rainfall varies across regions, with more in western Sumatra,
Java, and the interiors of Kalimantan and Papua, and less in areas closer to Australia,
such as Nusa Tenggara, which tend to be dry. The almost uniformly warm waters that
constitute 81% of Indonesia's area ensure that temperatures on land remain relatively
constant. Humidity is quite high, at between 70 and 90%. Winds are moderate and
generally predictable, with monsoons usually blowing in from the south and east in June
through October, and from the northwest in November through March. Typhoons and
large-scale storms pose little hazard to mariners; significant dangers come from swift
currents in channels, such as the Lombok and Sape straits.[82]
Geology
Main article: Geology of Indonesia
See also: Volcanoes of Indonesia

Major volcanoes in Indonesia. Indonesia is in the Pacific Ring of Fire area.

Tectonically, Indonesia is highly unstable, making it a site of numerous volcanoes and
frequent earthquakes.[83] It lies on the Pacific Ring of Fire where the Indo-Australian
Plate and the Pacific Plate are pushed under the Eurasian plate where they melt at
about 100 kilometres (62 miles) deep. A string of volcanoes runs through
Sumatra, Java, Bali and Nusa Tenggara, and then to the Banda Islands of Maluku to
northeastern Sulawesi.[84] Of the 400 volcanoes, around 130 are active.[83] Between 1972
and 1991, there were 29 volcanic eruptions, mostly on Java. [85] Volcanic ash has made
agricultural conditions unpredictable in some areas. [86] However, it has also resulted in
fertile soils, a factor in historically sustaining high population densities of Java and Bali.
[87]

A massive supervolcano erupted at present-day Lake Toba around 70,000 BCE. It is

believed to have caused a global volcanic winter and cooling of the climate, and
subsequently led to a genetic bottleneck in human evolution, though this is still in
debate.[88] The 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora and the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa were
among the largest in recorded history. The former caused 92,000 deaths and created
an umbrella of volcanic ash which spread and blanketed parts of the archipelago, and
made much of the Northern Hemisphere without summer in 1816.[89] The latter produced
the loudest sound in recorded history and caused 36,000 deaths due to the eruption
itself and the resulting tsunamis, with significant additional effects around the world
years after the event.[90] Recent catastrophic disasters due to seismic activity include the
2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and the 2006 Yogyakarta earthquake.
Biodiversity
Main articles: Fauna of Indonesia and Flora of Indonesia
Species endemic to Indonesia. Clockwise from top: Rafflesia arnoldii, orangutan, greater bird-of-paradise,
and Komodo dragon.

Indonesia's size, tropical climate, and archipelagic geography support one of the world's
highest levels of biodiversity.[91] Its flora and fauna is a mixture of Asian
and Australasian species.[92] The islands of the Sunda Shelf (Sumatra, Java, Borneo,
and Bali) were once linked to mainland Asia, and have a wealth of Asian fauna. Large
species such as the Sumatran tiger, rhinoceros, orangutan, Asian elephant, and leopard
were once abundant as far east as Bali, but numbers and distribution have dwindled
drastically. Having been long separated from the continental landmasses, Sulawesi,
Nusa Tenggara, and Maluku have developed their unique flora and fauna. [93][94] Papua
was part of the Australian landmass and is home to a unique fauna and flora closely
related to that of Australia, including over 600 bird species. [95] Forests cover
approximately 70% of the country.[96] However, the forests of the smaller, and more
densely populated Java, have largely been removed for human habitation and
agriculture.
Indonesia is second only to Australia in terms of total endemic species, with 36% of its
1,531 species of bird and 39% of its 515 species of mammal being endemic. [97] Tropical
seas surround Indonesia's 80,000 kilometres (50,000 miles) of coastline. The country
has a range of sea and coastal ecosystems, including beaches, dunes, estuaries,
mangroves, coral reefs, seagrass beds, coastal mudflats, tidal flats, algal beds, and
small island ecosystems.[14] Indonesia is one of Coral Triangle countries with the world's
most enormous diversity of coral reef fish with more than 1,650 species in eastern
Indonesia only.[98]
British naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace described a dividing line (Wallace Line) between
the distribution of Indonesia's Asian and Australasian species. [99] It runs roughly north–
south along the edge of the Sunda Shelf, between Kalimantan and Sulawesi, and along
the deep Lombok Strait, between Lombok and Bali. Flora and fauna on the west of the
line are generally Asian, while east from Lombok they are increasingly Australian until
the tipping point at the Weber Line. In his 1869 book, The Malay Archipelago, Wallace
described numerous species unique to the area. [100] The region of islands between his
line and New Guinea is now termed Wallacea.[99]
Environment
Main article: Environment of Indonesia
Deforestation in Riau, Sumatra, to make way for an oil palm plantation

Indonesia's large and growing population and rapid industrialisation present

serious environmental issues. They are often given a lower priority due to high poverty
levels and weak, under-resourced governance. [101] Problems include the destruction of
peatlands, large-scale illegal deforestation—and the resulting Southeast Asian haze—
over-exploitation of marine resources, air pollution, garbage management, and
reliable water and wastewater services.[101] These issues contribute to Indonesia's poor
ranking (number 116 out of 180 countries) in the 2020 Environmental Performance
Index. The report also indicates that Indonesia's performance is generally below
average in both regional and global context. [102]
Expansion of the palm oil industry requiring significant changes to the natural
ecosystems is the one primary factor behind much of Indonesia's deforestation. [103] While
it can generate wealth for local communities, it may degrade ecosystems and cause
social problems.[104] This situation makes Indonesia the world's largest forest-based
emitter of greenhouse gases.[105] It also threatens the survival of indigenous and endemic
species. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) identified 140
species of mammals as threatened, and 15 as critically endangered, including the Bali
starling,[106] Sumatran orangutan,[107] and Javan rhinoceros.[108]
Several studies consider Indonesia to be at severe risk from the projected effects of
climate change.[109] They predict that unreduced emissions would see an average
temperature rise of around 1 °C (2 °F) by mid-century,[110][111] amounting to almost double
the frequency of scorching days (above 35 °C or 95 °F) per year by 2030. That figure is
predicted to rise further by the end of the century. [110] It would raise the frequency of
drought and food shortages, having an impact on precipitation and the patterns of wet
and dry seasons, the basis of Indonesia's agricultural system. [111] It would also encourage
diseases and increases in wildfires, which threaten the country's enormous rainforest.
[111]
 Rising sea levels, at current rates, would result in tens of millions of households
being at risk of submersion by mid-century.[112] A majority of Indonesia's population lives
in low-lying coastal areas,[111] including the capital Jakarta, the fastest-sinking city in the
world.[113] Impoverished communities would likely be affected the most by climate
change.[114]

Government and politics

Main article: Politics of Indonesia
A presidential inauguration by the MPR in the Parliament Complex Jakarta, 2014

Indonesia is a republic with a presidential system. Following the fall of the New Order in
1998, political and governmental structures have undergone sweeping reforms,
with four constitutional amendments revamping the executive, legislative and judicial
branches.[115] Chief among them is the delegation of power and authority to various
regional entities while remaining a unitary state. [116] The President of Indonesia is
the head of state and head of government, commander-in-chief of the Indonesian
National Armed Forces (Tentara Nasional Indonesia, TNI), and the director of domestic
governance, policy-making, and foreign affairs. The president may serve a maximum of
two consecutive five-year terms.[117]
The highest representative body at the national level is the People's Consultative
Assembly (Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat, MPR). Its main functions are supporting
and amending the constitution, inaugurating and impeaching the president, [118][119] and
formalising broad outlines of state policy. The MPR comprises two houses; the People's
Representative Council (Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat, DPR), with 575 members, and
the Regional Representative Council (Dewan Perwakilan Daerah, DPD), with 136.
[120]
 The DPR passes legislation and monitors the executive branch. Reforms since 1998
have markedly increased its role in national governance, [115] while the DPD is a new
chamber for matters of regional management.[121][119]
Most civil disputes appear before the State Court (Pengadilan Negeri); appeals are
heard before the High Court (Pengadilan Tinggi). The Supreme Court of
Indonesia (Mahkamah Agung) is the highest level of the judicial branch, and hears final
cessation appeals and conducts case reviews. Other courts include the Constitutional
Court (Mahkamah Konstitusi) that listens to constitutional and political matters and the
Religious Court (Pengadilan Agama) that deals with codified Islamic Law (sharia) cases.
[122]
 Additionally, the Judicial Commission (Komisi Yudisial) monitors the performance of
judges.[123]
Parties and elections
Main articles: List of political parties in Indonesia and Elections in Indonesia
 Joko Widodo
7th President of Indonesia

Ma'ruf Amin
13th Vice President of Indonesia

Since 1999, Indonesia has had a multi-party system. In all legislative elections since the
fall of the New Order, no political party has managed to win an overall majority of seats.
The Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle (PDI-P), which secured the most votes in
the 2019 elections, is the party of the incumbent president, Joko Widodo.[124] Other
notable parties include the Party of the Functional Groups (Golkar), the Great Indonesia
Movement Party (Gerindra), the Democratic Party, and the Prosperous Justice
Party (PKS). The 2019 elections resulted in nine political parties in the DPR, with
a parliamentary threshold of 4% of the national vote.[125] The first general election was
held in 1955 to elect members of the DPR and the Constitutional
Assembly (Konstituante). At the national level, Indonesians did not elect a president
until 2004. Since then, the president is elected for a five-year term, as are the party-
aligned members of the DPR and the non-partisan DPD. [120][115] Beginning with 2015 local
elections, elections for governors and mayors have occurred on the same date. In 2014,
the Constitutional Court ruled that, starting in 2019, legislative and presidential elections
are to be held simultaneously.[126]
Administrative divisions
Main article: Subdivisions of Indonesia
Indonesia has several levels of subdivisions. The first level is that of the provinces, with
five out of a total of 34 having a special status. Each has a legislature (Dewan
Perwakilan Rakyat Daerah, DPRD) and an elected governor. This number has evolved,
with the most recent change being the split of North Kalimantan from East Kalimantan in
2012.[127] The second level is that of the regencies (kabupaten) and cities (kota), led by
regents (bupati) and mayors (walikota) respectively and a legislature (DPRD
Kabupaten/Kota). The third level is that of the districts (kecamatan, distrik in Papua,
or kapanewon and kemantren in Yogyakarta), and the fourth is of
the villages (either desa, kelurahan, kampung, nagari in West Sumatra,
or gampong in Aceh).[citation needed]
The village is the lowest level of government administration. It is divided into several
community groups (rukun warga, RW), which are further divided into neighbourhood
groups (rukun tetangga, RT). In Java, the village (desa) is divided into smaller units
called dusun or dukuh (hamlets), which are the same as RW. Following the
implementation of regional autonomy measures in 2001, regencies and cities have
become chief administrative units, responsible for providing most government services.
The village administration level is the most influential on a citizen's daily life and handles
matters of a village or neighbourhood through an elected village head (lurah or kepala
desa).[128]
Aceh, Jakarta, Yogyakarta, Papua, and West Papua have greater legislative privileges
and a higher degree of autonomy from the central government than the other provinces.
A conservative Islamic territory, Aceh has the right to create some aspects of an
independent legal system implementing sharia.[129] Yogyakarta is the only pre-colonial
monarchy legally recognised in Indonesia, with the positions of governor and vice
governor being prioritised for descendants of the Sultan of Yogyakarta and Paku Alam,
respectively.[130] Papua and West Papua are the only provinces where the indigenous
people have privileges in their local government. [131] Jakarta is the only city granted a
provincial government due to its position as the capital of Indonesia.[132]

Aceh
North
Sumatra
West
Sumatra
Riau
 Riau
Islands
Bangka
Belitung
Jambi
South
Sumatra
Bengkulu
Lampung
Banten
Jakarta
West
Java
Central
Java
Yogyakarta
East
Java
Bali
West Nusa
Tenggara
East Nusa
Tenggara
West
Kalimantan
Central
Kalimantan
North
Kalimantan
East
Kalimantan
South
Kalimantan
North
Sulawesi
North
Maluku
Central
Sulawesi
Gorontalo
West
Sulawesi
South
Sulawesi
Southeast
Sulawesi
Maluku
West
Papua
Papua

Foreign relations
Main article: Foreign relations of Indonesia
Embassy of Indonesia, Canberra, Australia

Indonesia maintains 132 diplomatic missions abroad, including 95 embassies. [133] The

country adheres to what it calls a "free and active" foreign policy, seeking a role in
regional affairs in proportion to its size and location but avoiding involvement in conflicts
among other countries.[134]
Indonesia was a significant battleground during the Cold War. Numerous attempts by
the United States and the Soviet Union, [135][136] and China to some degree,[137] culminated in
the 1965 coup attempt and subsequent upheaval that led to a reorientation of foreign
policy. Quiet alignment with the West while maintaining a non-aligned stance has
characterised Indonesia's foreign policy since then. [138] Today, it maintains close relations
with its neighbours and is a founding member of the Association of Southeast Asian
Nations (ASEAN) and the East Asia Summit. In common with most of the Muslim world,
Indonesia does not have diplomatic relations with Israel and has actively supported
Palestine. However, observers have pointed out that Indonesia has ties with Israel,
albeit discreetly.[139]
Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950 and was a founding
member of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) and the Organisation of Islamic
Cooperation (OIC).[140] Indonesia is a signatory to the ASEAN Free Trade
Area agreement, the Cairns Group, and the World Trade Organization (WTO), and an
occasional member of OPEC.[141] During the Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation,
Indonesia withdrew from the UN due to the latter's election to the United Nations
Security Council, although it returned 18 months later. It marked the first time in UN
history that a member state had attempted a withdrawal. [142] Indonesia has been a
humanitarian and development aid recipient since 1966, [143][144][145] and recently, the country
has expressed interest in becoming an aid donor. [146]
Military
Main articles: Indonesian National Armed Forces and Military history of Indonesia
Indonesian Armed Forces. Clockwise from top: Indonesian Army during training session, Sukhoi Su-30, Pindad
Anoa, and Indonesian naval vessel KRI Sultan Iskandar Muda 367.

Indonesia's Armed Forces (TNI) include the Army (TNI–AD), Navy (TNI–AL, which

includes Marine Corps), and Air Force (TNI–AU).[147] The army has about 400,000 active-
duty personnel. Defence spending in the national budget was 0.7% of GDP in 2018,
[148]
 with controversial involvement of military-owned commercial interests and
foundations.[149] The Armed Forces were formed during the Indonesian National
Revolution when it undertook guerrilla warfare along with informal militia. Since then,
territorial lines have formed the basis of all TNI branches' structure, aimed at
maintaining domestic stability and deterring foreign threats. [150] The military has
possessed a strong political influence since its founding, which peaked during the New
Order. Political reforms in 1998 included the removal of the TNI's formal representation
from the legislature. Nevertheless, its political influence remains, albeit at a reduced
level.[151]
Since independence, the country has struggled to maintain unity against local
insurgencies and separatist movements.[152] Some, notably in Aceh and Papua, have led
to an armed conflict, and subsequent allegations of human rights abuses and brutality
from all sides.[153][154] The former was resolved peacefully in 2005,[73] while the latter
continues, amid a significant, albeit imperfect, implementation of regional autonomy
laws, and a reported decline in the levels of violence and human rights abuses since
2004.[155] Other engagements of the army include the campaign against the Netherlands
New Guinea to incorporate the territory into Indonesia, the Konfrontasi to oppose the
creation of Malaysia, the mass killings of PKI, and the invasion of East Timor, which
remains Indonesia's most massive military operation.[156][157]

Economy
Main articles: Economy of Indonesia and Economic history of Indonesia
Jakarta, the capital city and the country's commercial centre

Indonesia has a mixed economy in which both the private sector and government play
vital roles.[158] As the only G20 member state in Southeast Asia,[159] the country has the
largest economy in the region and is classified as a newly industrialised country. As of
2019, it is the world's 16th largest economy by nominal GDP and 7th in terms of GDP at
PPP, estimated to be US$1.100 trillion and US$3.740 trillion respectively. Per capita
GDP in PPP is US$14,020, while nominal per capita GDP is US$4,120. The debt ratio
to GDP is 29.2%.[160] The services are the economy's largest sector and account for
43.4% of GDP (2018), followed by industry (39.7%) and agriculture (12.8%). [161] Since
2009, it has employed more people than other sectors, accounting for 47.7% of the total
labour force, followed by agriculture (30.2%) and industry (21.9%). [162]

Vast palm oil plantation in Bogor, West Java. Indonesia is the world's largest producer of palm oil. [163]

Over time, the structure of the economy has changed considerably. [164] Historically, it has
been weighted heavily towards agriculture, reflecting both its stage of economic
development and government policies in the 1950s and 1960s to promote agricultural
self-sufficiency.[164] A gradual process of industrialisation and urbanisation began in the
late 1960s and accelerated in the 1980s as falling oil prices saw the government focus
on diversifying away from oil exports and towards manufactured exports. [164] This
development continued throughout the 1980s and into the next decade despite the 1990
oil price shock, during which the GDP rose at an average rate of 7.1%. As a result, the
official poverty rate fell from 60% to 15%.[165] Reduction of trade barriers from the mid-
1980s made the economy more globally integrated. The growth, however, ended with
the 1997 Asian financial crisis, which affected the economy severely. It caused a real
GDP contraction by 13.1% in 1998, and inflation reached 78%. The economy reached
its low point in mid-1999 with only 0.8% real GDP growth. [166]
Relatively steady inflation[167] and an increase in GDP deflator and the Consumer Price
Index[168] have contributed to strong economic growth in recent years. Since 2007, annual
growth has accelerated to between 4% and 6% as a result of improvement in the
banking sector and domestic consumption,[169] helping Indonesia weather the 2008–
2009 Great Recession.[170] In 2011, the country regained the investment grade rating it
had lost in 1997.[171] As of 2019, 9.41% of the population lived below the poverty line, and
the official open unemployment rate was 5.28%. [172]
Indonesia has abundant natural resources like oil and natural
gas, coal, tin, copper, gold, and nickel, while agriculture produces rice, palm
oil, tea, coffee, cacao, medicinal plants, spices, and rubber. These commodities make
up a large portion of the country's exports, with palm oil and coal briquettes as the
leading export commodities. In addition to refined and crude petroleum as the main
imports, telephones, vehicle parts and wheat cover the majority of additional imports.
China, the United States, Japan, Singapore, India, Malaysia, South Korea and Thailand
are Indonesia's principal export markets and import partners. [173]
Transport
Main article: Transport in Indonesia

Major transport modes in Indonesia. Clockwise from top: TransJakarta bus, Jabodetabek Commuter Line,
Garuda Indonesia Boeing 737-800, Pelni ship.

Indonesia's transport system has been shaped over time by the economic resource
base of an archipelago, and the distribution of its 250 million people highly concentrated
on Java.[174] All transport modes play a role in the country's transport system and are
generally complementary rather than competitive. In 2016, the transport sector
generated about 5.2% of GDP.[175]
The road transport system is predominant, with a total length of 542,310 kilometres
(336,980 miles) as of 2018.[176] Jakarta has the most extended bus rapid transit system in
the world, boasting some 251.2 kilometres (156.1 miles) in 13 corridors and ten cross-
corridor routes.[177] Rickshaws such as bajaj and becak and share taxis such
as Angkot and Metromini are a regular sight in the country. Most of the railways are in
Java, used for both freight and passenger transport, such as local commuter rail
services complementing the inter-city rail network in several cities. In the late 2010s,
Jakarta and Palembang were the first cities in Indonesia to have rapid transit systems,
with more planned for other cities in the future. [178] In 2015, the government announced a
plan to build a high-speed rail, which would be a first in Southeast Asia.[179]
Indonesia's largest airport, Soekarno–Hatta International Airport is the busiest in the
Southern Hemisphere, serving 66 million passengers in 2018.[180] Ngurah Rai
International Airport and Juanda International Airport are the country's second- and
third-busiest airport respectively. Garuda Indonesia, the country's flag carrier since
1949, is one of the world's leading airlines and a member of the global airline
alliance SkyTeam. Port of Tanjung Priok is the busiest and most advanced Indonesian
port,[181] handling more than 50% of Indonesia's trans-shipment cargo traffic.
Energy
Main article: Energy in Indonesia
In 2017, Indonesia was the world's 9th largest energy producer with 4,200 terawatt-
hours (14.2 quadrillion British thermal units), and the 15th largest energy consumer,
with 2,100 terawatt-hours (7.1 quadrillion British thermal units).[182] The country has
substantial energy resources, including 22 billion barrels (3.5 billion cubic metres) of
conventional oil and gas reserves (of which about 4 billion barrels are recoverable),
8 billion barrels of oil-equivalent of coal-based methane (CBM) resources, and 28 billion
tonnes of recoverable coal.[183] While reliance on domestic coal and imported oil has
increased,[184] Indonesia has seen progress in renewable energy with hydropower being
the most abundant source. Furthermore, the country has the potential for geothermal,
solar, wind, biomass and ocean energy.[185] Indonesia has set out to achieve 23% use of
renewable energy by 2025 and 31% by 2050. [184] As of 2015, Indonesia's total national
installed power generation capacity stands at 55,528.51 MW. [186]
The country's largest dam, Jatiluhur, has several purposes including the provision of
hydroelectric power generation, water supply, flood control, irrigation and aquaculture.
The earth-fill dam is 105 m (344 ft) high and withholds a reservoir of
3.0 billion m3 (2.4 million acre⋅ft). It helps to supply water to Jakarta and to irrigate
240,000 ha (590,000 acres) of rice fields[187] and has an installed capacity of 186.5 MW
which feeds into the Java grid managed by the State Electricity Company (Perusahaan
Listrik Negara, PLN).
Science and technology
Main article: Science and technology in Indonesia
Palapa satellite launch in 1984

Indonesia's expenditure on science and technology is relatively low, at less than 0.1% of
GDP (2017).[188] Historical examples of scientific and technological developments include
the paddy cultivation technique terasering, which is common in Southeast Asia, and
the pinisi boats by the Bugis and Makassar people.[189] In the 1980s, Indonesian
engineer Tjokorda Raka Sukawati invented a road construction technique
named Sosrobahu that allows the construction of long stretches of flyovers above
existing main roads with minimum traffic disruption. It later became widely used in
several countries.[190] The country is also an active producer of passenger trains and
freight wagons with its state-owned company, the Indonesian Railway Industry (INKA),
and has exported trains abroad.[191]
Indonesia has a long history in developing military and small commuter aircraft as the
only country in Southeast Asia to build and produce aircraft. With its state-owned
company, the Indonesian Aerospace (PT. Dirgantara Indonesia), Indonesia has
provided components for Boeing and Airbus. The company also collaborated with EADS
CASA of Spain to develop the CN-235 that has seen use by several countries. [192] Former
President B. J. Habibie played a vital role in this achievement. [193] Indonesia has also
joined the South Korean programme to manufacture the fifth-generation jet fighter KAI
KF-X.[194]
Indonesia has a space programme and space agency, the National Institute of
Aeronautics and Space (Lembaga Penerbangan dan Antariksa Nasional, LAPAN). In
the 1970s, Indonesia became the first developing country to operate a satellite system
called Palapa,[195] a series of communication satellites owned by Indosat Ooredoo. The
first satellite, PALAPA A1 was launched on 8 July 1976 from the Kennedy Space
Center in Florida, United States.[196] As of 2019, Indonesia has launched 18 satellites for
various purposes,[197] and LAPAN has expressed a desire to put satellites in orbit with
native launch vehicles by 2040.[198]
Tourism
Main article: Tourism in Indonesia
Borobudur in Central Java, the world's largest Buddhist temple, is the single most visited tourist attraction in
Indonesia.[199]

Tourism contributed around US$19.7 billion to GDP in 2019. In 2018, Indonesia

received 15.8 million visitors, a growth of 12.5% from last year, and received an
average receipt of US$967.[200][201] China, Singapore, Malaysia, Australia, and Japan are
the top five sources of visitors to Indonesia. Since 2011, Wonderful Indonesia has been
the slogan of the country's international marketing campaign to promote tourism. [202]

Raja Ampat Islands, West Papua, has the highest recorded level of diversity in marine life according
to Conservation International.[203]

Nature and culture are prime attractions of Indonesian tourism. The former can boast a
unique combination of a tropical climate, a vast archipelago, and a long stretch of
beaches, and the latter complement those with a rich cultural heritage reflecting
Indonesia's dynamic history and ethnic diversity. Indonesia has a well-preserved natural
ecosystem with rain forests that stretch over about 57% of Indonesia's land (225 million
acres). Forests on Sumatra and Kalimantan are examples of popular destinations, such
as the Orangutan wildlife reserve. Moreover, Indonesia has one of the world's longest
coastlines, measuring 54,716 kilometres (33,999 mi). The
ancient Borobudur and Prambanan temples as well as Toraja and Bali, with its
traditional festivities, are some of the popular destinations for cultural tourism. [204]
Indonesia has nine UNESCO World Heritage Sites, including the Komodo National
Park and the Sawahlunto Coal Mine; and a further 19 in a tentative list that
includes Bunaken National Park and Raja Ampat Islands.[205] Other attractions include
the specific points in Indonesian history, such as the colonial heritage of the Dutch East
Indies in the old towns of Jakarta and Semarang, and the royal
palaces of Pagaruyung, Ubud, and Yogyakarta.[204]

Demographics
Main articles: Demographics of Indonesia and Indonesians
 See also: List of Indonesian cities by population and List of metropolitan areas in
Indonesia

Population pyramid 2016

The 2010 census recorded Indonesia's population as 237.6 million, the fourth largest in

the world, with high population growth at 1.9%.[206] Java is the world's most populous
island,[207] where 58% of the country's population lives. [208] The population density is 138
people per km2 (357 per sq mi), ranking 88th in the world, [209] although Java has a
population density of 1,067 people per km 2 (2,435 per sq mi). In 1961, the first post-
colonial census recorded a total of 97 million people.[210] It is expected to grow to around
295 million by 2030 and 321 million by 2050.[211] The country currently possesses a
relatively young population, with a median age of 30.2 years (2017 estimate). [77]
The spread of the population is uneven throughout the archipelago with a varying
habitat and level of development, ranging from the megacity of Jakarta to uncontacted
tribes in Papua.[212] As of 2017, about 54.7% of the population lives in urban areas.
[213]
 Jakarta is the country's primate city and the second-most populous urban area in the
world with over 34 million residents.[214] About 8 million Indonesians live overseas; most
settled in Malaysia, the Netherlands, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, Hong
Kong, Singapore, the United States, and Australia. [215]

 
 v

 t

 e
Largest cities in Indonesia
2015 inter-census survey
Rank Name Province Pop. Rank
1 Jakarta Jakarta 10,154,134 11 Makas
2 Surabaya East Java 2,847,480 12 Batam
3 Bekasi West Java 2,708,721 13 Bogor
4 Bandung West Java 2,480,615 14 Pekan
Jakarta 5 Medan North Sumatra 2,209,139 15 Banda
6 Depok West Java 2,099,989 16 Padan
7 Tangerang Banten 2,043,213 17 Denpa
8 Semarang Central Java 1,698,777 18 Malan
9 Palembang South Sumatra 1,578,582 19 Samar
 10 South Tangerang Banten 1,538,970 20 Banjar

Ethnic groups and languages

Main articles: Ethnic groups in Indonesia, Native Indonesians, and Languages of
Indonesia

A map of ethnic groups in Indonesia

Indonesia is an ethnically diverse country, with around 300 distinct native ethnic groups.
[216]
 Most Indonesians are descended from Austronesian peoples whose languages had
origins in Proto-Austronesian, which possibly originated in what is now Taiwan. Another
major grouping is the Melanesians, who inhabit eastern Indonesia (the Maluku
Islands and Western New Guinea).[25][217][218]
The Javanese are the largest ethnic group, constituting 40.2% of the population, [4] and
are politically dominant.[219] They are predominantly located in the central to eastern parts
of Java and also sizable numbers in most provinces.
The Sundanese, Malay, Batak, Madurese, Minangkabau and Buginese are the next
largest groups in the country.[b] A sense of Indonesian nationhood exists alongside
strong regional identities.[220]
The country's official language is Indonesian, a variant of Malay based on its prestige
dialect, which for centuries had been the lingua franca of the archipelago. It
was promoted by nationalists in the 1920s and achieved official status under the
name Bahasa Indonesia in 1945.[221] As a result of centuries-long contact with other
languages, it is rich in local and foreign influences, including from Javanese,
Sundanese, Minangkabau, Hindi, Sanskrit, Chinese, Arabic, Dutch, Portuguese and
English.[222][223][224] Nearly every Indonesian speaks the language due to its widespread use
in education, academics, communications, business, politics, and mass media. Most
Indonesians also speak at least one of more than 700 local languages, [3] often as their
first language. Most belong to the Austronesian language family, while there are over
270 Papuan languages spoken in eastern Indonesia.[3] Of these, Javanese is the most
widely spoken.[77]
In 1930, Dutch and other Europeans (Totok), Eurasians, and derivative people like
the Indos, numbered 240,000 or 0.4% of the total population. [225] Historically, they
constituted only a tiny fraction of the native population and continue to do so today.
Despite the Dutch presence for almost 350 years, the Dutch language never had a
substantial number of speakers or official status. [226] The small minorities that can speak
it or Dutch-based creole languages fluently are the aforementioned ethnic groups and
descendants of Dutch colonisers. Today, there is some degree of fluency by either
educated members of the oldest generation or legal professionals, [227] as specific law
codes are still only available in Dutch. [228]
Religion
Main article: Religion in Indonesia
Religion in Indonesia (2018)[5]

  Islam (86.70%)
  Protestantism (7.60%)
  Roman Catholicism (3.12%)
  Hinduism (1.74%)
  Buddhism (0.77%)
  Confucianism (0.03%)
  Folk (0.04%)

While the constitution stipulates religious freedom, [229][119] the government officially

recognises only six religions: Islam, Protestantism, Roman
Catholicism, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Confucianism;[230][231] with indigenous religions only
partly acknowledged.[231] Indonesia is the world's most populous Muslim-majority
country[232] with 227 million adherents in 2017, with the majority being Sunnis (99%).
[233]
 The Shias and Ahmadis respectively constitute 1% (1–3 million) and 0.2% (200,000–
400,000) of the Muslim population. [231][234] Almost 11% of Indonesians are Christians, while
the rest are Hindus, Buddhists, and others. Most Hindus are Balinese,[235] and
most Buddhists are Chinese Indonesians.[236]

A Hindu shrine dedicated to Sri Baduga Maharaja in Pura Parahyangan Agung

Jagatkarta, Bogor. Hinduism has left a lasting impact in Indonesian art and culture.

The natives of the Indonesian archipelago originally practised

indigenous animism and dynamism, beliefs that are common to Austronesian people.
[237]
 They worshipped and revered ancestral spirit, and believed that supernatural spirits
(hyang) might inhabit certain places such as large trees, stones, forests, mountains, or
sacred sites.[237] Examples of Indonesian native belief systems include
the Sundanese Sunda Wiwitan, Dayak's Kaharingan, and the Javanese Kejawèn. They
have had a significant impact on how other faiths are practised, evidenced by a large
proportion of people—such as the Javanese abangan, Balinese Hindus, and Dayak
Christians—practising a less orthodox, syncretic form of their religion.[238]
Hindu influences reached the archipelago as early as the first century CE.
[239]
 The Sundanese kingdom of Salakanagara in western Java around 130 was the first
historically recorded Indianised kingdom in the archipelago.[240] Buddhism arrived around
the 6th century,[241] and its history in Indonesia is closely related to that of Hinduism, as
some empires based on Buddhism had its roots around the same period. The
archipelago has witnessed the rise and fall of powerful and influential Hindu and
Buddhist empires such as Majapahit, Sailendra, Srivijaya, and Mataram. Though no
longer a majority, Hinduism and Buddhism remain defining influences in Indonesian
culture.

Eid al-Fitr mass prayer in Istiqlal Mosque, Jakarta

Islam was introduced by Sunni traders of the Shafi'i fiqh, as well as Sufi traders from the

Indian subcontinent and southern Arabian peninsula as early as the 8th century CE. [242]
[243]
 For the most part, Islam overlaid and mixed with existing cultural and religious
influences that resulted in a distinct form of Islam.[34][244] Trade, missionary works such as
by the Wali Sanga and Chinese explorer Zheng He, and military campaigns by several
sultanates helped accelerate the spread of the religion. [245][246] By the end of the 16th
century, Islam had supplanted Hinduism and Buddhism as the dominant religion of Java
and Sumatra.

Catholic Mass at the Jakarta Cathedral

Catholicism was brought by Portuguese traders and missionaries such as Jesuit Francis

Xavier, who visited and baptised several thousand locals. [247][248] Its spread faced difficulty
due to the VOC policy of banning the religion and the Dutch hostility due to the Eighty
Years' War against Catholic Spain's rule. Protestantism is mostly a result
of Calvinist and Lutheran missionary efforts during the Dutch colonial era.[249][250]
  Although they are the most common branch, there is a multitude of other
[251]

denominations elsewhere in the country. [252]

There was a sizable Jewish presence in the archipelago until 1945, mostly Dutch and
some Baghdadi Jews. Since most have left after Indonesia proclaimed
independence, Judaism was never accorded official status, and only a tiny number of
Jews remain today, mostly in Jakarta and Surabaya. [253] At the national and local level,
Indonesia's political leadership and civil society groups have played a crucial role in
interfaith relations, both positively and negatively. The invocation of the first principle of
Indonesia's philosophical foundation, Pancasila (the belief in the one and only God)
often serves as a reminder of religious tolerance, [254] though instances of intolerance
have occurred. An overwhelming majority of Indonesians consider religion to be
essential,[255] and its role is present in almost all aspects of society, including politics,
education, marriage, and public holidays.[256][257]
Education and health
Main articles: Education in Indonesia and Health in Indonesia

Bandung Institute of Technology in West Java

Education is compulsory for 12 years.[258] Parents can choose between state-run, non-

sectarian schools or private or semi-private religious (usually Islamic) schools,
supervised by the ministries of Education and Religion, respectively. [259] Private
international schools that do not follow the national curriculum are also available. The
enrolment rate is 93% for primary education, 79% for secondary education, and 36% for
tertiary education (2018).[260] The literacy rate is 96% (2018), and the government spends
about 3.6% of GDP (2015) on education. [260] In 2018, there were more than 4,500 higher
educational institutions in Indonesia.[261] The top universities are the Java-
based University of Indonesia, Bandung Institute of Technology and Gadjah Mada
University.[261] Andalas University is pioneering the establishment of a leading university
outside of Java.[262]
Government expenditure on healthcare is about 3.3% of GDP in 2016. [263] As part of an
attempt to achieve universal health care, the government launched the National Health
Insurance (Jaminan Kesehatan Nasional, JKN) in 2014 that provides healthcare to
citizens.[264] They include coverage for a range of services from the public and also
private firms that have opted to join the scheme. In recent decades, there have been
remarkable improvements such as rising life expectancy (from 62.3 years in 1990 to
71.7 years in 2019)[265] and declining child mortality (from 84 deaths per 1,000 births in
1990 to 25.4 deaths in 2017).[266] Nevertheless, Indonesia continues to face challenges
that include maternal and child health, low air quality, malnutrition, high rate of smoking,
and infectious diseases.[267]
Issues
Main article: Human rights in Indonesia
Nearly 80% of Indonesia's population lives in the western parts of the archipelago, [268] but
they are growing at a slower pace than the rest of the country. This situation creates a
gap in wealth, unemployment rate, and health between densely populated islands and
economic centres (such as Sumatra and Java) and sparsely populated, disadvantaged
areas (such as Maluku and Papua).[269][270] Racism, especially against Chinese
Indonesians since the colonial period, is still prevalent today. [271][272] There has been a
marked increase of religious intolerance since 1998, with the most recent high-profile
case being that of Chinese Christian former governor of Jakarta, Basuki Tjahaja
Purnama.[273] LGBT issues have recently gained attention in Indonesia. [274] While
homosexuality is legal in most parts of the country, it is illegal in Aceh and South
Sumatra.[275] LGBT people and activists have regularly faced fierce opposition,
intimidation, and discrimination, launched even by authorities. [276]

Culture
Main article: Culture of Indonesia
See also: Public holidays in Indonesia
The cultural history of the Indonesian archipelago spans more than two millennia.
Influences from the Indian subcontinent, mainland China, the Middle East, Europe,[277]
[278]
 and the Austronesian peoples have historically shaped the cultural, linguistic and
religious makeup of the archipelago. As a result, modern-day Indonesia has a
multicultural, multilingual and multi-ethnic society, [3][216] with a complex cultural mixture
that differs significantly from the original indigenous cultures. Indonesia currently
holds ten items of UNESCO's Intangible Cultural Heritage, including a wayang puppet
theatre, kris, batik,[279] pencak silat, angklung, and the three genres of traditional Balinese
dance.[280]
Art and architecture
Main articles: Indonesian art and Architecture of Indonesia

Traditional Balinese painting depicting cockfighting

Indonesian arts include both age-old art forms developed through centuries and a
recently developed contemporary art. Despite often displaying local ingenuity,
Indonesian arts have absorbed foreign influences—most notably from India, the Arab
world, China and Europe, as a result of contacts and interactions facilitated, and often
motivated, by trade.[281] Painting is an established and developed art in Bali, where its
people are famed for their artistry. Their painting tradition started as
classical Kamasan or Wayang style visual narrative, derived from visual art discovered
on candi bas reliefs in eastern Java.[282]

An avenue of Tongkonan houses in a Torajan village, South Sulawesi

There have been numerous discoveries of megalithic sculptures in Indonesia.

[283]
 Subsequently, tribal art has flourished within the culture
of Nias, Batak, Asmat, Dayak and Toraja.[284][285] Wood and stone are common materials
used as the media for sculpting among these tribes. Between the 8th and 15th
centuries, the Javanese civilisation has developed a refined stone sculpting art and
architecture which was influenced by Hindu-Buddhist Dharmic civilisation. The temples
of Borobudur and Prambanan are among the most famous examples of the practice. [286]
As with the arts, Indonesian architecture has absorbed foreign influences that have
brought cultural changes and profound effect on building styles and techniques. The
most dominant has traditionally been Indian; however, Chinese, Arab, and European
influences have also been significant. Traditional carpentry, masonry, stone and
woodwork techniques and decorations have thrived in vernacular architecture, with
numbers of traditional houses' (rumah adat) styles that have been developed. The
traditional houses and settlements in the country vary by ethnic groups, and each has a
specific custom and history.[287] Examples
include Toraja's Tongkonan, Minangkabau's Rumah Gadang and Rangkiang, Javanese
style Pendopo pavilion with Joglo style roof, Dayak's longhouses, various Malay
houses, Balinese houses and temples, and also different forms of rice barns (lumbung).
Music, dance and clothing
Main articles: Music of Indonesia, Dance in Indonesia, and National costume of
Indonesia
Indonesian music and dance. Clockwise from top: A gamelan player, Angklung, Sundanese Jaipongan Mojang
Priangan dance, Balinese Pendet dance.

The music of Indonesia predates historical records. Various indigenous tribes

incorporate chants and songs accompanied by musical instruments in their
rituals. Angklung, kacapi suling, gong, gamelan, talempong, kulintang, and sasando are
examples of traditional Indonesian instruments. The diverse world of Indonesian music
genres is the result of the musical creativity of its people, and subsequent cultural
encounters with foreign influences. These include gambus and qasida from the Middle
East,[288] keroncong from Portugal,[289] and dangdut—one of the most popular music
genres in Indonesia—with notable Hindi influence as well as Malay orchestras. [290] Today,
the Indonesian music industry enjoys both nationwide and regional popularity in
Malaysia, Singapore, and Brunei, due to common culture and intelligible languages
between Indonesian and Malay.
An Indonesian batik

Indonesian dances have a diverse history, with more than 3,000 original dances.
Scholars believe that they had their beginning in rituals and religious worship.
[291]
 Examples include war dances, a dance of witch doctors, and dance to call for rain or
any agricultural rituals such as Hudoq. Indonesian dances derive its influences from the
archipelago's prehistoric and tribal, Hindu-Buddhist, and Islamic periods. Recently,
modern dances and urban teen dances have gained popularity due to the influence of
Western culture, as well as those of Japan and South Korea to some extent. Traditional
dances, however, such as
the Javanese, Sundanese, Minang, Balinese, Saman continue to be a living and
dynamic tradition.
Indonesia has various styles of clothing as a result of its long and rich cultural history.
The national costume has its origins in the indigenous culture of the country and
traditional textile traditions. The Javanese Batik and Kebaya[292] are arguably Indonesia's
most recognised national costume, though they have Sundanese and Balinese origins
as well.[293] Each province has a representation of traditional attire and dress, [277] such
as Ulos of Batak from North Sumatra; Songket of Malay and Minangkabau from
Sumatra; and Ikat of Sasak from Lombok. People wear national and regional costumes
during traditional weddings, formal ceremonies, music performances, government and
official occasions,[293] and they vary from traditional to modern attire.
Theatre and cinema
Main article: Cinema of Indonesia

Pandava and Krishna in an act of the Wayang Wong performance

Wayang, the Javanese, Sundanese, and Balinese shadow puppet theatre display
several mythological legends such as Ramayana and Mahabharata.[294] Other forms of
local drama include the Javanese Ludruk and Ketoprak, the Sundanese Sandiwara,
Betawi Lenong,[295][296] and various Balinese dance drama. They incorporate humour and
jest and often involve audiences in their performances. [297] Some theatre traditions also
include music, dancing and the silat martial art such as Randai from Minangkabau
people of West Sumatra. It is usually performed for traditional ceremonies and festivals,
[298][299]
 and based on semi-historical Minangkabau legends and love story. [299] Modern
performing art also developed in Indonesia with their distinct style of drama. Notable
theatre, dance, and drama troupe such as Teater Koma are famous as it often portrays
social and political satire of Indonesian society.[300]

Advertisement for Loetoeng Kasaroeng (1926), the first fiction film produced in the Dutch East Indies

The first film produced in the archipelago was Loetoeng Kasaroeng,[301] a silent film by
Dutch director L. Heuveldorp. The film industry expanded after independence, with six
films made in 1949 rising to 58 in 1955. Usmar Ismail, who made significant imprints in
the 1950s and 1960s, is generally considered to be the pioneer of Indonesian films.
[302]
 The latter part of the Sukarno era saw the use of cinema for nationalistic, anti-
Western purposes, and foreign films were subsequently banned, while the New Order
utilised a censorship code that aimed to maintain social order. [303] Production of films
peaked during the 1980s, although it declined significantly in the next decade. [301] Notable
films in this period include Pengabdi Setan (1980), Nagabonar (1987), Tjoet Nja'
Dhien (1988), Catatan Si Boy (1989), and Warkop's comedy films.
Independent filmmaking was a rebirth of the film industry since 1998, where films
started addressing previously banned topics, such as religion, race, and love.
[303]
 Between 2000 and 2005, the number of films released each year steadily increased.
[304]
 Riri Riza and Mira Lesmana were among the new generation of filmmakers who co-
directed Kuldesak (1999), Petualangan Sherina (2000), Ada Apa dengan Cinta? (2002),
and Laskar Pelangi (2008). In 2016, Warkop DKI Reborn: Jangkrik Boss Part
1 smashed box office records, becoming the most-watched Indonesian film with
6.8 million tickets sold.[305] Indonesia has held annual film festivals and awards, including
the Indonesian Film Festival (Festival Film Indonesia) that has been held intermittently
since 1955. It hands out the Citra Award, the film industry's most prestigious award.
From 1973 to 1992, the festival was held annually and then discontinued until its revival
in 2004.
Mass media and literature
Main articles: Mass media in Indonesia and Indonesian literature

Metro TV at Gelora Bung Karno Stadium, reporting the 2010 AFF Championship

Media freedom increased considerably after the fall of the New Order, during which the
Ministry of Information monitored and controlled domestic media and restricted foreign
media.[306] The television market includes several national commercial networks and
provincial networks that compete with public TVRI, which held a monopoly on TV
broadcasting from 1962 to 1989. By the early 21st century, the improved
communications system had brought television signals to every village and people can
choose from up to 11 channels.[307] Private radio stations carry news bulletins while
foreign broadcasters supply programmes. The number of printed publications has
increased significantly since 1998.[307]
Like other developing countries, Indonesia began development of the Internet in the
early 1990s. Its first commercial Internet service provider, PT. Indo Internet began
operation in Jakarta in 1994.[308] The country had 171 million Internet users in 2018, with
a penetration rate that keeps increasing annually. [309] Most are between the ages of 15
and 19 and depend primarily on mobile phones for access, outnumbering both laptops
and computers.[310]

Pramoedya Ananta Toer, Indonesia's most famous novelist. Many considered him to be Southeast Asia's
leading candidate for a Nobel Prize in Literature.[311]
The oldest evidence of writing in the Indonesian archipelago is a series
of Sanskrit inscriptions dated to the 5th century. Many of Indonesia's peoples have
firmly rooted oral traditions, which help to define and preserve their cultural identities.
[312]
 In written poetry and prose, several traditional forms dominate,
mainly syair, pantun, gurindam, hikayat and babad. Examples of these forms
include Syair Abdul Muluk, Hikayat Hang Tuah, Sulalatus Salatin, and Babad Tanah
Jawi.[313]
Early modern Indonesian literature originates in Sumatran tradition. [314][315] Literature and
poetry flourished during the decades leading up to and after independence. Balai
Pustaka, the government bureau for popular literature, was instituted in 1917 to promote
the development of indigenous literature. Many scholars consider the 1950s and 1960s
to be the Golden Age of Indonesian Literature. [316] The style and characteristics of
modern Indonesian literature vary according to the dynamics of the country's political
and social landscape,[316] most notably the war of independence in the second half of
1940s and the anti-communist mass killings in the mid-1960s. [317] Notable literary figures
of the modern era include Multatuli, Chairil Anwar, Mohammad Yamin, Merari
Siregar, Marah Roesli, Pramoedya Ananta Toer, and Ayu Utami.
Cuisine
Main article: Indonesian cuisine

Nasi Padang with rendang, gulai and vegetables

Indonesian cuisine is one of the most diverse, vibrant, and colourful in the world, full of
intense flavour.[318] Many regional cuisines exist, often based upon indigenous culture
and foreign influences such as Chinese, European, Middle Eastern, and Indian
precedents.[319] Rice is the leading staple food and is served with side dishes of meat and
vegetables. Spices (notably chilli), coconut milk, fish and chicken are fundamental
ingredients.[320]
Some popular dishes such as nasi goreng, gado-gado, sate, and soto are prevalent and
considered as national dishes. The Ministry of Tourism, however, chose tumpeng as the
official national dish in 2014, describing it as binding the diversity of various culinary
traditions.[321] Other popular dishes include rendang, one of the many Padang
cuisines along with dendeng and gulai. In 2017, rendang was chosen as the "World's
Most Delicious Food" by the CNN Travel reader's choice.[322] Another fermented food
is oncom, similar in some ways to tempeh but uses a variety of bases (not only soy),
created by different fungi, and particularly popular in West Java.
 Sports
Main article: Sport in Indonesia

A demonstration of Pencak Silat, a form of martial arts

Sports are generally male-oriented, and spectators are often associated with illegal
gambling.[323] Badminton and football are the most popular sports. Indonesia is among
the only five countries that have won the Thomas and Uber Cup, the world team
championship of men's and women's badminton. Along with weightlifting, it is the sport
that contributes the most to Indonesia's Olympic medal tally. Liga 1 is the country's
premier football club league. On the international stage, Indonesia has experienced
limited success despite being the first Asian team to participate in the FIFA World
Cup in 1938 as Dutch East Indies.[324] On the continental level, Indonesia won the bronze
medal in the 1958 Asian Games. Indonesia's first appearance in the AFC Asian
Cup was in 1996 and successfully qualified for the next three tournaments. They,
however, failed to progress through the next stage in all occasions.
Other popular sports include boxing and basketball, which has a long history in
Indonesia and was part of the first National Games (Pekan Olahraga Nasional, PON) in
1948.[325] Some of the famous Indonesian boxers include Ellyas Pical, three
times IBF Super flyweight champion; Nico Thomas, Muhammad Rachman, and Chris
John.[326] In motorsport, Rio Haryanto became the first Indonesian to compete in Formula
One in 2016.[327] Sepak takraw and karapan sapi (bull racing) in Madura are some
examples of traditional sports in Indonesia. In areas with a history of tribal warfare,
mock fighting contests are held, such as caci in Flores and pasola in Sumba. Pencak
Silat is an Indonesian martial art and in 1987, became one of the sporting events in
the Southeast Asian Games, with Indonesia appearing as one of the leading
competitors. In Southeast Asia, Indonesia is one of the top sports powerhouses by
winning the Southeast Asian Games ten times since 1977, [328] most recently in 2011.[329]

See also
 Indonesia portal
 Asia portal

 Islands portal

 List of Indonesia-related topics

 Index of Indonesia-related articles
 Outline of Indonesia

Notes
1. ^ Sometimes the nationalistic name of the Unitary State of Republic of Indonesia (Negara
Kesatuan Republik Indonesia, NKRI) is used.
2. ^ Small but significant populations of ethnic Chinese, Indians, Europeans and Arabs are
concentrated mostly in urban areas.

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