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Chapter 5. DISTILLATION, ABSORPTION

AND STRIPPING IN THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY 269
column (on the stripping trays in wet vacuum distillation) or sometimes

recycled to the furnace. Slop cut is the part sent to battery limits. It is not
systematically withdrawn. The cut has sometimes been recycled above
the wash zone to insure the proper flow rate trickling down on the pack-
ing. This solution is being phased out as it promotes fouling of the zone.
It is not represented in Figures 5.20 and 5.21.
5.2.4 Description of the Atmospheric Residue

Vacuum Distillation Process
Figure 5.22 shows a flow diagram for an atmospheric residue vacuum distilla-
tion unit.
The atmospheric residue coming from the topping column is sent directly
to vacuum distillation. The residue is sometimes stored at approximately
150°C, to guarantee its viscosity. It then has to be preheated in a group of
exchangers by heat recovery from products and pumparounds. Afterward it is
heated in a furnace at a maximum temperature of some 380 to 415"C, i.e. 365
to 400°C at the column inlet after isenthalpic flash along the transfer line, and
fed into the vacuum distillation column.
In wet vacuum distillation, the furnace banks are often equipped with dilu-
tion steam injection to limit the temperature and thereby reduce coking.
The number of offtakes is dictated by the requirements of units located
downstream. The downstream unit's feed is often defined only by its final TBP
cut point.
The distillate is usually withdrawn in two cuts, MVGO and HVGO, in order
to recover heat at a more advantageous temperature level from the HVGO
pumparound.
If enhanced value is desired for the gas oil contained in the vacuum distil-
lation feed, or if the downstream unit requires a specified initial cut point or a
maximum light content in the vacuum distillate, then three cuts are drawn off
from the column:
an LVGO, that is sent to atmospheric gas oils to produce commercial
products:
an MVGO and an HVGO, that make up the feed for the downstream units.
If the downstream units are conversion units (thermal or catalytic), there
are usually three offtakes or four if the distillates are used to manufacture lube
oils.
These two schemes are presented in Figures 5.23 and 5.24.
270 Chapter 5. DISTILLATION, ABSORPTION AND STRIPPING IN THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
4 6
c
0
Chapter 5. DISTILLATION, AND STRIPPING
ABSORPTION INDUSTRY 271
IN THE PETROLEUM
LVGO to gas oil pool
Distillate to:
- hydrotreating then FCC
- hydrocracking
- FCC ...
- visbreaking
- deasphalting
- bitumen production
- partial oxidation...
- Figure
5.23 Atmospheric residue vacuum distillation. Conversion scheme: three side cuts
+ I-*
LVGO to gas oil pool
150 Neutral
I To extraction
500 Neutral
Bright Stock to deasphalting,

extraction, dewaxing
and hydrofinishing
Figure
5.24 Atmospheric residue vacuum distillation. Lube oil production scheme
(3 or 4 side cuts).
5.2.5 Description of the Vacuum Distillation Column

5.2.5.1 Preparing the Feed for Catalytic Units
of the FCC or Hydrocracking m e
a. Column without a Fractionation Zone (but with what
Are Termed Wash or Thermal Exchange Zones)
In special cases the column may not have a fractionation zone, in other words
there is no end or initial point requirement on the vacuum distillate. Its con-
figuration is then as described below from bottom to top (see Figs. 5.20 and
5.21):
one (or two) wash zone(s) fed by the internal reflux of the HVGO offtake
tray and sometimes by partial recycling of the slop cut + overflash;
a heat exchange zone above the HVGO offtake;
a heat exchange zone above the LVGO offtake.
At the top of the column there is a wire mesh demister that can be sprin-
kled with some of the cooled LVGO pumparound.
b. Column with Fractionation Zones
There are a lot of different configurations depending on the objectives chosen.
When the downstream unit requires a specified distillate end point, it is nec-
essary to have a fractionation zone between the HVGO offtake and the slop
cut. The feed for this zone is made up of the internal reflux under the HVGO.
Likewise if enhanced value is desired for the gas oil contained in the feed, or if
the downstream unit dictates a given light fraction content or an initial point
for the vacuum distillate, then a fractionation zone is installed between the
LVGO and the MVGO offtakes. Lastly, the column is sometimes equipped with
a fractionation zone between MVGO and HVGO (MVGO to hydrocracking and
HVGO to FCC for example). Figure 5.25 summarizes these different cases.
c. Bottom of the Column
The bottom of the column is equipped with 4 to 6 conventional valve trays to
perform stripping in wet vacuum distillation. In dry vacuum distillation, the
bottom of the column is equipped with simple horizontal baffles. The vacuum
residue’s residence time in the bottom of the column must be as short as pos-
sible in order to prevent coking. This is also true for the HVGO offtake tray.
d. Special Cases: Two Stage Vacuum Distillation
In some cases, the solution of two stage vacuum distillation can be contem-
plated to obtain very heavy cuts. The first tower is generally dry and the sec-
ond is wet. The bottom of the first one supplies the feed for the second.
5.2.5.2 Vacuum Dhtillation Designed to Produce Lube Of1 Stocks

The vacuum distillation columns designed to produce lube oil stocks are
equipped with side strippers to draw off distillates. The column has fractiona-
tion zones between each offtake.
Chapter 5. DISTILLATION,
ABSORPTION
To ejector-condenser system
7
Heat exchange zone
Mesh fi u u u u 4
LVGO pumparound return
Fractionation zone
Heat exchange zone
Fractionation zone
HVGO pumparound return
h . . . . . . . . <
Heat exchange zone -D
HVGO + pumparound draw off

Internal reflux
-
Fractionation zone +
Washzone
Slop cut draw off
Atmospheric residue .................... +
-
andsteam
4 valve trays
Stripping steam +
-
I Vacuum residue
Figure
Crude oil vacuum distillation. Usual configuration of ti-actionation zones
(Source: Technip).
274 Chapter 5. DISTILLATION, ABSORPTION
AND STRIPPING IN THE PETROLEUM /NOUSTRY
5.2.5.3 Vacuum Distillation Designed to Produce Bitumen

Distillation columns to produce bitumen have a stripping column at the bot-
tom of the tower and are therefore at least semi wet. They operate under a
high vacuum.
5.2.6 Choosing the Type of Vacuum Distillation

The choice of the type of vacuum distillation is dependent on economic con-
siderations, especially with respect to:
the pressure drop in the column as a result of the prescribed fractiona-
tion configuration (since each fractionation zone causes a supplemen-
tary pressure drop);
the available utilities (whether or not the temperature of cooling air
and/or water allows overhead vapors to be condensed).
5.2.7 Calculating and Simulating an Atmospheric Residue

Vacuum Distillation Unit
The main considerations in Section 5.1.3 can be applied to vacuum distillation,
the choice of the thermodynamic model alone is different.
Models of the Maxwell-Bonnell type give good results. The differences
between the models are more significant than for topping units and conver-
gences are more difficult to achieve.
5.2.8 Vacuum Distillation Column Technology

5.2.8.1 Packing and Distributors
Vacuum distillation columns are today practically all equipped with packing
for fractionation and heat exchange zones in order to curb pressure drop (see
Section 5.4). The bottom zone is equipped with conventional but reinforced
valve trays.
Two types of packing are used. Random packing made up of metal rings and
grates is used for heat exchange zones. Structured packing is made up of
stacks of folded and perforated corrugated metal grates. This type of packing
is more effective and expensive and is mainly used in fractionation zones.
However, it is today being used increasingly for all of the column above the
wash zone. Wash zones can be equipped with less sophisticated grates.
These different types of packing are supplied with liquid by means of two
main kinds of distributors (see Section 5.4):
sprays,
gravity.
Chapter 5. DISTILLATION, ABSORPTION AND STRIPPING IN THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY 275
5.2.8.2 Vacuum Pumps and Ejector4ondensers

Vacuum distillation units have a system to create the vacuum that uses either
ejectors or a combination of ejectors and liquid ring pumps.
Ejectors recompress the gases by speeding them up (“venturi effect”)
through a nozzle where the working fluid is medium or low pressure steam
(pressure of over 6 bar rel. usually) as shown in Figure 5.26. The vapor phase
at the ejector exit is partially condensed in an exchanger with cooling water
(direct contact condensers generate pollution and have accordingly now been
phased out). The liquid phase is then sent to the overhead drum via a baro-
metric leg. The vapor phase goes from the condenser to another ejector-con-
denser stage (Fig. 5.27).
In the overhead drum the hydrocarbon and water phases settle out. The
water phase is sent to the sour water stripper.
Liquid ring pumps are similar to eccentric rotor gas compressors, with a
seal provided by a ring of cooled water moving around in a closed circuit as
shown in Figure 5.28.
These pumps have a compression ratio of approximately 10 and can there-
fore replace two or three stages of ejectors in dry or wet type vacuum distilla-
tion. They can be installed on the ground or on a low structure. They doe not
use steam and can significantly reduce hydrocarbon-rich aqueous conden-
sates in a system using ejectors. Power consumption is moderate (approxi-
mately 200 kWh/h for a 3.5 Mt/year unit). Although the pumps are less reliable
than a system using only ejectors, many consider them to be adequate for this
purpose. The objections made to the system stem from upsets in operation,
such as start up for example. Systems with ejectors are much more flexible
and rapid to put into operation. The higher investments required by liquid ring
#
pumps are offset by reduced steam consumption and lower installation costs.
I Steam
Figure
Diagram of a steam
ejector.
I To condenser
276 Chapter 5. DISTILLATION, A6SORPTlON AND STRIPPING IN THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
5
z
Compressed gas exit Inlet
Liquid ring
1 1
5.28 Cross section of a liquid ring pump (Source: ENSPM--FI).
5.2.9 Specifics on Atmospheric Residue

Vacuum Distillation
5.2.9.1 Noncondensables
Noncondensables - air and light hydrocarbon compounds dissolved in the
feed or produced by cracking in the furnace - constitute a low value gas
recovered at low pressure (the vacuum distillation unit’s overhead drum pres-
sure, i.e. 0.2 to 0.4 bar rel.). Air influxes are proportional to the column’s sur-
face area, the number of joints, shell rings, branch connections etc. The
impact of dissolved gases is related to feed storage. Noncondensables from
cracking depend directly on feed quality and transfer temperature.
Noncondensable gases have long been burned directly in the furnace hearth
with special low pressure drop burners. They are high in H2Sif the initial feed
is high sulfur crude. The quantity is variable: the higher the transfer tempera-
ture of the furnace and the bigger the column, the more gases there are. There
may be as much as one ton per hour of gases to burn for a unit that processes
500 tons per hour of atmospheric residue. This accounts for a not inconsider-
able part of the furnace’s thermal load, even though the gases’ heating power
is low. Here the amount of SO2 formed from the gases becomes preponderant
compared to the amount from the furnace’s normal fuel, if it has been desul-
furized (fuel gas or low sulfur fuel). As a result, careful attention will need to
be paid to any treatment given to these gases before use.
5.2.9.2 Effluents
Vacuum distillation units produce small amounts of effluents and treating
them causes no particular difficulties.
a. Liquid Effluents
The liquid effluents discharged are mainly made up of sour water coming from
condensation of stripping vapors. In order to minimize discharges and the use
of fresh water, sour water is stripped and used as washing water in the topping
unit desalter (see Section 5.1.6).
b. Gaseous Effluents
The only gaseous effluent is the furnace off gases discharged into the atmo-
sphere via a stack whose height is calculated according to the prevailing leg-
islation. It has already been mentioned that the noncondensables produced by
the vacuum system are burnt in the furnace with a special burner. SOz dis-
charge constraints cause, or will cause, the H,S to be removed from the gas.
5.2.9.3 Corrosion
The comments made earlier for topping units remain valid (see Section 5.1.7),
even though corrosion is less troublesome in vacuum distillation units. The
use of steel alloys for exchanger tubes and cladding for the shell and the bot-
tom of the column is recommended for operating temperatures of over 260-
300°C. Likewise, ammonia is often injected at the top of the tower (1 to 10 ppm
of the feed) in order to lower the acidity of overhead water.
5.2.10 Integrated Topping and Vacuum Distillation Units

More and more topping and vacuum distillation units are thermally integrated.
The residue coming from the bottom of the topping tower is directly fed into
the vacuum distillation column through a furnace. This set up avoids having
to cool then reheat the atmospheric residue and also means it does not have
to be stored. The total exchange surface area is smaller overall and invest-
ments follow suit, and consequently an energy gain of some 20% compared to
two separate units is possible. Although the topping and vacuum distillation
units theoretically operate together (there is no reason for one to run without
the other), the set up does cause interdependence of the two units. This may
be a drawback when the vacuum furnace is decoked for example, whereas the
topping still does not usually have to be.
Nevertheless, for large capacity units designed to facilitate on line mainte-
nance (installed spare shells for exchangers that need cleaning, etc.), continu-
ous operation for several years without stopping for maintenance can be
achieved.
5.3 Gasoline Distillation and Gas Fractionation

5.3.1 Position of the Unit in the Refinery Flow Scheme
The unit separates the wide range gasoline coming from the topping unit into
its various components:
fuel gas,
liquefied gases (propane and butane: for motors and other combustion
. purposes),
light gasoline to the gasoline pool or isomerization,
heavy naphtha to the catalytic reforming unit.
It also allows a number of useful compounds to be produced if needed:
isobutane for alkylation,
isopentane for the gasoline pool.
It is usually preceded by a hydrotreatment unit to remove the sulfur com-
pounds contained in wide range gasoline.
It fractionates the small quantity of gases from topping, but also often pro-
cesses the gases and gasolines coming from other units, such as the various
hydrotreatments, hydrocracking and catalytic reforming. Generally speaking,
these units have their own stabilization sections. Catalytic cracking (FCC) has
a complete gasoline distillation and gas fractionation section which will be
examined when the FCC unit is discussed.
5.3.2 Description of the Gasoline Distillation

and Gas Fractionation Process
5.3.2.1 Conventional Flow Scheme
This set up is usually chosen when the unit processes only wide range gaso-
line from the crude topping unit. The gasoline distillation and gas fractionation
unit consists of a series of columns that work at different pressures which are
chosen so that condensation can be done by air-cooled exchangers or cooling
water. The first column is the stabilization column or debutanizer. It separates
an overhead cut made up of all the compounds lighter than butane, plus
butane itself, from a bottom cut called stabilized wide range gasoline. The bot-
tom cut has a low enough vapor pressure so that it can be stored.
After amine washing, the overhead cut is sent to a second column called a
deethanizer, which separates liquefied petroleum gases (LPG: propane and
butanes) recovered at the bottom from the more volatile components
(methane, ethane, hydrogen sulfide, etc.).
The stabilized wide range gasoline is usually fractionated into two cuts,
light gasoline and heavy naphtha in a gasoline splitter.
280 Chapter 5. DISTILLATION, ABSORPTION AND STRIPPING IN THE PETROLEUM \NOUSTRY
Lastly, the liquefied petroleum gases are fractionated in a depropanizer

separating propane from butanes, which are recovered from the bottom.
Catalytic reforming LPG are often mixed in upstream from the deethanizer.
The flow diagram is presented in Figure 5.29.
a . Main Operating Conditions
I I I I
Overhead/bottom
temperature (“9
Debutanizer 30to40 3 to6 10 to 15 701200

Depropanizer 30 to 50 4 to 5 14 45/95
Deethanizer 10 to 20 0.2 to 0.5 25 to 30 501100
Gasoline splitter 20 to 30 1 to 4 0.2 to 1 701140
b. Common Specifications to be Complied with

Debutanizer
C, content in butane: 0.5% mass or 1%volume maximum.
1%volume maximum C, in light gasoline.
Depropanizer or Deethanizer
Regulating these columns will entail reference to commercial specifica-
tion for the products.
The propane content in butane will be limited by a maximum vapor pres-
sure value that must not be exceeded (6 bar rel. at 50°C for example).
The ethane content in propane will be limited by a maximum propane
vapor pressure that must not be exceeded (14 bar rel. at 38.8”C for exam-
ple).
Commercial specifications also sometimes directly dictate purity stan-
dards to be complied with for butane and propane.
Splitter
Gap of 20°C between the light gasoline 95% ASTM point and the heavy
naphtha 5%ASTM point (but more precise and severe specifications can
be laid down depending on the light gasoline’s further use).
5.3.2.2 Flow Scheme with Absorber and Stripper

The conventional flow scheme corresponds to the most frequently encoun-
tered case in simple hydroskimming type refineries without any conversion
units. In more complex refineries it is advantageous to recover the propane
and butanes contained in the gaseous effluents of the refinery’s conversion or
hydrotreatment units. A set up with an absorber and a stripper is often used,
one of the different configurations possible is shown in Figure 5.30.
ABSORPTION
.
'urge gases from various p Refinery fuel gas system
hydrotreating units
B- Poor amine
7 Rich amine
ul
Non-
stabilized
Recvcle
I
naphtha from
atmospheric
distillation, hydro-
treating, etc.
Figure
Gasoline distillation and gas h-actionation.Flow scheme with absorber and stripper
ABSORPTION
AND STRIPPING IN THE PETROLEUM /NDUSTRY 283
The operating principle is to absorb the propane and butanes contained in

the various gases by using gasoline. The residual gases from the diverse refin-
ing units such as hydrotreatments, hydrocracking, isomerization and catalytic
reforming which contain an appreciable amount of propane or butanes are
compressed at approximately fifteen bars, then cooled. They are sent to an
absorber with a reflux where gasoline is added overhead. The propane and
butanes contained in the gases are absorbed in the gasoline which exits at the
bottom of the absorber. This stream, mixed with the refinery’s various non-
stabilized gasolines (wide range gasoline from topping, gasolines from
hydrotreatment, but also LPG from catalytic reforming), is the overhead feed
for a reboiled stripper. The overhead vapors from the stripper return to the
absorber. Meanwhile the bottom product, made up of propane- and butane-
rich gasoline but with no higher volatility compounds, is fed into a series of
columns: debutanizer, depropanizer and gasoline splitter. Here the different
fractions are recovered in the same way as in the conventional flow scheme.
5.3.2.3 Other Configurations

The following configurations are also sometimes used:
a cryogenic scheme in some applications to recover olefins contained in
gases coming from conversion units;
a set up with a deisobutanizer (to recover isobutane for the alkylation
unit), deisopentanizer, deisohexanizer, etc.
Columns for extracting aromatic compounds or aromatic precursors
(transformed into aromatics in catalytic reforming) are sometimes also
installed to meet some countries’ requirements as to aromatics content in
gasolines. It should be noted that these aromatic compounds have an excel-
lent octane number and that formulating gasolines is accordingly more diffi-
cult without them (inversely, reducing the aromatics content in gas oils
improves the cetane number).
Finally, the gas treatment unit can be equipped with attendant sections of
the diethanolamine (DEA) washing, LPG sweetening, sulfur trap and drier type,
in order to meet commercial specifications.
5.4 Distillation, Absorption

and Stripping Column Internals
Distillation units operating in refineries use practically all the types of equip-
ment available due to the wide diversity in operating conditions encountered.
Pressures range from a vacuum of approximately 1.33 kPa (10 mmHg) in
asphalt towers to several MPa (i.e. several tens of bars) in gas treatment units.
Temperatures start far below 0°C in liquefied petroleum gases (LPG) cryogenic
recovery units and are in excess of 500°C at the inlet of catalytic cracking main
fractionator.
Fractionation requirements are sometimes modest, with a few theoretical

trays in topping side strippers, but can also exceed some one hundred theo-
retical stages in units for propylene recovery from cracked gases.
Even though the products that are processed are all hydrocarbons, with
some few exceptions, the presence of impurities such as hydrogen sulfide
(H2S), residual acids in alkylation units, or sometimes severe operating con-
ditions make it necessary to use special corrosion resistent alloys. Selecting
construction materials is of great importance, particularly with the use of
internals such as structured packing, about one to two tenths of a millimeter
thick, which do not allow for extra corrosion thickness. The most widely used
materials are ordinary steel, 11-13% chromium steel alloy (410S), nickel
chromium stainless steel (304,316,316Ti, etc.). Monel is used in some cases,
in particular when chloride ions are present in an acid environment, where
conventional stainless steels can not be employed.
In summary, the separation quality and operating conditions are extremely
diverse and call for all the resources of fractionation equipment designers.
Equipment performance can be improved only by constant collaboration
between operators who set the objectives to be achieved, equipment manu-
facturers who take advantage of massive feedback from the field and engi-
neering companies or integrated departments which have an overview of the
constraints to be met. In no case should equipment be chosen on the basis of
the availability or particular skills of a supplier.
Our presentation will be developed around the units that are traditionally
found in a refinery. After a general presentation of the different types of equip
ment, beginning with topping and vacuum distillation, we will then discuss
conversion, catalytic cracking (FCC), hydrocracking and visbreaking units, and
treatment, catalytic reforming and hydrodesulfurization (HDS)units in partic-
ular.
5.4.1 Definition of Efficiency, Capacity and Flexibility

of Fractionation Column Internals
5.4.1.1 Efficiency
With trays, mass transfer occurs in a clearly identified zone in the column, so
it is possible to speak of tray efficiency. A comparison is made between the
transfer effectively carried out on an actual tray and what would have been
obtained on a theoretical tray, allowing the phases present to reach equilib-
rium compositions. Efficiency depends to a certain extent on the tray’s geom-
etry, but for well designed equipment the influence of the products that are
processed and the operating conditions is overriding. The size of installations
found today in refineries allows a relatively homogeneous approach to equi-
librium for a given type of equipment.
Packing does not allow the fractionation zone to be divided up in the same
way as trays do. Generally speaking, packing is like a continuous bed located
between two feed inlet or offtake points in the column, so it is only possible to
know the number of theoretical stages provided by a bed of a given height.
Efficiency in this case is measured by a ratio between the number of theoreti-

cal stages obtained and the height of the bed under consideration. The term
height per equivalent theoretical plate (HETP) or number of theoretical stages
per meter is used.
In any case and in particular for packing, the space required to install feed
inlet devices (nozzles, spray zone or distributing tray, etc.) and ancillaries
such as drawoff plates, supports etc. should be added to the theoretical height
of the fractionation zone.
Efficiencies or numbers of theoretical stages must be compared with the
same test mixture or in identical operating conditions. For example, compar-
ing equipments tested in a laboratory with a hexaneheptane mixture in a vac-
uum with other equipments used in an FCC debutanizer is very risky.
5.4.1.2 Capacity
Fractionation equipment capacity represents the maximum flow rate that can
be processed:
without any noticeable loss in efficiency,
without flooding,
without any troublesome increase in pressure drop.
Other criteria specific to an application can be mentioned, such as the liq-
uid carryover ratio in overhead vapors or the liquid retention ratio.
Equipment capacity is often estimated by calculating a theoretical flooding
ratio by means of a correlation. There are a lot of correlations specific to each
manufacturer or published by research organizations (see Vol. 4). They have
been established based on pilot experiments and measurements on industrial
units and are supposed to give a realistic picture of imminent flooding. For
example, if calculation gives a flooding rate of 50%, in theory it means that
twice as much flow rate is possible before flooding occurs. In practice a safety
margin is maintained to take uncertainties of the chosen correlation and con-
ditions of application into account. Usually, experience may dictate a limit
located between 50 and 100%of theoretical flooding.
In internals manufacturers’ calculation documents it may be surprising to
find that published flooding ratios differ for the same maximum capacity. It
would be premature to conclude that one manufacturer offers a greater safety
margin than another. This would be true only if the same correlation was cho-
sen by each of the manufacturers, and this is only seldom the case particularly
for trays.
5 4.1.3 Flexibility
Flexibility means the minimum possible operation without loss of efficiency or
unstable running. It is a very important criterion since production units do not
run constantly at their maximum capacity. Start up phases often work at
reduced loads. The quality of crudes processed is not constant and, above and
286 Chapter 5. DISTILLATION, ABSORPTION AND STRIPPING IN THE PETROLEUM /NDUSTRY
beyond the influence on the operation of the topping unit, this fact also con-
tributes in making the operating conditions of the other units vary. Some units,
in particular those that include catalytic processes such as reforming, gener-
ate products in variable quantity and quality during their working cycle.
Flexibility is usually expressed as a percentage of the maximum capacity
(50%, 40%) or in the form of a ratio (1 to 2, 1 to 3). Care is required in com-
paring the figures put forward, as maximum capacity is not always the design
capacity that is ordered. In effect, operators and engineers sometimes pre-
scribe an added safety margin above normal running conditions, so maximum
capacity is often equal to 120% of the design capacity. Depending on the Val-
ues taken into consideration, apparent flexibility (normal required flow
rates/minimum flow rates) seems small, though this is not true of real flexibil-
ity (maximum flow rates/minimum flow rates).
When tenders from different manufacturers are compared, it is important
to specify what the evaluation criteria are for flexibility. For example, an effi-
ciency loss of 10% can be considered acceptable by one, whereas another will
go up to 30%.
The chosen criterion must be relevant. The requirements for a start up
phase lasting only a limited time are not the same as for reduced running con-
ditions that will last half the cycle time. A trade off may in fact be acceptable
between a loss of efficiency under reduced running conditions for a limited
duration and higher reflux ratios. This type of appraisal must be made taking
other factors into account such as energy costs and the capacity of attendant
equipment, e.g. reboilers, condensers, etc.
5.4.2 General Presentation of Fractionation

Column Internals
There are two main types of internals: trays and packing. The details of design
and sizing will be developed in Volume 4, which is devoted to equipment.
5.4.2.1 Trays
Trays were for a long time - from the beginnings of the refining industry until
the end of the seventies - the only internals equipping distillation columns.
Most of trays work by placing a vapor stream moving up toward the top of
the column in contact with a liquid phase located on the surface of the active
area of the tray.
a. Different Types of Trays
Depending on the way the phases circulate, three types of trays can be distin-
guished:
countercurrent or dual flow;
falling film or with baffles;
crosscurrent or with downcomers, the most common.
Countercurrent Trays
These trays, without any downcomers, where streams circulate in counter-
current flow are relatively seldom used. Also called dual-flow trays, their oper-
ating principle is as follows: the liquid and the vapor pass alternatively
through perforations on the active area. These trays can be fairly efficient
when they work at their design capacity, but their flexibility is severely limited
since:
At lower flow rates all the liquid tends to pass through the perforations
without remaining long enough on the surface of the tray, thereby reduc-
ing the contact time between the phases and consequently the efficiency
of the tray.
At high loads, the liquid on the surface of the tray is blown and so can not
flow through the perforations, causing flooding in the column.
Dual-flow trays are confined to relatively modest diameters (less than
1.8 m) due to risks of instability as the liquid is improperly distributed on their
surface. This drawback is corrected in Ripple trays (Stone & Webster), which
are now found only exceptionally in refineries.
Baffle Trays
Baffle trays are extremely simple and are reserved for extreme fouling duty,
because their large throughway areas and lack of small perforations enable
heavy duty operation. They work by having the vapor phase pass more or less
horizontally through a liquid film falling from a collecting baffle. Depending on
the shape of the baffles, the film can be a vertical plane or a cylinder. The
trays’ efficiency is very low (between onequarter and one-half that of a con-
ventional downcomer tray), because there is little interaction between the liq-
uid and the vapor phase.
Downcomer Trays
In conventional trays equipped with a downcomer (DC), contact occurs in
crosscurrent flow between a liquid circulating horizontally on the surface of the
active area and the vapor rising in the column. After the liquid has been placed
in contact with the vapor, it falls into a downcomer which has two functions:
ensure disengagement of the vapor which must continue its way toward
the next tray above;
direct the liquid toward the next tray below and ensure it is regularly sup-
plied.
The downcomer goes toward the next tray below in such a way as to keep
the vapor from passing inside it. Otherwise an emulsion would be formed and
congest the downcomer. Downcomers can be configured so as to reduce the
height of liquid and ensure maximum capacity, occupying the least space pos-
sible. These configurations are particularly important when the downcomers
are large, i.e. when liquid loads are significant (true for columns under high
pressure and for absorbers). Downcomers are generally column segments and
the flow is relatively parallel between the inlet and outlet of the active area.
There are radial flow trays where downcomers are cylindrical (Shell), but they
are only seldom seen in the industry.
The downcomer inlet is generally separated from the active area by a weir
which maintains a specified level of liquid on the tray, thereby allowing proper
contact between the liquid and vapor phases. Special arrangements of down-
comers have been developed in order to maximise the active drea (box AC,
multi AC).
There are three types of downcomer trays, with the distinction between
them being in the geometry of the active area.
Bubble cap trays were for a long time the main type of internals used in
refineries (Photo 5.1). This type of tray has chimneys fixed above each orifice
on the active area and each chimney has a cap whose lower circumference, or
skirt, bathes in the liquid. This forces the vapor passing through the tray to
bubble through the liquid. Contact is ensured by regulating the height of the
downcomer with respect to the bottom of the skirt, which is lower than the
chimney orifice. Tray design guarantees that contact occurs even with very
low vapor flow rates. Leakproof assembly of the chimneys and the active area
allows very low liquid flow rates. This type of tray was preferred since its great
flexibility complies with unaccurate designs. However, the fact that the active
area is cluttered up by the cap and chimney assemblies causes a reduction in
capacity due to the uneven vapor velocity on the tray’s surface. The reduction
is approximately 25% compared to a conventional valve or sieve tray.
Additionally, the complexity of the active areas results in much higher prices
than for conventional trays (70 to 100% more expensive). These two draw-
backs explain why bubble cap trays are today reserved for very particular
! IPhoto
5.1 Bubble cap tray (Source: Glitsch).
ABSORPTION
duty, such as when long-lasting liquid-vapor contact is needed even when

there is no liquid flow rate. This may be the case in retention zones after caus-
tic towers or when the liquid residence time needs to be long, warranted for
example by reactions on the surface of the tray. In practice, this type of tray,
which is still found in the older plants, is no longer chosen today when refin-
ing units are built or modified.
Sieve trays are of very simple design: the only feature being simple perfo-
rations on the active area p h o t o 5.2a). Because they are the simplest, they are
also the least expensive to manufacture, even more so when the construction
materials are more expensive or more difficult to work with. They have been
extensively used only relatively recently, because equipment designers had lit-
tle control over them. Their flexibility is in fact limited, as liquid leaking
through the perforations - weeping - increases very quickly with a reduc-
tion in the vapor flow rate, lowering efficiency. In addition, since the velocity
vector of the vapor is not deviated when it passes through the active area, liq-
uid carryover can be greater than with other downcomer trays. In order to
limit the weeping, designers can reduce the perforation rate but thereby
increased carryover significantly.
I 1
Photo
5.2a Sieve tray (Source: Clitsch)
290 Chapter 5. DISTILLATION,
ABSORPTION
AND STRIPPING IN THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
A large number of studies have allowed the operation of this type of tray to
be better controlled and this has made them widely popular. They are found
today in most functions that do not require great flexibility. Care is needed,
however, in the case of corrosive duty where the modification of orifice diam-
eter has a great influence, particularly when the holes are initially small in
diameter. Here the choice of corrosion resistent material is crucial and no
extra corrosion thickness allowance should be added. Sensitivity to fouling is
also a drawback, but this is in fact found with all types of tray and sieve trays
are quite easy to clean.
With valve trays (Photo 5.2b) an attempt is made to keep the advantages of
sieve trays, particularly their large capacity and good efficiency, while cor-
recting their lack of flexibility. The fact that devices can seal off the tray ori-
fices when the vapor flow rate is insufficient helps prevent weeping at low flow
rates. There are several types of valves and each manufacturer tries to prove
that his is the best.
Two types of valve design can be mentioned:

- leg valves, whose movement is limited by spurs or twisted shapes at the
end of the legs that slide up and down in the orifice (Photo 5.3);
- cage valves, with a disk that moves inside a cage fixed on the active area
(Photo 5.4).
The first type is of simpler design as there is only one part placed on each
orifice, thereby lowering the price.
Leg valve (Source: Cage valve (Source:

“Snap in” model “T valve ’’ model by
by Sulzer/Metawa). Koch).
The second type is more complex, as it includes at least two parts (the cage
and the disk), and therefore more expensive. However, it has the advantage of
limiting friction between parts and in particular avoiding any deformation of
the orifice. Cage valves will therefore be preferred when there is an erosion-
corrosion risk that might cause depassivation of stainless steels. In order to
reduce the vapor pressure drop, some manufacturers propose adding a ven-
turi in the passage through the tray surface. It is an effective solution, but does
cause a slight loss in efficiency and a higher tray cost. At identical capacity,
valve trays generally cost 20 to 50%more than sieve trays.
There are a lot of variations on sieve and valve trays.
“Fixed” valve trays, where the orifice outlet is not completely detached
from the active area, reduce liquid carryover by deviating the vapor, but do
not offer any real improvement in flexibility (V-0trays by Glitsch, V-grid by
Nutter, Stray by Koch, etc.). Here the term valve is somewhat incorrect.
Liquid circulation has been improved on “jet” trays (Exxon), where the
vapor is directed so as to push the liquid toward the exit downcomer.
b. Tray Performance
The factors that influence tray capacity are the following (comparisons are
valid for refinery industry equipment, all other things being equal):
Column Diameter
Capacity is roughly proportional to the column’s cross-sectional area.
Spacing between Trays
Capacity increases with between-tray spacing. This gain becomes negligible
over 1.2 m, and in practice tray spacing ranges from 0.35 to 0.60 m. Although
close spacing is possible strictly from the standpoint of process calculation,
it should be avoided in order to facilitate installation and inspection of
equipment.
Number of Liquid Streams (passes)

It may be advantageous to divide up the liquid circulation when it is heavy as
vapor treatment capacity decreases when the liquid load increases on a tray.
Multiple streams can only be considered for columns with a diameter greater
than 1.4-1.8 m, otherwise the flowpath length is too short and would cause an
unacceptable drop in efficiency.
Even though they are sometimes used, three-way trays should be avoided
since the design is not symmetrical and they may be unstable in operation. In
practice the only multiples used on conventional trays are 1 , 2 and 4.
There are high capacity trays called multi downcomer trays (TUD trays by
UOP), that consist of a large number of crossed downcomers. Combined with
small perforations, they allow an increase in capacity of 20 to 40%. These trays
have lower efficiency, however, which is partially offset by the fact that it is
possible to install a larger number of trays in the same space. Other manufac-
turers offer similar designs.
Generally speaking, the increase in the number of liquid streams means
less stability at low load. This can become the limiting factor on the tray’s flex-
ibility, whereas weeping remains acceptable. Lower stability means a drop in
efficiency, the result of one of the streams being inactive at low flow rates. This
is because the pressure of the vapor is too low to overcome the pressure drop
due to the layer of nonemulsified liquid present on the surface of the tray.
Orifice Diameter
It is possible to increase the capacity of sieve trays with small diameter holes
(less than 6 mm). This reduces the vapor pressure drop but is slightly detri-
mental to the tray’s efficiency. Sensitivity to corrosion and fouling may be
heightened depending on the type of duty.
Generally speaking, actions modifying the overall geometry, such as chang-
ing the type of tray or multiplying the number of liquid streams, should be
taken only with trays whose design has been optimized. The balance between
the surface of active areas and downcomers, and between downcomer inlets
and outlets should be respected.
The major equipments manufacturers today propose so-called high capac-
ity trays. These designs attempt to exploit all of the space available on the
equipment, particularly to make the active area cover the largest surface area
and maximize the capacity of the active area by improving liquid circulation
and the distribution of vapor streams. These developments do not usually
change the tray’s general mode of operation, but care is required in assessing
their influence on other types of performance, such as efficiency, flexibility or
operating stability (Fig. 5.31).
5.4.2.2 Packing
Packing has become increasingly popular in refineries since the end of the sev-
enties. Its development was limited until then by an inadequate understanding
of its operation, particularly in large diameter columns. Greater awareness of
AND STRIPPING IN THE PETROLEUM /NDUSTRY 293
Tray active area
A Downcorner
ff le
Figure
Comparing the operation of a conventional tray (on the left) and a high capac-
ity tray (on the right)(Source: Nye- trays/Glitsch).
the influence of liquid and vapor distributing systems was instrumental in dis-
seminating and applying packing in large columns.
With fewer outlets for heavy fuel oil, the increasing need for FCC feed
required better fractionation of the atmospheric residue. This has to be
achieved while maintaining good fractionation quality so that the cracking cat-
alysts are not poisoned.
Since the feed inlet temperature of vacuum distillation columns is limited
by the thermal degradation of the feed, the only parameter allowing an
increased vaporization rate is a decrease in the pressure prevailing in the feed
inlet zone (flash zone). Overhead pressure is limited by the performance of the
equipment used to generate the vacuum (10 mmHg = 1.33 kPa seems to be the
lower limit). As a result the only remaining way is to reduce the pressure drop
in the column itself.
The most radical way to lower pressure drop inside a column is not to
install anything in it. This configuration is chosen in columns where only liq-
uid spray banks and sometimes liquid collecting trays with a very large cross
sectional area (> 50%) are installed. This set up is acceptable only when a
small number of theoretical stages is required (less than 1 per spray zone),
which can be the case for heat exchange zones such as some pumparounds
zones (see Section 5.3). In practice, mass transfer performance in these
configurations is insufficient and needs to be improved without excessively

increasing pressure drop. Packing is today the best compromise solution.
Generally speaking, the purpose of packing is to increase the exchange surface
between the liquid and vapor phases.
Packing is broken down into two types depending on its structure:
what is termed “random” packing, stacked according to a statistical ori-
entation law during installation;
what is termed “structured” packing, whose structure is dictated by con-
struction.
a. Operating Range of Packing

The operating range of packing is bounded by:
A minimum load: lower than this, efficiency falls since turbulence and
wetting of the packing are no longer sufficient to ensure adequate
exchange coefficients.
A maximum load: above this the packing no longer allows the liquid feed
to flow, quickly causing flooding in the column. Several methods are used
to determine the maximum load for packing. For example the generalized
correlations such as Sherwood’s, but also the flooding curves supplied
by manufacturers which indicate the vapor load rate that should not be
exceeded for each liquid load rate (see Vol. 4).
b. Random Packing
Random packing was long the most common type in the refining industry.
There are two subtypes:
rings,
saddles.
The most common rings were Raschig rings, cylindrical pieces whose diam-
eter is equal to the length. Their major drawback is poor distribution of the liq-
uid and vapor phases between the inside and outside surfaces. They are no
longer used in modern design because their defect has been corrected by Pall
rings (Photo 5.5). The Pall rings’ surface has slits with the metal punched in
toward the center, allowing better circulation of the phases and therefore
simultaneous improvement in capacity and efficiency for the same quantity of
material used. These rings have been further improved by reducing the
height/diameter ratio (CMR by Glitsch), which gives their axis a preferentially
vertical orientation and consequently increases their capacity for a given effi-
ciency (Photo 5.6). Berl saddles, and especially Intalox saddles (Photo 5.7),
have sometimes been used. They are made of ceramic, which reduces their
empty fraction, i.e. their capacity, and makes them fragile, thus limiting their
use to certain types of corrosive duty. Their general shape was reworked and
enhanced to give metal saddles (IMTP, by Norton and Nutter rings) whose per-
formance is similar to that of CMR (Photo 5.8).
Chapter 5 DISTILLATION, ABSORPTION
AND STRIPPING IN THE PETROLEUM /NOUSTRY 295
7
'hoto
Pall rings (Source: Koch).
296 Chapter 5. DISTILUTION, ABSORPTION AND STRIPPING IN THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
c. Structured Packing (Photo 5.9)

Structured packing is generally made up of sheets of corrugated metal whose
surface has been worked so as to improve wetting. This helps increase the liq-
uid and vapor phase contact area and turbulence, giving a better exchange
coefficient. They are very thin (0.1 to 0.2 mm) and this makes them very sen-
sitive to corrosion if the materials are not properly selected. One of the major
drawbacks when structured packing is used in refineries is that it is quite dif-
ficult to clean it, and particularly to decoke it. Whereas mechanical cleaning or
burning is often feasible with trays, this type of treatment is ruled out by the
structure and thinness of the sheets of packing metal. If possible, chemical
cleaning can be considered. When operating conditions are sufficiently well
controlled to avoid fouling or coking risks, packing, particularly structured
packing, can provide such capacity and/or efficiency gains that it is the obvi-
ous choice despite its high cost.
Photo
Structured packing [Source: Mellapak@ model
by Sulzer).
d. Grids (Photos 5.10)

Grids are a special type of structured packing. They are rugged sets of metal
bands that are formed and assembled to make a network. The bands are usu-
ally 1 to 2 mm thick, which greatly improves their corrosion and erosion resis-
tance in comparison with the sheets of conventional structured packing. The
major drawback of grids is that their contact area is relatively small and that
it is almost impossible to work their surface in order to improve transfers
between the liquid and the gaseous phase. As a result, their efficiency is low
and their use is limited to zones where fouling or erosion problems exclude
conventional packing. To lower their cost price, some manufacturers use
scraps left over from valve manufacture to produce the grids.
1 Photos
5.10 Grid-type structured packing (Source: Glitsch).
On the let?: C model. On the right: EF 25 a model.
e. Ancillary Equipment: Distributors, Supports

Smooth running with packing (random, structured or grids) depends greatly
on even distribution of the rising vapor phase and the descending liquid
phase. Regularity is achieved by using liquid and vapor distributors, which are
sometimes combined in one single device (perforated liquid collecting plate,
whose chimneys also perform a vapor distribution function).
There are two types of liquid distributors:
Gravity distributors, with a free flow of liquid through orifices each one
of which represents a distribution point on the bed of packing. When
they are well designed and the flow rates are compatible, these distribu-
tors give the best distribution of liquid (Photo 5.1 1).
L I
Photo
5.1 1 Gravity distributor (Source: Norton).
AND STRIPPING IN THE PETROLEUM /NDUSTRY
Pressurized distributors use spray nozzles that produce liquid distribu-

tion in a disk pattern on the packing (Photo 5.12). Some users recom-
mend distribution according to a square pattern to reduce overlapping.
A distributor of this type is less expensive than a gravity model, but does
not perform as well from the standpoint of distribution regularity and
flexibility.
Packing has a number of different types of supports depending on whether
it is made up of rings (Photo 5.13) or is structured. In any case, it is important
to avoid bottlenecks and disturbances in flow.
Photo
W
Pressurized liquid distributor (Source: Koch).
Random packing support

(Source: LlTS model by Glitsch).
5.4.2.3 Attendant Equipment for Fractionation Columns

The main piece of attendant equipment that is sometimes found in fractiona-
tion columns is the mist eliminator particle remover p h o t o 5.14). It serves to
lessen the amount of liquid carryover into the vapor stream and its function
can be very important when the objective is to protect a vacuum system, a
compressor or simply to avoid polluting a light cut by the adjacent heavy cut.
I 1
Photo
5.14 Mist eliminator (Source: Koch).
There are several types of particle removers depending on:

equipment performance,
the desired efficiency,
the allowable pressure drop,
and also on:
the specific process conditions,
the size of particles to be trapped (mists or vesicular carryover, etc.),
the amount of liquid to be trapped,
the viscosity of the liquid,
the presence of solids, etc.
Although the usefulness of this type of equipment can not be denied, it
should not be forgotten that this is often a way of correcting another piece of
equipment's poor running conditions. Adding equipment should be avoided as

much as possible, since the complexity, and therefore fragility as well as the
cost of the system, will be compounded. Accordingly, it is better to work on
the equipment that is generating particles and try to improve its performance
or change the type of equipment.
5.4.3 Applications
5.4.3.1 Topping Unit
Refineries have been forced to process increasingly diverse feeds: heavy
crudes, reconstituted crudes, mixtures of condensates and reduced crudes,
etc. This has meant an increased demand for flexibility and sometimes corro-
sion problems due to naphthenic acids in heavy crudes or fouling when
residues are processed (particularly in the visbreaker).
When topping units are equipped with trays they commonly use 30 to 50
trays and usually have four zones (Fig. 5.32).
a. Stripping Zone
The purpose of the stripping zone at the bottom of the column is to eliminate
the light fractions contained in the atmospheric residue coming from the feed
inlet zone. The liquid feed to the stripping zone is basically made up of the
unvaporized fraction of the topping tower feed plus the slop cut or overflash
coming down from the wash zone. The efficiency of the stripping zone is
important for the vacuum distillation unit to work properly, otherwise the vac-
uum tower is abnormally loaded with light fractions which limit its capacity. It
works on the principle of a reduction in the partial hydrocarbon pressure by
injection of superheated steam. The result is a relatively low efficiency due to
the difference in the nature of the products present and the high specific liq-
uid load. The flow rate of the vapor phase undergoes a very strong gradient
between the bottom of the zone, where there is only steam, and the top, where
the "light" vaporized fractions are added. The zone is usually equipped with 3
to 6 trays. Bubble cap trays have now been replaced by valve trays. Sieve trays
are excluded because of their lack of flexibility which means that they can not
accommodate wide variations in vapor traffic. The strong gradient also often
dictates a different design for each tray in the zone.
Structured packing can provide more efficiency in zones where not enough
trays can be installed. The fouling risk is not too serious, except when the unit
is run under severe conditions.
In any case, it is important to have dry stripping steam to avoid sudden
vaporization that might damage internals.
6. Feed Inlet or Flash Zone

The feed is let into the zone in two-phase form and the zone must be designed
to allow the best separation possible between the phases with the least
> I Gas + gasoline
Gravity distributor Reflux (gasoline)
Packing Gasolinekerosine
fractionation
Spray
Upper pumparound
Packing
Drawoff tray
Kerosine
Gravity distributor
Packing Kerosinehght GO
fractionation
spray
Lower pumparound
Packing
Drawoff tray
Light GO
Gravity distributor
Light GO/heavy GO
Packing fractionation
Drawoff tray
Heavy GO
Gravity distributor
Wash zone
Packing
Drawoff tray
Flash zone
Overflash
Trays 11Stripping zone

I I
n
, ~ Atmospheric
residue
-
Figure
5.32 Crude oil topping. Typical configuration o f internals.
pressure drop. Such systems exploit the kinetic energy contained in the feed
and utilize cycloning phenomena. There are two types of feed inlet:
The most conventional, “horn-shaped”, with entrance at a tangent.
The other solution, using a finned system with an axial entrance, gives
very good results.
In any case, systems must be rugged and able to withstand vibrations and
erosion.
c. Wash Zone
The purpose of this zone is to trap the particles of heavy hydrocarbons
entrained when the feed is let into the flash zone. This function is carried out
by placing wash oil withdrawn from the atmospheric distillate in contact with
the rising vapor phase from the flash zone. The objective is better
“deentrainment” performance with the least liquid consumption. The main
constraint for internals is to operate properly with a small liquid load and to
withstand fouling.
Bubble cap trays’ first competitors were grids of the Glitsch Grid or Koch
Flexigrid type, which are very rugged but low efficiency structured packing.
Some random packing was installed, but today structured packing is the best
choice since it offers a large number of theoretical stages with little height and
liquid retention. When a plant is due to process heavy crudes that may contain
naphthenic acids, packing must be made of type 316 stainless steel or better.
d. Fractionation Zones
Increasingly higher performance is being required of fractionation zones.
Trays are, however, a widespread solution because of their generally attractive
prices, and packing does have the drawback of distribution and liquid collec-
tion systems, which are a fixed investment whatever the height of the packing
bed. When a topping column is being remodeled, packing can provide a gain in
capacity of approximately 20 to 50% in some zones. The flexibility resulting
from processing crudes of widely differentcomposition must be assessed zone
by zone rather than confined to an overall view of feed flow rate variations.
e. Pumparound Zones
In order to allow heat recovery at higher temperature levels, intermediate
pumparound (PA) zones are installed between some product offtakes. The PAS
also optimize flow inside the column. PA zones are characterized by high liq-
uid loads and a wide variation in the vapor flow rate, which decreases dra-
matically from bottom to top of the zone. For this reason, PA zones are also
called condensing zones. The zones usually contain a small number (2 or 3) of
widely spaced trays (0.65 to 0.90 m). The number of trays does not generally
have to be increased, since capacity variations are achieved by acting on
reflux temperatures and flow rates.
Chapter 5. DISTILLATION, ABSORPTION AND STRIPPING IN THE PETROLEUM /NDUSTRY 303
As only a few trays are required and since liquid loads are high, it is not
always easy to install packing in these zones. They are ideally suited for the
use of high capacity trays. The liquid load is in effect fairly regular, thereby
reducing flexibility constraints, and the relatively large size of the zones under
the downcomer allow quite good capacity gains (+15 to +30%).When packing
is used in these zones it is often advisable to use combinations of different
capacity and efficiency according to the position in the zone in order to opti-
mize the use of space:
The packing with the greatest capacity and lowest efficiency is assigned
to the bottom of the zone which is the section with the greatest load.
More efficient packing can be installed in the upper part of the zone as
the vapor traffic is lighter there.
f: Side Strippers
Side strippers are small columns that generally have 4 to 6 trays. Their pur-
pose is to correct product flash point. Except for the kerosine stripper, which
is reboiled because of the water content specification of the final product, they
are almost always directly fed with live steam, which gives them fairly
mediocre efficiency. Side strippers are often neglected, and mistakenly so,
since poor performance can result in too high a cut point, imposed by the flash
point specification. When the product under consideration has greater added
value than the next lighter one, it affects the profitability of the topping oper-
ation. Under these circumstances, it may be advantageous to install structured
packing if there is enough room.
g. Construction Materials
The top of atmospheric distillation columns is often a zone where there is
water condensation with partial offtake. When packing is installed in this zone,
the bed must be subdivided in order to preserve the offtake, otherwise flood-
ing might occur because of the concentration of water between a zone where
it is condensed and one where it is vaporized. When trays are used - gener-
ally valve trays - an alloy must be selected that can withstand corrosion by
chlorides in an acid environment (Photo 5.15). This normally rules out con-
ventional stainless steels and imposes Monel as the best choice. Valves will be
preferably of the cage type to limit erosion of the orifices due to friction of
valve legs and lids.
Except for the top zone, trays are usually made of carbon or 410s steel.
Packing and internals are made of 410, except in the wash zone when corro-
sion risks by naphthenic acids dictate 316.
5.4.3.2 Vacuum Distillation (Production of Feeds for Cracking)

These columns can be easily recognized in a refinery due to their shape
(Fig. 5.33). They are the ones with the biggest diameter, usually 6 to 11 m.
Except for the lube oil base stock units, the objective of a vacuum distilla-
tion unit is to achieve maximum stripping of an atmospheric residue in order
304 Chapter 5. DISTILLATION, ABSORPTION AND STRIPPING IN THE PETROLEUM /NDUSTRY
1 1
Photo
5.15 Examples of damage caused by corrosion
(Source: Chemical Engineering, March, 1989).
to produce a feed for cracking (distillates, VGO). Since the highest value use of
vacuum distillation resides in maximum distillate production, separation qual-
ity must allow a vacuum residue to be obtained with certain characteristics
(viscosity, penetration, etc.) and the least possible loss of distillate, i.e. the
“sharpest” cut off. For a given feed quality, the vaporized fraction depends on
the temperature and the pressure in the flash zone. The temperature is limited
by thermal cracking phenomena that cause coking of furnace banks and gen-
erate noncondensable cracked gases which overload the column unnecessar-
ily. As a result, minimizing the pressure in the flash zone is seen as the
solution. As the overhead pressure is fixed by the operating conditions of the
vacuum generating system, it is therefore necessary to minimize the pressure
drop of the column’s internals. Vacuum columns often have several sidedraws,
and this is generally motivated more by the need to optimize the heat recov-
ery with the pumparound sections than by the need to obtain distinct prod-
ucts. The fractionation quality between products is less critical than in
topping or in vacuum distillation of lube oils. The vacuum column usually con-
sists of a stripping zone, a wash zone and two or three pumparound zones.
a. Construction Materials
Trays, grids and rings are generally speaking made of 410 type steel alloy.
When there are naphthenic acids, the internals located below the heavy distil-
late (HVGO) offtake tray must be made of type 316 stainless steel. Because it
is so thin and therefore has such low corrosion resistance, structured packing
must be made of
304 stainless steel above the heavy distillate pumparound,
316 stainless below and including the heavy distillate pumparound bed,
316L stainless for the wash zone if naphthenic acids are present.
Chapter 5. ~ l S T l l U T l O NABSORPTION
, AND STRIPPING IN THE PETROLEUM lNDUSTRY 305
To vacuum
7system ’
Spray header
n Upper
Packing pumparound
Drawoff tray
Gravitv dintrihiitnr h LVGO
Structured packing LVGO/HVGO

fractionation
Spray header
Packing
Drawoff tray
Gravity distributor
Structured packing
or grid bed
Short residence
time drawoff tray
- /
Atmospheric
Overflash
residue
I-
Trays
-
1-
I I
I I
Stripping zone
-
- Figure
5.33 Vacuum distillation of crude oil atmospheric residue.
306 Chapter 5. DISTILLATION,
ABSORPTION
b. Stripping Zone
Constraints are much the same as for topping units. This zone is the only one
where the pressure drop constraint is not crucial. The higher the feed (trans-
fer) temperatures, the greater the fouling risks are. The quality of the stripping
steam is particularly critical since the low flash zone pressures compound the
consequences of sudden vaporization if liquid water is introduced with strip-
ping steam. A few dozen liters of water are enough to severely damage the
internals in this zone. In order to minimize the consequences of this type of
malfunction, some manufacturers propose explosion resistant tray (ERD of
Glitsch for example) to allow abnormally large amounts of vapor to pass
through them. This type of feature should systematically be chosen.
Because structured packing has such a large free cross sectional area, it
withstands this sort of vaporization better. It must, however, be attached at
the top of the bed by systems that keep it from moving. Feed inlet systems
must be rugged and designed so that they do not get plugged up if any pieces
of coke should come through.
The stripping zone is sometimes equipped with residue injection designed
to provide a quench at approximately 340°C and curb thermal cracking. The
residence time in the bottom of the column will also be limited for the same
reason. The stripping steam flow rate usually ranges between 0.15 and 0.20 kg.
of steam per kilogram of vacuum residue.
c. F'lashZone
In the same way as for crude atmospheric columns, it is often useful to install
a system to improve the separation between the liquid and vapor phases. Its
pressure drop should, however, be as low as possible so as not to raise the
transfer temperature and thereby risk promoting coking in the furnace.
d. Wash Zone
The objectives are the same as in the atmospheric column. Operating con-
straints are more severe and coking risks should be taken into account. It is in
this zone that the smallest liquid loads are found in refinery distillation. The
vacuum distillate quality will depend on the performance of this zone, partic-
ularly the metal content (Ni and V) which will affect adversely FCC catalyst
aging.
It is highly advantageous to use structured packing in this zone because of
packing's low liquid retention and consequently short residence time, which
limits coking risks.
Despite low specific liquid loads, the liquid is generally distributed by a
gravity system, which ensures the greatest distribution regularity and there-
fore lessens fouling and coking risks in the bed. The risk of dry-out and accord-
ingly of coking justifies wash oil feed regulation controlled by the actual slop
cut flow rate at the bottom of this zone. Several secondary streams can lead to
errors when this rate is measured, e.g. (Fig. 5.34):
Sizeable carryover coming from the flash zone (case No. l), trapped at
the bottom of the packing bed which acts as a mist eliminator.
Chapter 5. DISTILLATION, ABSORPTION AND STRIPPING IN THE PETROLEUM /NOUSTRY 307
Leakage from the collecting tray located above the wash zone (case
No. 2), irregularly distributed, without effectively contributing to washing
the vapor stream.
Condensation (case No. 3), occurring under the collecting tray located
above the washing zone, especially when there is a pumparound zone
with severe subcooling. The liquid stream generated does not contribute
effectively to washing as it is not evenly distributed. In this case, the mea-
sured flow rate may seem correct, while the packing bed exhibits "dry"
areas where coking can develop.
The liquid load at the bottom of the packing bed must not be less than
7x m3/(m2-s),i.e. 0.25 m3/(m2-h).Some columns, however, operate
satisfactorily with 2.8 x m3/(m2.s), i.e. 0.1 m3/(m2.h).
?
Figure
Secondary flow rates in
the wash zones. I , 2
and 3: see text.
This value depends on many parameters, such as the coking tendency of

the residue being processed, the operating temperature, the type of packing
used and the regularity of feed distribution in the flash zone. In order to limit
coking risks, all the equipment in this zone must be designed to reduce resi-
dence time to a minimum. The slop cut collecting tray should, for example,
provide slopes channeling the liquid toward the drawoff sump whose capacity
will be restricted to a minimum.
Like the stripping zone, this zone is sensitive to sudden vaporization,
whether from the stripping zone or from the "lights" contained in the feed. The
packing bed will therefore need to be reinforced with holddown devices on its
top. The height of the packing bed is generally between 0.6 and 1.5 m depend-
ing on the efficiency required and the type of packing selected.
The configuration consisting in a recirculation of the slop cut should be
avoided as this results in a highly fouling and coking liquid flowing in the wash
zone. Moreover, any carryover of liquid above the wash zone would let pol-
luted oil to go in the valuable distillates.
308 Chapter 5. DISTILL4TION, ABSORPTION AND STRIPPING IN THE PETROLEUM lNDUSTRY
e. Pumparound Zones
These zones are characterized by high liquid loads and a severe vapor flow
rate gradient. As a result, it is advisable to divide them up into several sections
to get maximum efficiency with reduced pressure drop. Pumparounds are
always fitted with packing to limit pressure drop. Beds combining grids in the
lower part with rings in the upper part have been used successfully (GRC@ Bed
by Glitsch) (Fig. 5.35). A number of developments have allowed rings to be
replaced by structured packing or stacks of structured packing of variable
sizes to be built in order to optimize the heat exchange and pressure drop.
Low flow rate

objective: efficiency Figure
5.35 Combination 0.grids
objective: capacity Glitsch, “GRC@bed”

model).
When there is sufficient room, liquid is distributed by ramps whose spray

cones provide an extra exchange zone with almost no pressure drop on the
vapor stream. There are, however, certain risks inherent in using spray ramps,
even though they are often the most economical choice. When the atomized
liquid is perceptibly subcooled, the gaseous volume may shrink, distorting the
spray cone and no longer allowing proper coverage of the packing bed surface
(Fig. 5.36).
Figure
Spray ramp. Volume
shrinkage.
Since the overhead temperature is relatively low, when the topping unit is
operating properly the overhead products are heavy enough so that their vis-
cosity reaches several mm2/s. This viscosity value is much higher that what is
habitually found in refinery distillation of hydrocarbons and must be taken
into account when equipment such as spray ramps or liquid distributors are
being sized.
Sometimes heavy and light distillates have different uses. In this case it
may be advantageous to separate them better and install a fractionation zone
between the two pumparounds. Increased feed flow rates or improved heat
recovery configurations may require a third pumparound bed. Here it may be
advisable to use the space available in the narrower section connecting the
upper part where the overhead condensation zone is and the main part of the
column. A cylindrical internal shell can often be installed here to accommo-
date the extra packing bed (Fig. 5.37).
To vacuum To vacuum
system system
m Wash zoneHVGo
HVGO
Overflash
Before After
m Vacuum distillation. Installing a fractionation zone.

310 Chapter 5. DISTILLATION, ABSORPTION AND STRIPPING IN THE PETROLEUM /NOUSTRY
Cracked gases to
I - condenser and
compressor
Gravity distributor Reflux (light gasoline)

Packing Light gasolineheavy
naphtha fractionation
spray
Heavy naphtha
Packing
purnparound
Drawoff tray
Heavy naphtha
Gravity distributor
Packing Heavy naphthafLC0

fractionation
spray
LCO purnparound
Packing
Drawoff tray LCO to stripper

Gravity distributor
Packing LCO/HCO
fractionation
spray
HCO purnparound
Packing
Drawoff tray HCO to stripper
Plugging resistant
distributor Dewperheating
zone or slurry
Grids purnparound
' J
' J J d
W Slurry
-
Figure
5.38 Catalytic cracking unit. Column for primary ti-actionationof the effluent.
5.4.3.3 FCC Primary Fractionation

This column (Fig. 5.38) is similar to a crude topping unit, but has two major dif-
ferences:
The feed is totally vaporized, superheated to some 480 to 540°C, and
comes directly from the FCC reactor.
A large proportion of the gases goes through the column with the gaso-
line without being condensed.
Despite efficient cyclone design, the feed always contains traces of cata-
lyst, which may even be fairly plentiful if some malfunction has occurred.
Even though pressure drop is not critical for fractionation quality, it may be
an important criterion since reducing pressure drop can eliminate bottlenecks
when the regenerator blower, or the cracked gas compressor to a lesser
extent, is running at the limits of its capacity (Fig. 5.39). It may then in certain
cases have an influence on the pressure in the reactor and consequently on
reaction selectivity. In addition to the slurry collected at the bottom of the col-
umn, the products withdrawn directly from the primary fractionation column
depend on the configuration of the refinery and particularly on any other pro-
cesses such as gas treatment.
Figure
5.39 Characteristiccompressor curve. (Cracked gas compressor.)
A conventional configuration includes:

heavy gas oil (HCO: heavy cycle oil),
light gas oil (LCO: light cycle oil),
heavy naphtha.
312 Chapter 5. AESORPTION
DISTILLATION, AND STRIPPING IN THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
The overhead vapors are made up of gases (C2-, C, and C,) and light gaso-
lines. An added drawoff of intermediate gasoline is some times effected above
the heavy naphtha.
a. Construction Materials
The column is usually clad with 410s below the HCO drawoff. Column internals
must at least be made of 410s below the HCO drawoff and those located above
it can be made of carbon steel, though 410s is often used.
b. Feed Inlet Zone

Axial feed inlet is preferable, but if it is tangential a wearing plate 10 to 15 mm
thick made of 410s will be installed.
c. Desuperheating Zone
The column has a particular feature which is a desuperheating or quench zone
which cools down the vaporized feed by contact with a large stream of sub-
cooled quenching oil. This zone must be of very rugged design to withstand
erosion phenomena and coking risks that may appear if part of the feed is
insufficiently cooled. It has traditionally been equipped with baffle, disk, or
other trays with large through cross sectional areas and significant thickness
to avoid the above-mentioned risks. Today the best design for this zone fea-
tures a bed with grids (minimum thickness 1.5 mm) sprinkled by a rugged
gravity distributor that can handle liquid containing slight amounts of cata-
lyst. Low pressure drop in this type of internal makes it sensitive to poor vapor
distribution, so it is usually advisable to install a vapor distribution system
made of a material that can withstand erosion and temperatures in excess of
500°C. Should the quenching oil stop circulating, the consequences can be
very serious: rapid coking of the whole zone. As a result, it is essential to
install automatic startup systems for the spare pump in case of a drop in flow
rate.
Sometimes a small fraction of cooled slurry is reinjected through a feed
ring directly in the bottom of the column as quenching oil to reduce coking
risks. Bottom temperature is also generally limited to 365375°C for the same
reason.
d. Wash, Fractionation and Pumparound Zones

The columns often include a wash zone to keep from polluting FCC products
by carryover coming from the desuperheating zone. The constraints of the
zone and of the fractionation and pumparound zones are similar to the ones
for the topping column.
The internals in these zones, particularly liquid distributors are not
designed to handle liquids with suspended solids. The operator will therefore
not make the mistake of circulating quenching oil in the upper zones in an
attempt to heat the column more quickly. This might cause the distributors to
get plugged up with catalyst should there be a malfunction at the reactor,

and then the column would have to be shut down for cleaning. The fractiona-
tion, wash and circulating zones in modern or remodeled columns are increas-
ingly entirely equipped with packing. A few trays can still be found in the
pumparound zones, particularly when a water drawoff is to be installed at the
top of the column.
5.4.3.4 Treatment of FCC Gases

This section is designed to separate the light fractions produced by the FCC,
coming out of the top of primary fractionation (Fig. 5.40).
It normally includes the following sequence:
compressor;
deethanizer, primary absorber/stripper;
debutanizer;
CJC4 separation.
The columns work at a relatively high pressure (1 to 2 MPa - 10 to 20 bar
gage - depending on the configuration). Specific liquid loads are relatively
high compared to vapor loads. Additionally, because of the pressure, vapor
gravity is fairly high whereas liquid gravity is low because of its nature. These
operating conditions are favorable for trays, which can provide high efficiency.
Structured packing was to blame for a lot of setbacks in these applications and
its use is not recommended.
When there is a gasoline fractionation column - heavy naphtha/light gaso-
line - it is the only one that can possibly be equipped with structured pack-
ing. The latest generation of random packing can sometimes be contemplated
when capacity is increased on existing columns. The lost height required to
install the distribution system should be taken into account in these cases.
The constraints specific to working on the shell make column modifications
more difficult. The columns are designed to maintain good resilience strength
and withstand the low temperatures that may occur during emergency depres-
surization. Welds are often inadmissible or stress relieving is mandatory.
The primary absorber and the stripper are usually combined in the same
column. This section does not normally present any particular problems, how-
ever special attention needs to be paid during shutdown to hydrogen blister-
ing and to corrosion by H,S and other acids. Ammonia corrosion is not usually
a problem when there is enough washing water.
a. Primary Absorber
The primary absorber is designed to absorb most of the LPG contained in the
gases coming from the HP separator drum with FCC gasoline. It is generally
equipped with some thirty trays made of 410s. The column often has one or
two pumparounds designed to evacuate the heat of absorption. It is recom-
mended to equip the refluxes with a drawoff sump designed to collect the
water that might settle out when the gasoline is cooled down. Supplying the
a,
Chapter5 DISTILLATION, ABSORPTION AND STRIPPING IN THE PETROLEUM /NDUSTRY 315
top of the column with debutanized subcooled FCC gasoline improves LPG
recovery and allows only one pumparound to be used.
b. Stripper
The stripper removes the lightest fractions (ethane, hydrogen) and the H2S
from wild gasoline. It is generally equipped with some thirty trays made of 410s
and usually reboiled with LCO coming from primary fractionation. Corrosion is
normally low enough so that the reboiler can be made of carbon steel, but
sometimes a 5% chromium and 0.5% molybdenum steel must be selected.
c. Secondary Absorber
The gases coming from the top of the absorber still contain some LPG (C,,).
Lean oil washing is used to recover them, generally LCO, in a secondary
absorber. The lean oil is cooled by exchange with the rich oil and with a water
exchanger to keep its temperature below 40°C. The column can advanta-
geously be equipped with random packing, particularly the latest generation,
since operating conditions are favorable. Differences in specific gravity are
more accentuated than in other columns as the gas being processed is rich in
ethane. It is recommended to install a mist eliminator at the top of the column
to trap liquid carryovers.
d. Debutanizer
The debutanizer is used to adjust the FCC gasoline vapor pressure and is
equipped with some forty trays made of 410s. It is reboiled with HCO coming
from primary fractionation. Corrosion generally dictates a reboiler equipped
with a 5 or 11%chromium steel bundle.
5.4.3.5 Sour Water Stripping

The H,S and ammonia contained in the water condensed at the top of atmo-
spheric fractionation columns, in particular primary FCC fractionation, must
be removed before the water can be sent to biological treatment. This treat-
ment is generally performed in a stripping column supplied with live steam at
the bottom. This column can be equipped with random or structured pack-
ings. Ceramic random packings offer a good resistance to corrosion but are
sensitive to sudden surge of vapor. A good holddown grid must be supplied.
5.4.3.6 Colcer Primary Fractionation

The primary fractionation column of a coker (Fig. 5.41) looks a lot like the
FCC’s. The main difference in operation resides in the feed, which is only
slightly superheated even though it is vaporized. Additionally, the feed flow
rate to the fractionation column depends on the soaking drum cycle. The more
soaking drums there are (at least 2), the more regular the column’s feed will
be. These variations in feed must be taken into account when the liquid reten-
tion is established in the column in order to ensure constant liquid supply to
the wash zone.
Gasoline/LKGO
Structured
packing
Structured
packing
Packing
or trays
Grids
Shed trays or disks

Vapors from
soaking drums
soaking drums
Figure
5.41 Coking unit. Primary fractionation of the effluent.
a. Lower and Feed Inlet Zone

Under the feed inlet, the base of the column is used a s a buffer vessel for fresh
feed and recycling. The liquid recirculation circuit in the bottom of the column
is equipped to allow collection of the coke formed in the column or entrained
from the soaking drums. The feed inlet will be left free to avoid affording the
coke any place where it can get stuck.
ABSORPTION
6. Quench
This zone will be equipped with shed trays or disks and donuts. Packing and
trays are to be rejected as they are too sensitive to coking.
c. Wash Zone
This zone is sometimes equipped with only a spray ramp in an attempt to con-
trol coking problems. Efficiency is then low and it is often preferable to install
a bed of grids. The bed can be topped off by a layer of large size packing with
a large through cross sectional area to improve efficiency. The liquid feed is let
in by means of a spray ramp.
d. Fractionation and Pumparound Zones
The design of these zones is similar to the corresponding zones in a primary
FCC fractionation column. Primary coker fractionation columns usually have
only one pumparound zone.
5.4.3.7 Visbreaker Primary Fractionation

The feed for this column comes either directly from the visbreaker furnace or
from the soaker in the more recently designed plants.The vaporized fraction
of the feed is relatively small (15 to 30%),since the main objective is to reduce
the viscosity of the vacuum residue by means of fairly gentle thermal cracking.
The temperature of the feed into the column is such that cracking continues.
The first operation therefore consists of a quench in the feed line to stop these
reactions, as coke formation must be limited in the equipment. The tempera-
ture drop must, however, be as slight as possible in order to limit the loss of
vaporization and of light fraction recovery. The quench can be carried out with
a number of products, for example with cooled residue, with distillate or with
visbreaking gasoline. In the latter cases the vaporized fraction at the column
inlet is increased. A second cooler quench is often installed at the bottom of
the column to be sure cracking has come to a complete stop and thereby
reduce coking risks.
5.4.3.8 Fractionation of HF Alelation Effluents

There may be hydrofluoric acid present in the main columns (isostripper and
depropanizer) of this section in the alkylation unit. This will have an impact on
the choice of construction materials, usually carbon steel, and on design
details.
Any and all friction is to be prevented, ruling out moving parts. The trays
in the columns are consequently generally of the Nutter “V-grid or
Glitsch V-O type with fixed valves.
The low points where the acid and its compounds might settle out should
be avoided for obvious safety reasons. As a result, there will be no
recessed sumps under downcomers. Drawoff sumps will also be excluded
and downcomers running down into the bottom of the column will be pre-
ferred.
318 Chapter 5. DISTILLATION, ABSORPTION AND STRlPPlNG IN THE PETROLEUM /NOUSTRY
5.4.3.9 lkeatment of Reforming Effluents

Columns under high pressure, stabilization in particular, are often subjected to
the same constraints as those in FCC gas treatment sections. They will be
equipped with trays, usually of the valve type, as effluent flow rates and com-
positions vary during the catalyst life cycle. The tray downcomers are often
tilted to be optimized for high liquid loads. This is an ideal area of application
for the new high capacity trays, utilizing the zones under downcomers for
example.

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Chapter 5. DISTILLATION, ABSORPTION

column (on the stripping trays in wet vacuum distillation) or sometimes

5.2.4 Description of the Atmospheric Residue

LVGO to gas oil pool

Bright Stock to deasphalting,

5.2.5 Description of the Vacuum Distillation Column

5.2.5.2 Vacuum Dhtillation Designed to Produce Lube Of1 Stocks

Heat exchange zone

Heat exchange zone -D

HVGO + pumparound draw off

5.2.5.3 Vacuum Distillation Designed to Produce Bitumen

5.2.6 Choosing the Type of Vacuum Distillation

5.2.7 Calculating and Simulating an Atmospheric Residue

5.2.8 Vacuum Distillation Column Technology

5.2.8.2 Vacuum Pumps and Ejector4ondensers

Compressed gas exit Inlet

5.2.9 Specifics on Atmospheric Residue

5.2.10 Integrated Topping and Vacuum Distillation Units

5.3 Gasoline Distillation and Gas Fractionation

5.3.2 Description of the Gasoline Distillation

Lastly, the liquefied petroleum gases are fractionated in a depropanizer

Debutanizer 30to40 3 to6 10 to 15 701200

b. Common Specifications to be Complied with

5.3.2.2 Flow Scheme with Absorber and Stripper

The operating principle is to absorb the propane and butanes contained in

5.3.2.3 Other Configurations

5.4 Distillation, Absorption

Fractionation requirements are sometimes modest, with a few theoretical

5.4.1 Definition of Efficiency, Capacity and Flexibility

Efficiency in this case is measured by a ratio between the number of theoreti-

5.4.2 General Presentation of Fractionation

duty, such as when long-lasting liquid-vapor contact is needed even when

Two types of valve design can be mentioned:

Leg valve (Source: Cage valve (Source:

Number of Liquid Streams (passes)

Tray active area

configurations is insufficient and needs to be improved without excessively

a. Operating Range of Packing

c. Structured Packing (Photo 5.9)

d. Grids (Photos 5.10)

e. Ancillary Equipment: Distributors, Supports

Pressurized distributors use spray nozzles that produce liquid distribu-

Random packing support

5.4.2.3 Attendant Equipment for Fractionation Columns

There are several types of particle removers depending on:

equipment's poor running conditions. Adding equipment should be avoided as

6. Feed Inlet or Flash Zone

> I Gas + gasoline

Gravity distributor Reflux (gasoline)

Trays 11Stripping zone

5.4.3.2 Vacuum Distillation (Production of Feeds for Cracking)

Structured packing LVGO/HVGO

This value depends on many parameters, such as the coking tendency of

Low flow rate

objective: capacity Glitsch, “GRC@bed”

When there is sufficient room, liquid is distributed by ramps whose spray

m Vacuum distillation. Installing a fractionation zone.

Gravity distributor Reflux (light gasoline)

Packing Heavy naphthafLC0

Drawoff tray LCO to stripper

5.4.3.3 FCC Primary Fractionation

A conventional configuration includes: