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Chapter 6 HEATEXCHANGERS 259

T2
Cold
approach tl

0 4 0 Al 0 4

1 Figure
6.27 Temperature potential versus surface area.

T, - t , = (Tl - t2)e
- (&+&) UA,

the result is:

Atcc = (‘1 - ‘2) - (T2 - tl) -

- “ch - Affr
In -Tl - t2 Afch
In -
T2 - tl At,,
This mean potential is called DTLM,,: logarithmic mean temperature differ-
ence between the hot and cold approaches. For identical inlet and outlet tem-
peratures, this mean potential is greater than that obtained with cocurrent
circulation, thereby demonstrating the superiority of counter-current circula-
tion.

6.4.2.3 Exchangers Associating Cocurrent and

CounterpCurrent Circulation
As indicated previously in Section 6.3, these are generally cylindrical shell-and-
tube tubular exchangers. The most commonly used feature 1 shell-side pass
associated with 2 tube-side passes, or possibly 4,6, 8, etc., to the extent that
the tube- side pressure drop is technically or economically acceptable. Shells
with 2 passes associated with 4, 8 etc. tube-side passes are also employed,
along with shells with split or divided flow, and shells with double flow asso-
ciated with 1 or more tube- side passes. The advantages and drawbacks of
these different configurations are commented on in Section 6.6 when techno-
logical solutions are examined.
The characteristic transfer law can be established for each circulation pat-
tern of the two fluids. One method consists in expressing the law in the fol-
lowing form:
Q = UA, At,,,
260 Chapter 6 HEATEXCHANGERS

At,,, is the mean temperature potential characteristic of the relevant circulation

mode. Another form is as follows:
Q = UA, F x DTLM,,
expressing At,,, a s the counter-current mean potential corrected by a factor
F < 1 characteristic of the circulation mode.
For example, for the most commonly used exchanger, the 1-2, the correc-
tion factor is expressed as shown in the relation below:
1 -PR
In -
F1-2 =
vcs
-
1 -P
1-R 2-P(l+R-v-?
In
2-P(1+R+Vm?

-
R = Tl - T2
with: and P = -.t 2 - tl
t 2 - tl TI - t l
Its performance is included between that of the cocurrent and counter-cur-
rent systems, a s shown in Figure 6.28A. Compared with counter-current per-
formance limits, the maximum flow rate of exchangeable heat is lower
(Fig. 6.28B). Outlet temperature crossover is possible, but more limited. For
the other circulation modes mentioned, performance is also obviously
included between cocurrent and counter-current. Among the available data,
the Standards of the Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association [ 6 ]can be
consulted on determining the characteristic factor F.

6.4.2.4 CrosseFlow Heat Exchangers (Fig. 6.29)

The same as for the preceding types of exchanger, the characteristic factor F
can be determined according to the number of tube-side passes. For multi-
passes, performance is different depending on whether circulation is overall
cocurrent or counter-current, considering the inlets and outlets at exchanger
limits.
Overall counter-current circulation is obviously more efficient, perfor-
mance for 4 tube-side passes is very close t o that of a counter-current
exchanger. Depending on the case, the factor F can be determined from the
data in references [ 6 ]and [ 71.

6.4.2.5 Exchanger Layouts

a. In Series on the Two Fluids (Fig. 6.30)
Exchangers can be placed in series on the 2 fluids by implementing overall
countercurrent circulation, with the cold fluid entering on the same side
where the hot fluid exits. If each of the exchangers in th e series is itself a
counter-current exchanger, it is obvious that the whole layout is governed by
the transfer law characteristic of counter-current circulation. This solution is
 Chapter 6 HEATEXCHANGERS 261

Ti = 150°C

At, = 130°C

ti = 20°C

DTLM,,, = 130-20
130
In -
20
= 58.8%
CC -lw
DTLM -110-40
40
= 69.2% At,,., = 64.4%

DTLMcoc = 0.85 Atm

Fcoc= DTLM,, F,-2= ~ DTL$cc = 0.93

Behavior of an 1-2 exchanger.

A. Comparison of mean potentials. B. Comparison of heat flow rates

preferred in particular when the flow rate of heat to be exchanged and the
transfer quality are such that the heat exchange surfaces required are so large
that the unit size of the corresponding exchangers is too large to be techni-
cally feasible or poses layout, installation and maintenance problems.
This holds true moreover for exchangers that are not counter-current, with
the advantage for the set up of not being subjected to the same performance
limits inherent to each of the other circulation modes for the unit exchanger.
The compared performance values show the advantage of multiplying the
number of exchangers in the series.
262 Chapter 6 HEATEXCHANGERS

Figure
6.29 Cross-flowwith 4 tube-side passes

t' t"' mc

4
--d

- Figure
6.30 Overall countercurrent in-series exchangers.

For series of identical 1-2 exchangers, the overall transfer laws can be com-
pared as indicated in Figure 6.31.

0,

y
b

t 3 ~ ( -2)
1
t 2 x ( 1 -2)
?
. 1 x ( l -2)
1 Figure
6.3 1 Performance o f
series o f 1-2
exchangers.
I
 Chapter 6. HEAJEXCHANGERS 263

Theoretically, an infinite number of elementary exchangers is required to

achieve countercurrent performance. In actual practice, a limited number of
in-series 1-2 exchangers can approach it.
Performance can also be compared by examining the mean temperature
potentials and the characteristic factors F,-2, F24, F36, FG, etc. which correct
the DTLM,,. They can be determined from the data in reference [6].
For example, for an exchange between 2 fluids under the following condi-
tions:

LkH
Inlet
Outlet
Hot fluid

TI = 340°C
T, = 190°C
Cold fluid

t , = 165°C
tz = 240°C

there is no solution with an 1-2 exchanger. Solutions can be contemplated with

series of 2, 3, 4, etc. 1-2 exchangers laid out in an overall counter-current con-
figuration, with factors F24 = 0.81, F3-6 = 0.92, Fa = 0.96, etc., the mean poten-
tial increasing with the number of in-series exchangers.
Another approach to exchanger performance and layout can be made from
the relations between efficiency and number of transfer units characteristic of
the circulation modes and layouts (see references [ 111 and [ 121).

b. In Parallel on the Two Fluids (Fig. 6.32)

Acceptable or economical pressure losses for one and/or the other of the two
fluids are a limiting factor t o be taken into account in designing a series.
Parallel layouts allow flow rates per branch to be reduced and constraints to
be complied with. They can also be necessary when flow rates are high, with-
out a series being required, however. The choice of the number of in-series
exchangers and parallel branches also takes into account the size limits of
each exchanger.

-
Figure
6.32 Exchangers in parallel.
264 Chapler 6 HEATEXCHANGERS

6.5 Critical Points in Selecting Heat Exchanger

Type and Technological Design
For a specific thermal application, the choice of heat exchanger type and
design depends on numerous more or less interdependent factors. The ele-
ments of choice are essentially based on the following considerations.

6.5.1 Operating Conditions

a. Basic Process Data
These data are indispensable for thermal, hydraulic and mechanical sizing,
influence the design of exchanger types and lead to the choice of materials,
etc. They are listed on process specification sheets that are quite similar to
genuine tender specifications with respect to the required thermal equipment.
Some of the data were discussed in depth in the preceding sections, while oth-
ers will be covered later on.
The bases of process engineering involve operating temperatures and pres-
sures, design temperatures and pressures, allowed pressure drops, type of flu-
ids and their particular features (fouling, cold behavior, thermal stability, new-
tonian or non-newtonian behavior), thermal properties of the fluids,
thermodynamic properties and diagram of temperature versus flow rate of
heat exchanged, any change in state (one-phase liquid or gas flow, or two-
phase flow with vaporization or condensation), particular operating condi-
tions (minimum and maximum flow rates, different operating rates, etc.),
among others.
The examples below illustrate the influence of certain process data:
If one of the fluids is laden with suspended particles that may precipitate
out, it is necessary to choose an exchanger that can be disassembled and
is designed to facilitate particle entrainment.
If an exchanger carries fluids with high vapor volume flow rates (vacuum
condensers for example) and very low allocated pressure drops, the type
of exchanger chosen tends to be a technologically adapted design (dis-
tribution belt, divided flow, etc.) with large cross-sectional areas for flow,
ruling out the use of certain compact plate-type exchangers with very
narrow channels.

b. Cleaning Requirements
Depending on the extent and nature of fouling, chemical or mechanical clean-
ing may be dictated. If rigorous mechanical cleaning is required, exchanger
disassembly must be possible to allow access to the various parts where foul-
ing deposits have been laid down. Moreover, fluid circulation velocities have
an influence on the extent of deposits. For example, a minimum circulation
velocity of 1.5 m/s is generally recommended for cooling water circulating in a
tube bundle.
 Chapter 6. HEATEXCHANGERS 265

c. Wall Temperatures
Fluid behavior at wall temperatures must be analyzed to guard against possi-
ble risks: solidification, crystallization, degradation, increased fouling, poten-
tial corrosion, etc.

d. Fluid Residence Time in the Exchanger

An exchanger with short fluid residence times is conducive to rapidly reach-
ing normal working conditions. In contrast, long residence times lead to
exchangers with a great deal of thermal inertia. Residence times also influence
response times in controlling operating variables.

e. Operating Conditions during Transition Phases

These transitions may be during start up, shutdown, depressurization, by-
passing a circuit, recycle, etc. This is an important point to consider in design-
ing the exchanger, since steady or cyclic operating rate transition phases may
induce severe mechanical stress among the different component parts if the
thermal gradient is high. Faulty seals, permanent deformation and even equip-
ment failure may be the result, so all exceptional working conditions must be
precisely defined.

6.5.2 Mechanical Resistance Conditions

a. Resistance to Operating Pressures and Temperatures
All the possible phases of operation must be properly taken into account. The
codes, standards and regulations to be used must be clearly specified in so far
as they are applicable (problem of special exchangers). Mechanical resistance
conditions obviously have a direct influence on the choice of exchanger type
and design.
For example, a floating head tubular exchanger is required when there is
significant differential expansion between the tube bundle and the shell.
Likewise, a dismountable plate and frame exchanger can not be used for high
pressure-high temperature service.

b. Corrosion Resistance
This factor directly influences the type of material to be installed, and there-
fore the choice of technological design and the costs. An indicative list of
materials usually employed for certain types of corrosion in heat exchangers
is presented in Section 6.6.

c. Erosion Resistance
Erosion often occurs along with corrosion. Erosion takes place when the linear
velocity of the fluid in a circuit is too high and generates strong turbulence. In
order to limit risks, extreme values for circulation velocity or corresponding
kinetic energy (pu? are defined in specialized handbooks. For example, an
extreme tube-side value for pu2 of 8930 kg/md (Pa) is recommended in TEMA
Standards [6] for liquids with:
266 ChaDter 6 HEATEXCHANGERS

p fluid density in kg/m3

u linear circulation velocity of the fluid in m/s
For fluids laden with particles, velocities must be lower and adapted to par-
ticle type, size and specific gravity.
d. Behavior with Vibrations Induced by Fluid Flow
This consideration applies essentially to shell-side fluid flow in tubular
exchangers. The flow generates turbulence and eddies which lead to mechan-
ical stress in the tubes (alternating bending). The frequency corresponds to
the excitation frequency of the tubes. A vibrating tube supported by baffles
behaves like a supported beam subjected t o vibrations.
If there is coupling between the excitation frequency due to turbulence and
the natural frequency of the tube, resonance can occur. This may cause seri-
ous damage to tubes by vibratory phenomena. The following types of damage
can be seen:
loss of thickness by hammering and failure subsequent to repeated
impacts,
tube shear where going through the baffles,
tube fatigue,
tube shear where inserted in tube plates,
noise by acoustic resonance if there is coupling with the shell acoustic
frequency.
The potential risks of flow-induced tube vibrations are increasingly well
understood and relatively reliable calculation methods are available (TEMA
[6]). Preventive measures can be taken during construction: selection of the
NTlW (no tube in window) tube bundle, incorporation of anti-acoustic reso-
nance baffles, support plates, etc. (see Section 6.6).
e. Relative or Absolute Circuit Tightness
This constraint can be determining in the design of the exchanger and justify
ruling out certain types. The TEMA type tubular exchangers can be selected
with a view to limiting the number of flanges with potentially leaky gaskets. In
order t o reduce the risks of contaminating fluids, dual sheet tube exchangers
may even be selected (see Section 6.6). Welded plates and even dual plates are
specified for plate-type exchangers rather than dismountable plate and frame
exchangers.

6.5.3 Maintenance Conditions

Ease of maintenance (cleaning and repair) is related to exchanger weight, size
and accessibility - sometimes prevailing factors. This is true in particular for
exchangers mounted on offshore platforms. Here compact plate-type exchang-
ers offer numerous advantages t o the extent that operating conditions allow
their use.
 Chapter 6 HEATEXCHANGERS 267

6.5.4 Reliability in Performance and

Mechanical Resistance
Proper operability of the exchanger is a crucial consideration involved in
selection, since poor performance is unacceptable with respect to the con-
tractually defined service. Mechanical breakdowns causing unit shutdowns
can have very serious consequences on the operation of a plant and can be
hazardous for personnel safety. It is often noted that lack of exchanger relia-
bility has disastrous financial consequences on the operation of the whole
manufacturing plant. The days when plants are off stream sometimes induce
enormous costs, incommensurable with the investment cost of the exchanger.

6.5.5 Economic Requirements

Given the wide variety of exchanger designs (tubular, plate-type exchangers,
etc.) and parameters influencing costs, it is not easy to estimate the cost of dif-
ferent technically feasible solutions without resorting to elaborate methods or
consulting. In any case, the price of an exchanger is directly related to its
design, weight, exchange surface area and the type of construction materials.
For example, for the very common tubular type AES exchangers (see
Section 6.6), consisting of tubes with an outside diameter of 3/4 in and a length
of 20 ft, a carbon steel shell and tubes, and exchange surface areas greater
than 500 m2, the investment cost was approximately 1000 FF/m2 in 1997 (price
at the factory gate). The same exchanger with a titanium tube bundle cost
some 6000 FF/m2, whereas a plate and frame exchanger made of the same
metal requiring a smaller exchanger surface area cost 1000 FF/m2.
Any economic comparison must also take into account:
exchanger transportation and installation costs (piping, civil engineer-
ing, etc.),
energy costs (investments and operating costs): pumping or compres-
sion power related to the allowable pressure drop for the different fluids,
ventilation power and electricity consumption of air cooler fans, utilities
(cooling water, etc.), among others.
It is recommended to carry out a conventional economic study comparing
the functions (I + RE) specific to each solution contemplated (I: investment
cost, E energy cost, R : return on investment).

6.5.6 Availability of Calculation Methods

to Predict Performance
Some operators and engineering companies require reliable calculation meth-
ods to predict the performance of any exchanger under study. This position
rules out the use of equipment with sizing methods that are either jealously
protected by manufacturers or so innovative that they are not sufficiently con-
firmed. In this connection, shell-and-tube tubular exchangers have long bene-
268 Chapter 6 HEATEXCHANGERS

fitted from an advantage: they can be sized with a certain accessible profi-
ciency. In the past few years, major technological progress in non-tubular
exchangers and a better understanding of their behavior have allowed their
use t o be extended.

6.6 Shelband4’ube Exchangers

Most shell-and-tube exchangers used in the refining industry are designed in
conformance with the Standards of Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers
Association [ 6 ] .They are referred to briefly by listing the main dimensions and
the type, identified by three letters characteristic of the component parts.
Examples: 60 - 240 AES
23/37 - 192 CKT
The dimensions listed indicate in succession:
The nominal diameter of the shell: inside diameter expressed in inches
(or other units). For a kettle, a K type shell, this diameter is preceded by
the diameter of the opening provided for the tube bundle.
The nominal length: overall length of tubes expressed in inches (or other
units). For U-tubes, the straight length alone is taken into account.
The 3 letters characterize in succession:
the type of front end stationary head,
the type of shell,
the type of exit or return chamber or box, more commonly called the rear
head.
As for mechanical sizing, exchangers are welded sheet metal vessels and as
such are governed by the rules laid down by codes. Codes are different accord-
ing to the country, manufacturer, engineering company and customer:
American ASME, French CODAP, German AD Merkblatter, English BS 5500, etc.
Certain construction requirements differ depending on the class of
exchanger:
class R to meet the severe requirements of petroleum industry applica-
tions;
class B for chemical process services;
class C for moderate requirements.
The service conditions, in particular the extent of fouling and the intensity
and rate of corrosion are taken into account in determining the class. Only
class R is included in the following discussion. In addition, customers or engi-
neering companies who represent them can have their own rules that override
or supplement the preceding.
 Chapter 6 HEATEXCHANGERS269

6.6.1 'Qpes of Construction

A standard exchanger as per TEMA standards consists of a front stationary
head, a shell and a rear head. These component parts are classified under dif-
ferent types according to the nomenclature presented in Appendix 6.4. In this
same appendix there are also some examples illustrating typical assemblies.
Although the possible combinations are numerous, not all are realistic.
Initially, they should be considered on the basis of the following two main cri-
teria: whether the tube bundle can be disassembled and whether differen-
tial shell-tube expansion is possible.
This leads to exchanger classification into two major categories:
fixed-tubesheet exchangers,
floating-head exchangers.
Other criteria are taken into account, such a s safety which systematically
rules out certain technological solutions for hydrocarbons, along with invest-
ments and operating costs, process data, etc. These criteria were discussed
earlier in Section 6.5. The sections below develop the various recommended
assemblies with their advantages and drawbacks, and their preferred areas of
use.

6.6.1.1 Types of Front Stationary Heads

The front stationary head allows the fluid to be distributed in the tube bundle
in order to complete 1, 2, 4, 6, etc. passes. As mentioned earlier (see
Section 6.4.1.1), the number of passes is generally limited by the allowable
pressure drop. Another limiting factor is the mechanical resistance of the asso-
ciated tubesheet, if there is a wide difference in temperature between the inlet
and outlet fluid. For a difference of approximately 150°C, only one pass is
required.

a. Type A. Removable Channel and Cover (Fig. 6.33)

Easy removal of the flat cover allows inspection and mechanical cleaning
inside the tubes without unbolting the nozzles. This is an advantage when fre-
quent cleaning is necessary. To provide a seal between the front stationary
head and the outside atmosphere, two gaskets are incorporated which are two
potential leakage points, particularly when the fluid is at high pressure and/or
temperature. One of them is located between the flat cover and the stationary
head and the other between the head and the fixed tubesheet. These gaskets
must obviously be properly installed and carefully chosen according to ser-
vice conditions. Another drawback is that the flat cover withstands high pres-
sure less well than a dished bottom (type B) of the same thickness. The cost
price is higher than for type B discussed below. Type A is commonly used
because of its easy maintenance with dirty products such a s residues, seawa-
ter, etc.
270 Chapter 6 HEATEXCHANGERS

A B

633 Type A front stationary head. A. One tube-side pass. B. Two tube-side passes.
C. Four tube-side passes. D. Photograph of a front stationary head (4 passes).
 Chapter 6 HEATEXCHANGERS271

A B

1
Figur
6.34 I Type B front stationary head. A. One tube-side pass. B. Two tube-side passes.
C Four tube-side passes. D. Photograph of a Type B front stationary head.
272 Chapter 6 HEATEXCHANGERS

b. Type B. Bonnet Integral Cover (Fig. 6.34)

The bottom is generally elliptical in shape. It can be hemispherical and, when
there is one tube-side pass, it can be in the shape of a truncated cone or con-
sist of a standard reduction. An elliptical or spherical bottom withstands pres-
sure better than a flat one and allows savings on weight and investments. A
single joint is necessary between the head and the fixed tubesheet, thereby
reducing the risk of leakage. Access t o the inside of tubes for inspection and
mechanical cleaning is possible only after the piping, the head and the gasket
have been disassembled, i.e. a considerable amount of handling. As a result,
this type is confined to use with clean products that d o not entail frequent
cleaning, such as treated water, light hydrocarbons, etc. Here it is often asso-
ciated with a bundle of U-tubes.

Flange
Tube sheet

A B

I,
Figure
Type C front stationary head.
A. One tube-side pass. B. Two tube-side passes. (1. Four tube-side passes.
 Chapter 6 HEATEXCHANGERS 273

Flange
I

I
Type N front 6.36
stationary head,
one tube-side pass

c. Types C and N. Channel Integral with Tubesheet and Removable Cover

The front stationary head and tubesheet are one piece. Two versions are pos-
sible depending on whether the tube bundle can be dismounted (Type C,
Fig. 6.35) or not (Type N, Fig. 6.36). The Type N solution eliminates the joint
between the head and the tubesheet. When there are several tube-side passes,
it also eliminates the one between the head baffles and the tubesheet as the
baffles can be welded onto the tubesheet. The flat bottomed cover does not
withstand pressure as well as a dished cover and on this point the elimination
of a joint in the Type N is an advantage. It reduces the risks of leakage to the
outside atmosphere and eliminates tightness problems through the baffle-
tubesheet joint. Since the connection between the front stationary head and
the tubesheet is simpler (no flange), the cost is lower. Types C and N are gen-
erally associated only with rear heads L, M and N to construct fixed tubesheet
exchangers. These types are seldom found in refining, they are more often
used in the chemical and pharmaceutical industries.

d. Type D. Special High Pressure Closure

The front stationary head consists of a solid forged or welded part. The cover
requires a special closing device (by locking or threaded rods, etc.) to be
selected depending on the pressure level.
Figure 6.37 shows a locked cover. A flat bolted bottom can be used with the
seal being provided by an O-ring, or less often a dished bottom can be
employed. The type of gasket must be particularly well chosen with respect to
pressure. This type is seldom contemplated for more than 2 tube-side passes
due to difficulties with pass partitions. It is often associated with a bundle of
274 Chapter 6 HEATEXCHANGERS

Type D front
stationary head.

Figure
6.38 Type E shells.
 Chapter 6 HEATEXCHANGERS 275

U-tubes. Its price is high and it is used for pressures over 100 bar. Examples:
HP gas coolers with treated water on the shell side (natural gas wellheads),
ammonia condensers and coolers, power plant water coolers, etc.

6.6.1.2 Shell Types

The different types of shell afford a number of different possibilities of orga-
nizing shell-side fluid circulation.

a . Type E. One-Pass Shell (Fig. 6.38)

Very commonly used, the Type E shell is equipped on each end with a nozzle
that can be directed according to the desired angle. When fluid volume flow
rates are very high, for example when large tonnages of vapor need to be con-
densed, the velocity of arrival on the tube bundle must be reduced to achieve
uniform distribution and limit tube vibration and erosion risks. Accordingly, an
increase in the inlet nozzle diameter can only be contemplated up to a certain
limit (inlet nozzle diameter < 1/2 shell diameter). Otherwise a large proportion
of shell volume potentially available t o accommodate tubes will be occupied.
One solution consists in feed inlet via an enlarged cross-section by equip-
ping the shell with a distribution dome (Fig. 6.39A), or even a vapor belt
(Fig. 6.39B) around the shell ring. Openings or slots can be incorporated in the
shell ring to contribute to fluid distribution on the tube bundle.

b. Type F. Two-Pass Shell with a Longitudinal Baffle (Fig. 6.40A)

A longitudinal baffle allows two shell-side passes with the fluid inlet and outlet
nozzles on the same side. The baffleis generally integral with the tube bundle.
This type of shell is used for counter-current circulation when there are two
tube-side passes implemented by a bundle of U-tubes, for example (Fig. 6.40B).
By associating two tube-side passes with each of the shell-side passes, i.e.
a total of four tube-side passes, the same shell contains two half exchangers in
series on the two fluids (Fig. 6.40C). As indicated in Section 6.4.2, these circu-
lation types give good performance from the standpoint of the characteristic
transfer law.
These solutions are often more cost effective than two smaller exchangers
in series on the two fluids. Unit prices decrease as size increases and the cost
of piping and accessories is lower. In some cases it may be easier to install
them than two smaller exchangers.
There are drawbacks, however, due to the presence of the longitudinal baf-
fle: problems of tightness between the baffle and the shell and sometimes of
the mechanical resistance of the shell. Leakage (Fig. 6.41A) between the shell
and the longitudinal baffle mounted on the tube bundle lowers thermal per-
formance. The greater the pressure differential and clearance, the more leak-
age occurs.
Leakage can be limited by bolting stainless steel strips onto the baffle on
the higher pressure side (Fig. 6.41B), however tightness resistance is good
only if the pressure differential is low. Another seldom used method consists
276 Chapter 6 HEATEXCHANGERS

Drain

Figure
6.39 Shells with: A. Distribution dome. B. Vapor belt.

in placing the baffle between a folded strip fixed to the shell (Fig. 6.41C), which
requires a special tool to spread the “lips” when it is installed. Yet another
solution consists in welding the longitudinal baffle onto the shell, but this
means having a shell and tube bundle in two halves for assembly. The solution
is of limited interest as tube bundle can not be removed.
There are also risks of mechanical problems due to differential expansion
on the two sides of the baffle if the temperature difference between inlet and
outlet is too high. The shell may be deformed in a “banana” shape, and this can
pose problems of exchanger support and piping stress.
 C

Figure
6.40 Type F shell. A. Shell with two passes and a longitudinal baffle.
B. 2-2 exchanger. C. 2 4 exchanger.
278 Chapter 13 HEATEXCHANGERS

A B C

-
Figure
6.41 Tightness problems with a longitudinal baffle.
A. Leakage. B. Stacked flexible seals. C. Folded strip.

The use of a shell-side multi-pass exchanger can only be contemplated if

the pressure differential and temperature difference are low (approximately:
AP < 0.3, At < l O O T ) , and in so far as it is less expensive than several in-series
exchangers with one shell-side pass. However, it may be advantageous if lim-
ited space is available.

c. Types G-Split Flow and H-Double Split Flow (Figs. 6.42A and B)
The fluid flow on the shell side is split into two parallel streams. The vertical,
longitudinal, and impingement plates are integral with the tube bundle. The
advantage of these layouts is that they allow low pressure drops on the shell
side, provided there are no crosswise baffles. The efficiency is also better for
these circulation modes than for 1-n exchangers.
Tube length is limited by the TEMA Standards on maximum length of
unsupported tubes: for example 60 in for 3/4 in carbon steel tubes. This results
in lengths of less than 10 ft for Type G,with Type H allowing the use of longer
tubes. The exchangers are not always fed symmetrically since channelling is
difficult to prevent.
These types are used when allowable shell-side pressure drop is low (for
example 0.05 bar), with high flow rates and/or a change in phase. This is the
case for thermosiphon-type reboilers, condensers, steam superheaters at
compressor inlets, etc.

d . Type J. Divided Flow

With one inlet and two outlets (Fig. 6.43A) or two inlets and one outlet
(Fig. 6.43B), this type distributes two bypass streams inside the shell, thereby
allowing low pressure drops.
The drawbacks are due to the more complicated piping layout. The pres-
ence of three instead of two nozzles does not allow a s many cross baffles to be
installed on the same length and this can limit the external transfer coefficient
on the shell side and favor the occurrence of dead zones.
 Chapter 6 HEATEXCHANGERS 279

A
Inlet

I
1 Vertical support plate
Outlet

1
Figure
Split flow shells. 6.42
A. Type G. B Inlets
B. Type H. Vertical support plates
I I

I Outlets I

The Type J shell is often used when the volume flow rate varies signifi-
cantly between the inlet and outlet, during a change in phase for example. The
most common configurations are presented in Figures 6.44A and B. For a con-
denser, the two inlets can make the use of a dome or a vapor belt unnecessary.
It is also possible to invert distribution with an inlet nozzle feeding into a
280 Chapter 6 HEATEXCHANGERS

Inlet B
A ~ I support plate

Inlets

1 Outlets 1

1
Outlet

Type J shells with divided flow.

A. One inlet, two outlets. B. Two inlets, one outlet.

A B
Top outlets

t
6.44 Uses For the Type J
with a change in
phase.
t 1 A. Reboiler.
B. Condenser.
Bottom inlet Bottom outlet

vapor belt (Fig. 6.45). Two Type J shells placed in series can constitute an
assembly equivalent t o the Type G with split flow (Fig. 6.46).

e. Type K. Kettle Type Reboiler (Fig. 6.47)

This type associated either with a straight tube or U-tube bundle provides a
large shell volume above the liquid covering the bundle. It achieves a liquid-
vapor equilibrium and fractionates the feed into a vapor richer in volatile com-
ponents and a liquid richer in the less volatile ones. It allows high flow rate
vapor disengagement without any liquid entrainment. The liquid phase in
equilibrium with the generated vapor can be withdrawn under level control.
 Chapter 6 HEATEXCHANGERS 281

Figure
6.45 Type J shell with a vapor belt.

Inlet
1

Figure
Two Type Jshells in
series.

I
I 1
Outlet
282 Chapter 6 HEATEXCHANGERS

The kettle is expensive and bulky, but the decision to use it is not really a ques-
tion of choice. It is in fact practically obligatory as soon as the required vapor-
ized fraction is approximately 40 to 50%. It is frequently utilized in functions of
reboiling in distillation, of amine regeneration and of cooling by refrigerant
evaporation.

A Vapor
outlet
t
T

t 1
Feed Liquid
inlet outlet

A Diagram B Photograph of a kettle reborler

 Chapter 6. HEATEXCHANGERS 283

f. Type X. Cross Flow (Fig. 6.48)

This type allows parallel circuits to be achieved, with the flow perpendicular
to the tube bundle between two consecutive cross baffles integral with the
bundle. It allows virtually perfect cross flow by eliminating the oblique veloc-
ity components. The greater the number of tube-side passes, the greater the
efficiency obtained and the closer it is to counter-current efficiency.
It also permits low pressure drops while at the same time using close baf-
fle intervals that are compatible with proper tube support that prevents vibra-
tions. The most common solution consists in employing a distribution dome
and sometimes a collection dome (Fig. 6.48B). The dome is not always suffi-
cient to obtain proper distribution in each between-baffle space. An elaborate
and expensive distribution device is sometimes required (Fig. 6.48C).
The Type X is used for services at very low shell-side fluid operating pres-
sure, around a few mm of Hg. This is the case in particular of low pressure gas
coolers and turbine vacuum condensers.

EZ3 I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I

1
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I

C
Outlet
Inlets

Outlets

Type X shells. A. Diagram. B. With distribution and collection domes. C. Layout

of distribution piping.

6.6.1.3 Rear Head mes

a. Types L, M and N (Fig. 6.49)
These rear head types are identical to the front stationary head types A, B and
N respectively. They characterize exchangers with fixed tubesheets, with the
shell welded on the tubesheets.
284 ChaDler 6 HEATEXCHANGERS

--
Figure
6.49 Rear head Types L, M and N.

They permit a very compact tube bundle and use the volume available in
the shell t o the greatest benefit. The covers of Types L and N cam be readily
removed t o gain access to the tubes and clean them. These types allow dou-
ble tubesheets to be used more easily to insure better protection in the event
of leakage at expansion joints (see Section 6.6.3.2).
They are less expensive than the floating heads presented later on, with
Type N being the most cost effective. However, they have the same drawbacks
mentioned earlier for front stationary heads of Type A, B and N. Type M in par-
ticular is difficult to disassemble when a dirty fluid makes it necessary to gain
access to the inside of the tubes.
The bundle can not be dismounted and there is no possible access to the
shell or the outside of the tube bundle for mechanical cleaning when the shell-
side fluid is dirty. It is therefore advisable to use a triangular pattern in order
to install the largest surface area possible in the space available.
They d o not allow significant differential expansion between the tube bun-
dle and the shell. Care should be taken t o avoid excessively great mechanical
stress which could cause the expansion joints t o fail, tubes to buckle or the
shell t o split open.
The difference between the shell and tube skin temperatures must remain
less than approximately 30°C. When the temperature difference results in sig-
nificant stress, expansion bellows are used (Fig. 6.50) whose construction
characteristics (thickness, material, wave number) depends on operating con-
ditions. These accessories are fragile, however, and must be kept in shape by
cast iron weights when there are several waves. This is valid only provided
that the pressure remains lower than approximately 100 bar. In addition, they
are expensive and the cost should be compared with that of a floating head.
The use of Types L, M or N can be contemplated only if the shell-side fluid
is clean and the difference between shell and tube skin temperature is small.
This obviously depends on the external thermal insulation temperature and
on the shell-side convection coefficient.
Care must be taken to study all possible operating rates thoroughly, includ-
ing start u p and safety steam pressurizing. Operating procedures must also be
scrupulously complied with.
 Chapter 6 HEATEXCHANGERS285

Figure
Shell with an 6.50
expansion
bellows.

Since the tubes have less resistance t o compression than to tension, prob-
lems usually occur up when the hot fluid circulates in the tubes, although this
does not mean there is no risk in the opposite case. For example, if the cold
fluid is at a temperature of 100°C in the tubes during start up, the tubes are
also at a temperature close to 100°C since no fluid is passing on the shell side,
whereas the shell is at outside ambient temperature. It is then necessary to
have an expansion bellows on the shell. It is not true that using the cold fluid
for start up will avoid problems. A shell-side start up will allow the tubes and
shell to be at the same temperature.
All the other types discussed below permit significant differential expan-
sion between the shell and the bundle. Except for Type U, Types P, S, T and W
are termed floating head.

b. Type P. Outside Packed Floating Head (Fig. 6.51)

The rear head consists of a shell ring welded onto the tubesheet and can slide
inside the shell in the event of differential bundle-shell expansion. Tightness is
286 Chapter 6 HEATEXCHANGERS

64
Figure
Type P floating
head.

provided by a packing box, the housing is integral with the shell and the pack-
ing is on the shell ring compressed by a tamper bolted on the housing.
The cover can be bolted on a counterflange held and positioned on the
head by a split ring engaged in a groove. A gasket is necessary between the
cover and the head. It is also possible to use a bonnet or a truncated cone
when there is one tube-side pass and expansion is then shifted to the piping.
The number of tube-side passes is generally limited to 1 or 2. The bundle can
be removed and this type is less expensive than the S and T types presented
below. When products are toxic or inflammable, the resistance of the packing
poses a safety problem. Pressure and temperature must remain lower than 40
bar and 300°C.
Type P is seldom used in refining. It can be utilized for coolers with cold
water on the shell side (or a liquid, clean, non-volatile hydrocarbon if need be),
or for reboilers with steam on the shell side.

c. Type S. Split Ring-Floating Head with Backing Device (Fig. 6.52)

The floating head is held in place on the floating tubesheet by means of a two-
part counterflange and bolted assembly. The shell cover is fixed directly on
the shell and surrounds the floating head.
Differential expansion is allowed between the bundle and the shell.
However, if there is only one pass on the tube side, expansion is shifted to the
fluid outlet piping on the tube side. This requires installing either a bellows on
the piping before it goes through the shell cover, or a packing box where it
goes through. The drawbacks of these two solutions have already been men-
tioned.
 Chapter 6. HEATEXCHANGERS 287

..,,..
.
.L-,.A.
, . , , .........
.........
~~ ..,.
,.L..
...
, ,:;’--;-
.
..
..
..
..
...
....
..
..
..
...

Figur
Type S floating head. 6.52
~

This type withstands more severe operating pressures and temperatures

than Type P. Since the gasket between the floating head and the tubesheet is
inside, any leakage will be invisible. Tightness is difficult to insure if the pres-
sure is high, it requires a gasket shoulder and considerable bolting. This
means increased counterflange thickness resulting in a decrease in the
installed exchange surface area, a larger size and possibly maintenance prob-
lems. The bundle can be removed, but requires the shell cover and floating
head to be dismounted. It is an expensive solution.
Type S is very frequently used, particularly with two or more tube-side
passes. However, pressure is limited to approximately 50 or 60 bar on the tube
side and temperature to 400 or 500°C.

d. Type T. Pull-Through Floating Head (Fig. 6.53)

The floating head is directly bolted to the tubesheet providing compression on
the gasket. The advantages and drawbacks should be estimated in comparison
with Type S. The drawbacks of the counterflange have been eliminated. The
bundle can be removed without dismounting the shell cover and the head, an
asset for dirty products that entail frequent cleaning and more particularly if
dismounting can only be done from the fixed tubesheet side for reasons of
accessibility. In contrast, it is not possible t o accommodate as many tubes in
the same shell diameter as with Type S. As such, a larger shell diameter is
required for the same installed surface area, thereby making this solution
more expensive.
Type T is fairly frequently used at high pressure, over 50 bar, for example
for an exchanger with high pressure gas on the tube side. It is also suitable for
condensers integrated in the tops of columns and for kettle-type reboilers
which allow access to the bundle only from the distributor side.
288 ChaDter 6 HEATEXCHANGERS

Type T floating head.

e. U-TubeBundle (Fig. 6.54)

The U-tubes or hairpin tubes consist of curved tubes or two straight tubes
connected by welded elbows, particularly for thick high-pressure tubes which
can not be curved and allow two and sometimes four passes. The advantages
of this bundle type are considerable. The price is low: a single tubeplate is nec-
essary, the rear head can be a dished bottom welded on the shell ring, i.e. with-
out any flange. There is no joint on the rear head side and there are fewer risks

Figure
6.54 U-tube bundle.
 Next Page

Chapter 6 HEATEXCHANGERS 289

of leakage on the tube side. It also withstands pressure well. Each hairpin can
expand independently and thus wide temperature differences are tolerated.
Utilization is confined to fairly clean products both on the shell and the
tube side. On the shell side, it is difficult to clean the tubes located near the
center. On the tube side, it is not easy to clean tubes with small curve radii,
although progress has been made by the use of small turbines mounted on the
tips of flexible pipe. It is impossible t o replace tubes located near the center.
High velocities in the elbows may cause erosion - the more solids in the fluid,
the more severe the erosion. In order to obtain counter-current circulation
with U-tubes mounted for two tube-side passes, two passes must be achieved
on the shell side with a longitudinal baffle. The drawbacks of this type of baf-
fle were discussed earlier.
This type of bundle is used for medium and high pressures, up to 200 bar,
and high temperatures. In the event that tightness is a prime concern, the
presence of a single tubeplate is a considerable advantage. Some examples of
use are: heat exchangers with steam on the tube side, kettle reboilers, feed-
effluent heat exchangers, etc.

f. Type W. Externally Sealed Floating Tubesheet (Fig. 6.55)

A double packing separated by a lantern ring is mounted on the tubesheet.
The housings consist of the shell and the shell cover.
Any leakage can be detected in the holes in the lantern ring, but tightness
is not perfect. As a result, this solution can be contemplated only for low
severity temperature and pressure conditions and non-toxic, non-inflammable
products. Type W is only seldom used.

1
Figure
Externally sealed float-
ing tubesheet.