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526 Chapter 8 PUMPS, COMPRESSORS, TURBINES, AND EJECTORS
with:
P pressure
V volume
y isentropic exponent of the gas mixture being compressed (for an esti-
mative calculation, y can be replaced by Cp/Cv,the ratio of molar spe-
cific heats at constant pressure and volume)
The ratio between sucked volume and swept volume defines the volumet-
ric efficiency qv. It influences only the selection of the cylinder size (more
exactly the cylinder capacity) for a specific compression, but has no effect on
the power required for compression.
Figure 8.35 shows the recording of an actual cycle for purposes of compar-
ison with the simplified cycle used to describe the principle of compression.
In the PV diagram, the area located inside the cycle indicates the work
required to accomplish it.
The ratio between the cycle area and the cycle area + inlet valve losses +
discharge valve losses is the efficiency of the actual cycle. It directly affects
the power required for a specific compression.
Discharge valve losses

47 -
P
3-
-
$ 2 Pressure at
L
l discharge flange
P-
a
-
37 Pressure inside cylinder
according to piston position
-Inlet valve losses

27 -
Pressure at
suction flange
-___
Figure
8.35 Actual recording o f a Pressure = f(Vo1ume) diagram with indications o f
efficiencylosses.
8.2.1.3 Selecting a Compressor

A compressor is selected according to the following guidelines.
Chapter 8. PUMPS, COMPRESSORS, TURBINES, AND EJECTORS 527
a. The application is defined by:

The type of gas or composition of the gaseous mixture.
The flow rate to be compressed.
Intake conditions: absolute pressure Pa,temperature T,.
Discharge conditions: absolute pressure P,., sometimes maximum tem-
perature T,.
b. Determining thermodynamic properties
The gas composition allows the following to be defined:
the molecular weight,
the isentropic exponent y, corresponding to C,,/Cv for ideal gases,
the compressibility factor Z, equal t o 1 for ideal gases.
For real gases, the use of appropriate software allows these parameters to
be obtained for the different points in the compression cycle. As a indication,
Table 8.5 gives approximate values for these properties.
Gas Molecular
Z
@a) cc) weight Y
Air 28.97 7
5 20 1.405 1019.1 24.5 0.999
50 20 1.490 1104.5 742.3 0.995
50 150 1.448 1064.1 750.3 1.019
CH4 16.04
5 20 1.295 2 322.4 1 776.9 0.991
50 20 1.355 2 670.9 1820.6 0.916
50 150 1.290 2 759.0 2 130.7 0.992
70% H, + 30% CH,

5 20 6.22 1.375 4971 3621 1.002
50 20 1.430 5 121 3 650 1.018
50 150 1.388 5 287 3 898 1.002
HZ 2.016
5 20 1.422 14 050 9915 1.003
50 20 1.472 14 147 9 948 1.032
50 150 1.453 14 113 9 952 1.025
co2 44.01
5 20 1.280 886.8 674.1 0.974
50 20 1.387 1882.1 733.6 0.651
50 20 1.286 1098.1 80 1.8 0.936
Table
Properties of a number of gases according to operating conditions.
LY
c. Determining the number of stages.

Compression ratio
The limit on the compression ratio T that can be achieved in a cylinder is fixed
by:
an acceptable volumetric efficiency (> 0.5), and
a theoretical discharge temperature lower than the admissible limits. As
a result:
Y- 1
Pr
T= - and -
Tr = T (8.1 1)
Pa Ta
The temperature limits range from 135 to 180°C depending on the type of
gas and lubrication, the aim being to have good valve and seal performance
and trouble-free lubrication. These criteria can be used to define the number
of stages n and the compression ratio of each one, chosen identical to
( m d or different from one another depending on the type of control sys-
tem chosen.
d . Determining the type of actuating section

The adiabatic power of each stage is calculated by the software mentioned
above. It can also be calculated by:
Pad= -Y P a x va[
Y-1
gJT Y- 1
- -
Za + Zr x 100
2Za
(8.12)
with:
Pad in kW
Pa,Pr in bar abs
Va inlet volume flow rate in m3/s
Z,, Zr inlet and discharge compressibility factors (dimensionless)
The type of actuating section is selected so that it can transmit the sum of
adiabatic power values, plus power losses in the valves and mechanical
losses.
e. Determining the type of cylinder

The inlet volume flow rate is used to determine the bore required for each
cylinder:
Va = C x N x q, (8.13)
with:
Va inlet volume flow rate in m3/s
C geometric cylinder capacity in m3
N rotation speed in revolutions per second
qv volumetric efficiency (dimensionless)
Chapter 8 PUMPS, COMPRESSORS, TURBINES, AND EJECTORS 529
The theoretical volumetric efficiency (sucked volume/swept volume) is:

1
q v = l - & ( T d (8.14)
with E being the fraction of dead volume (at least 0.1 to 0.15).
In actual practice, the corrected formula:
(8.15)
allows phenomena such as internal leakage to be taken into account.

The cylinders are then selected in a range corresponding to the chosen
stroke and the compatibility of complementary parameters is verified: maxi-
mum working pressure, loading on the piston rod, rotation speed, gas com-
pression and temperature (choice of materials), cylinder layout around the
actuating section. Several independent services can be grouped on the same
power section, with the term multi-service compressor being used in this case.
8.2.1.4 Flow Rate Control

One of the qualities of a reciprocating piston compressor is that the flow rate
can vary in a very wide range independently of the compression ratio. Various
control methods are possible:
Alternating operation and shutdown (example: small air compressors).
Variation in rotation speed (continuous variation from 100 to around
60%).
Unloading stages by blocking inlet valves open or bypassing them.
Discharge then occurs in the suction chamber without compression. The
stage “breathes” but no longer compresses. Depending on the number of
stages in parallel, approximately 50%, even 25%, or 75% of the flow rate
can be obtained.
Use of additional dead volumes (clearance pockets). They increase the
dead volume fraction and decrease (by degrees) the volumetric effi-
ciency and therefore the volume inlet in each cycle.
Use of gradual controllers of the Hoerbiger type that control the inlet
valve closing delay.
Control by bypass outside the compressor. It provides continuous varia-
tion between the flow rate levels obtained by other means.
8.2.1.5 Installation and Environment of

Reciprocating Piston Compressors
The compressors, their driver and their speed reducer if one is needed are
installed directly for large machines or via a metallic base frame for medium
and small size machines. They are placed on a concrete block that allows
proper alignment to be maintained and absorbs the pulsating stresses that are
generated.
The discontinuous nature of the suction and discharge phases generates

pressure pulsations in the gas that can be detrimental to piping resistance.
Surge bottles installed on cylinder flanges damp these pulsations and are sized
by means of a detailed acoustic study.
Lastly, compressors have a low tolerance for significant amounts of liquids
(incompressible) or solids (fouling, abrasion) in certain components: con-
necting-rod bearing, rod, piston, valve, piston rings, packing. The gas circuit
upstream from each cylinder must include appropriate filters and separators
in addition to coolers. Special attention should be paid to the presence of con-
densates (for example water, heavy hydrocarbons) or particles (catalyst pow-
der, polymerized products) subsequent to transient operating conditions.
8.2.1.6 Applications
Table 8.6 gives examples of the numerous applications possible and the main
characteristics of the machines used. These examples show that reciprocating
piston compressors can be used efficiently in the gas, oil and refining indus-
tries, not to mention others such as petrochemistry and chemistry. Their char-
acteristics and operating principle make them particularly well suited to cer-
tain applications. The choice of this type of machine is evidently influenced by
the specific technical assets, but also by economic considerations regarding
investment, operating and maintenance costs in the context of production
units that can be quite complex.
8.2.2 Centrifugal Compressors

These compressors are widely used in refining and in the chemical and petro-
chemical industries. They are built according to APl 617 standards, are very
compact and can develop significant power in comparison with their size. In
their working range they do not generate any pressure pulsations in the pip-
ing. These qualities allow lightweight installations for their environment. They
are particularly appreciated for their reliability, since by their design they gen-
erate no metal to metal friction. Maintenance is done today every three to five
years.
They are mainly used in processes such as catalytic reforming or isomer-
ization where the gas being compressed is of low molar mass (6 to 12) or in
alkylation processes where the molar mass is approximately 56.
8.2.2.1 Description and Operating Principle

A centrifugal compressor consists of a series of impellers rotating at high
speed inside a stator. The stator contains what is called the diffusers and
return channels (Fig. 8.36). Compression is accomplished dynamically by
acceleration and deceleration of the gas through the diffuser and impeller
channels. The return channel collects the gas at the diffuser exit and feeds it
to the following impeller.
Discharge Compression
Application Type of gas pressure ratio
weight
(PA (0
A. Production, transportation and storage
Production Sour natural 18-26 A few bar Highly

gas to several variable
tens of bar
Gas lift Associated gas 20-26 60-120 5-15
Reinjection Natural gas 20-26 200-500 4-15
Transportation Natural gas 17-2 1 70-100 1.3-2
Storage Natural gas 17-2 1 100-250 2.5-5
B. Refining
Separation of
liquefied gas
Catalytic
reforming
c1-c5
hydrocarbons
50
25
5-8 bar abs
Recycle 50430% H, but 8-13 5-30 bar 1.5-3

compressor also nitrogen
and pure H,
Hydrotreating
Hydrodesulfurization
Make-up 50430% H, 45-1 00 bar 2-4
compressor
Recycle 5040% H, 50-100 bar 1.1-1.4
compressor and H,S
1 Table- 1 I
Lsdl Applications for reciprocating compressors.
Compression stage
Compression takes place in the compression stages. It can be defined on
the basis of the Euler theorem applied between the inlet (subscript 1) and the
outlet (subscript 2) of the impeller:
(8.16)
with:
.-+
-
U impeller tip velocity vector
V absolute velocity vector of the gas
The real head H, represents the power transmitted per unit of gas mass by
the driver to the gas via the impeller, excluding the mechanical losses.
H, can also be written (see Fig. 8.36 defining the velocity triangles at the
impeller inlet and outlet):
1
H , = y [(U$- U a + ( W t - W a + (V$- V 3 ] (8.17)
Figure
8.36 Representation of a compression stage with the velocity triangles at the
impeller inlet and outlet.
The energy transmitted to the impeller includes two components:

The term 1/2 [ (U$ - U f ) + (WT - W $ ) ]is a static head representing a pres-
sure increase.
The term 1/2 [(V$- Vf)] is a kinetic energy which will be converted into
static head in the diffuser. It can represent up to one third of the pressure
increase of the compression stage.
The head includes the gas compression, but also the losses generated in
the compression stage which are due to a number of phenomena:
shocks at the vane inlet,
boundary layer separation,
turbulence,
gas friction in the channels,
gas friction on the outside of the impeller.
Compression is modelled like a polytropic transformation, with the effi-
ciency defined as follows:
HP
Tip= H, (8.18)
The polytropic efficiency of a compression stage generally ranges between

0.70 and 0.85 depending on the impeller size, flow rate coefficient and geome-
try. The polytropic head is written as follows:
Hp= m [(2)'"-1] (8.19)

with:
H p polytropic head in J/kg
Z gas compressibility
r gas constant (R/molar mass)
T inlet temperature in degrees Kelvin
P2 discharge pressure
P, inlet pressure
m = (n - l)/n (n:polytropic coefficient)
For an ideal gas: m =

Y-
- 1
Y%
with y being the isentropic coefficient.
Compression in an impeller varies widely according to the gas being com-
pressed (Table 8.7) and affects the geometry connecting the inlet and outlet
sections of the impeller.
-
H2 N202 C3H6 C4H8
~
Molar mass g/mol 2.016 28.054 29 12.081 56.108

Y (*I 1.427 1.197 1.408 1.138 1.083
Compressibility (*) 1.006 0.942 0.9985 0.987 0.977
PI bar abs 10.0 10.0 10.0 1.o 1.o
p2 bar abs 10.28 14.9 14.6 1.77 2.17
p2 lP1 1.028 1.49 1.46 1.771 2.17
Tdischarge K 303.4 330.2 346 330.0 329.6
QJQi 0.963 0.734 0.793 0.618 0.498
__ ~
(*) Values taken at inlet conditions

-
Effect o f the gas on a compression stage. Polytropic head = 35000 J/kg.
Polytropic efficiency = 0.75. Inlet temperature = 300 K.
Impeller types
Impellers are usually classified according to a dimensionless flow coeffi-
cient defined as follows:
534 Chapter 8. PUMPS, COMPRESSORS, TURBINES, AND EJECTORS
Qv -
240 Qv
(8.20)
$ ND3
with:
Q, volume flow rate at the impeller inlet in m3/s
D standard diameter of the impeller family in m
U impeller tip velocity in m/s
N impeller rotation speed in rpm
Manufacturers define their impeller families on the basis of the impeller
outside diameter with each family consisting of a number of impellers classi-
fied according to the flow coefficient. The general shape of impellers is directly
related to the flow coefficient a s defined in Figure 8.37.
0.005 0.01 0.02 0.04 0.08 0.16
-
~
Figure
8.37 Various types of impellers according to the flow coefficient.
A multi-stage centrifugal compressor consists of one or more compression

sections. A compression section is made up of a set of several compression
stages. In a compression section, each stage compresses the same gas a s the
preceding one. Since the mass flow rate remains the same in the compression
section, the volume flow rate at the inlet of each compression stage is lower
than that of the preceding one. All the compression stages are therefore dif-
ferent from one another in a compression section, with the gas flow cross-sec-
tions on the last stages smaller than on the first ones.
The gas being compressed is very important in selecting a compressor.
Table 8.7 shows that a compression ratio of 2 with butene is obtained with a
single compression stage, with rotation speed reduction to decrease the poly-
tropic head. A compression ratio of 2 with hydrogen is obtained with 24 com-
pression stages, which would require a unit of 3 compressors, each with
8 compression stages.
The overall performance of a compression section is presented on the
graphs in Figures 8.38 A and B for a section of three stages with a nominal inlet
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
flow rate of 9000 m3/h. The curves showing the pressure ratio and the poly-
tropic head versus the volume flow rate at the section inlet are given for sev-
eral rotation speeds. Iso-efficiencycurves are added, thereby allowing the best
operating range to be located for the compression section. The polytropic
head versus volume flow rate curves are limited:
for small flow rates by a phenomenon called “pumping” or surge similar
to aerodynamic instability,
for large flow rates by a sonic effect generated in one of the impellers of
the compression section.
0
._
+
F
g 3.5
3
m
(0
2?
a
2.5
1.5
1
3500 4500 5500 6500 7500 8500 9500 10500 11500 12500
Figure
8.38A Characteristic curves o f a centrifugalcompressor.
Pressure ratio versus inlet flow rate.
01 I I I I I I I I
Inlet volume flow rate (m3/h)
-
Figure
8.38B Characteristic curves of a centrifugal compressor.
Polytropic head versus inlet flow rate.
This overall performance for a section can be verified in the factory by a

similarity test carried out with gases such as nitrogen or carbon dioxide. With
these gases the rotation speed is adapted so as to establish a similarity
between all the impeller inlet and outlet velocity triangles of the compression
section and the velocity triangles obtained under the conditions anticipated
for industrial application.
Gas compression causes the gas to heat up and so intermediate cooling is
required, usually outside the compressor. Cooling is required because tem-
peratures compatible with compressor technology must be maintained
(approximately 220°C). Additionally, cooling is necessary to avoid fouling and

polymerization problems both in the compressor and in the piping where the
gas circulates.
8.2.2.2 Control
The type of control is conditioned by the choice of the driver. Fixed speed
drivers are synchronous or asynchronous electric motors that drive compres-
sors via a gearbox. Variable speed drivers are electric motors piloted by a
speed controller, or a gas or steam turbine. A gearbox is used if needed.
Operation at fixed speed

Discharge pressure is controlled by a throttling valve placed at the com-
pressor inlet.
Operation at variable speed

The driver speed is used to achieve the compression ratio for the flow rate
passing through the compressor.
Protection against “pumping”or surge

Each compressor impeller has a minimum working flow rate called the
surge point. Surge leads to flow rate fluctuations and even inversions causing:
cyclic stress on the thrust bearing,
vibrations of the rotor,
overheating of the compressor internals.
These effects cause degradation in compressor performance and may even
lead to damage. The compressor is protected from surge risks by withdrawing
some of the gas from the discharge end and injecting it at the compressor inlet
via a valve. This feeds the compressor with a flow rate higher than its surge
flow rate. The minimum instrumentation to protect against surge is a flow rate
measurement at the compressor inlet, which will be compared with the mea-
surements of compressor suction and discharge pressures.
8.2.2.3 Rotor
The rotor consists of a forged steel shaft where the impellers and their spac-
ers, the balance piston, the coupling hub, the thrust collar and the seal rotat-
ing parts, if any, are mounted.
Impellers
The impellers are heat shrunk onto the shaft tightly enough to assure con-
tact between the impeller and the shaft when the impeller is subjected to rota-
tion-related stress. For greater safety, the impellers are keyed and positioned
axially by their spacers.
The impellers generally consist of a hub disk and an enclosing cover. The
blades are machined in the hub and the enclosing cover is welded or brazed
on them. Impeller design and manufacture are rigorously monitored, as
impeller mechanical strength is one of the limitations on the rotation speed.
The limit for impeller tip velocity is 300 to 350 m/s, but can be much lower with
a sour gas. The material and its thermal treatments for impellers and all rotat-
ing parts in contact with the gas are chosen according to the type of gas being
compressed (sour or not).
Balance piston (Fig. 8.39)

On part of its surface each impeller has its inlet pressure on one side and
its outlet pressure on the other. The seal between these two pressures is gen-
erally accomplished by a labyrinth seal. This generates an axial force. The sum
of impeller axial forces yields a force that is not compatible with the loading
capacity of a hydraulic thrust bearing. In order to offset impeller axial forces a
balance piston is added to the shaft, with an outside diameter calculated to
balance the rotor axial forces. The balance piston generally has the outlet
pressure of the last impeller on one side and the suction pressure on the other.
The suction pressure is brought into the chamber next to the piston by a pip-
ing that is external to the compressor and connects the chamber to the com-
pressor inlet. The system has the advantage of limiting axial impeller thrusts
and allowing the shaft end seals to work at the suction pressure. However, it
generates internal recirculations that lower the polytropic efficiency of the
compressor.
-
Impeller axial F Piston axial F
Labyrinth -
seai
I I I f
suction
I \
A
El
1 \ Impeller
Labyrinth seal
Balance piston
Figure
8.39 Simplified schematic of balancing axial forces.
Coupling
Flexible couplings are the most widely used. They decouple the vibratory
behavior of each of the rotors. Toothed couplings require lubrication and
introduce considerable axial forces. Diaphragm or membrane couplings are
preferable as they do not suffer from these two drawbacks.
Rotor dynamics
Any metallic structure is liable to vibrate when it is excited by dynamic
phenomena. This is also true for the rotors of turbo-machines. The study of
rotor dynamics is one of the essential steps in designing turbo-machines and
conditions satisfactory operation on site. The important points for this study
are:
the natural vibration frequencies, i.e. the frequencies on which the rotor
responds with maximum amplitude when it is excited;
the natural vibration modes defining the different deformations by the
rotor for each of the natural frequencies;
damping, which is the only rotor resistance to excitations to limit vibra-
tion amplitudes when the rotor is excited on one of its natural frequen-
cies.
The main characteristics to be taken into account for a study of rotor
dynamics are:
the stiffness and weight of the shaft;
the weight and inertia of the components mounted on the shaft;
the gyroscopic effects related to the rotation speed;
the connections with the outside environment, at the bearings and seals
or tight clearance zones such as labyrinth seals;
the different potential excitations.
The rotor response must be calculated in order to predict its dynamic
behavior for transient and for normal operation:
response to unbalance;
passing the critical speed (the rotation frequency corresponds to the
natural frequency of the rotor);
response to subsynchronous vibrations (below the rotation speed);
response to aerodynamic phenomena.
Balancing
Balancing a rotor is a manufacturing operation specific to a rotor. The aim
is to decrease residual unbalance to obtain smooth running, i.e. with a vibra-
tory level compatible with the machine’s internal clearances. Balancing tech-
niques are of two types:
540 Chapter 8. PUMPS, COMPRESSORS, TURBINES,
AND EJECTORS
Low speed balancing: a balancing operation is carried out each time two
rotating components (impellers) are mounted on the shaft.
High speed balancing: here balancing is carried out at nominal speed
under vacuum in a specific test bench on a completely mounted rotor. It
is indispensable to obtain a very low synchronous vibratory level for
rotors that are due to work at high rotation speeds.
8.2.2.4 Shaft End Sealing
Labyrinth seal
These are seals with circumferential knife edges. They are simple and reli-
able. Since the gas leakage flow rate from the shaft ends is relatively high,
these seals are reserved for inexpensive inert gases or air.
Oil film and seal rings

Each shaft end seal is composed of two antifriction steel rings, an inner one
(on the gas side) and an outer one (on the atmosphere side). The sealing oil is
injected between the two rings at a pressure greater by some 0.5 bar than the
pressure of the gas being sealed against. The inner ring withstanding a low dif-
ferential pressure generates a small oil flow contaminated by the gas. This oil
can usually be recycled after treatment. The outer ring withstands a differen-
tial pressure equal to that of the sealing oil. The oil flow is generally significant
and cools the inner ring. This non-contaminated oil returns directly to the oil
tank.
Mechanical contact seals

The seal surface is flat and perpendicular to the rotor rotation axis. Sealing
action is provided by the contact of a stationary seal ring pressed against a
rotating seal ring mounted on the shaft. This seal generally replaces the inner
ring described above and sometimes the outer one a s well. The flow rate of oil
contaminated by the gas is less than a liter per hour.
The pressurized oil is supplied by a sealing oil console. The consoles
require extensive maintenance and are one of the main causes of centrifugal
compressor unit shutdowns. The use of dry seals makes it unnecessary to
have sealing oil consoles and improves centrifugal compressor reliability.
Dry seals
(1) Tandem type (Fig. 8.40)
These seals are today the most commonly used for sealed pressures of up
to 100 bar. A single seal consists of:
a stationary seal ring centered and guided by one or more 0 rings and
pressed against the rotating ring by springs,
a rotating mating ring with spiral grooves t o lift the stationary ring.
To atmosphere
T To atmosphere
(flare)
Stationarv seal rinqs _Y

Figure
8.40 Close up of a dry seal of the tandem type. (Joints are mounted at the locations
numbered I to 9).
The effect of rotation and viscosity forces allows clearance to be estab-

lished between the rotating ring and the stationary one. Since the clearance is
small, leakage flow rates are low (100 Stdl/min approximately for a sealed pres-
sure of 80 bar) and the leaked gas is flared into the atmosphere. This seal is
called a tandem seal since it is made up of two single seals, with either one
capable of sealing against the gas pressure and the second one serving as back
UP.
(2) Double type
These seals are used for pressures of up to 20 bar and consist of two single
seals mounted face to face. An inert gas is injected between the two. It may
contaminate the process gas, but prevents gas from being vented into the
atmosphere. The reliability of the seal is totally governed by the reliability of
inert gas injection.
542 Chapter 8 PUMPS, COMPRESSORS, TURBINES,
AND EJECTORS
8.2.2.5 Bearing Assembly

Radial bearings
These bearings position the rotor radially inside the stator and support the
weight of the rotor. They can accommodate specific pressure of up to 20 bar.
They usually have tilting pads, affording great advantages with respect to rotor
dynamics (good damping capacity and absence of a destabilizing term). The
main geometrical characteristics of the bearing are its working clearance and
the curvature of the pads.
The pads are positioned axially between two oil retainers and on the cir-
cumference by shops. Each pad is fed with oil individually. They are usually
made of steel clad with tin-base white metal, or babbitted, allowing operation
up to 130°C. They are equipped with thermocouples or resistance probes to
measure the surface temperature of the white metal.
Thrust bearing
The thrust bearing positions the rotor axially with respect to the stator by
means of the thrust collar. The thrust bearing is double acting so it can with-
stand the resultant of impellers, balance piston and coupling axial forces for
all cases of compressor operation.
The pads are regularly distributed on a ring and positioned by lock screws.
Oil is individually fed into each pad. They are held in position but at the same
time are free to swivel. The thrust bearing pad technology is similar to that of
the radial bearing pad.
Hydraulic bearings must be fed with oil:
at constant pressure (1 to 5 bar gauge),
at a specified temperature (to have the required viscosity),
well filtered,
well deaerated to prevent emulsions,
non-contaminated by process gas so it will not adulterate the oil addi-
tives.
The oil consoles for centrifugal compressor units are essential elements in
assuring reliable operation of the machines.
Magnetic bearings
Active magnetic radial bearings work by attraction. The rotor is attracted
by radial electromagnets placed around it. The rotor weight corresponds to
the electromagnetic force resultant of the bearing. Since the attraction process
is unstable, sensors measure the rotor position and controllers pilot the cur-
rent sent to each electromagnet. Active magnetic thrust bearing work in a sim-
ilar way, with the magnetic attraction taking place on the thrust collar.
Magnetic bearings do not have the loading capacity of hydraulic bearings,
because the materials used are magnetically saturated. More sophisticated
design studies are required.
Active magnetic stops and bearings have the advantage of being piloted by
electronic systems, which allow considerable adaptation flexibility. Their use
remains limited in industry, however.
8.2.2.6 Barrel Compressor (Fig. 8.41)

These compressors with radially split casings are suited for:
medium and high pressures,
low molar mass gases.
They are equipped with a vertical joint face casing. The seal between the
casing and the cover is provided by an 0 ring type joint. The casings are gen-
erally forged. The compressor is assembled and disassembled from the side
opposite the driver. The rotor is placed inside the aerodynamic cartridge
which is made up of the inlet wall and diaphragm assembly. This aerodynamic
cartridge, with a horizontal joint face to allow the rotor to be mounted, is
assembled and disassembled in the compressor casing by a roller system. All
compressor assembly and disassembly operations can be carried out without
acting on the process piping.
Suction Discharge
I
ng
casi,
Labvrinth
bearing
Shaft end
sealing
Figure
8.41 1 Cutaway view o f a barrel type centrifugal compressor.
544 Chapter 8. PUMPS, COMPRESSORS, TURBINES,AND EJECTORS
8.2.2.7 Axially Split Compressor (Fig. 8.42)

These compressors are suited to low pressures and high flow rates. They
are equipped with a two-part casing assembled by bolting on the horizontal
joint face. The joint seal is of the metal to metal type. The casings are often
cast. The diaphragms, inlet wall and discharge scroll are mounted in halves
directly in each half casing. This type of assembly allows easy maintenance by
direct access to the compressor internals. The compressor shown in the
photograph in Figure 8.42 consists of two sections with symmetrical geometry
placed back to back. This allows the compressor flow rate t o be doubled and
impeller forces to be balanced. The discharge scroll and the last diffuser are
common to the two sections. The discharge scroll is integral with the cast
casing.
1 1
Figure
8.42 Photograph showing half of an axially split type com-
pressor.
8.3 Turbines
8.3.1 Steam Turbines
The steam turbine, which came into being at the end of the 19th century, is still
widely employed due to its great operating flexibility and robustness. This is
particularly true in the oil industries where steam is often used. It generally
drives generators, variable speed centrifugal compressors, pumps and blow-
ers. The power range can go from a few kW for pumps up to 25 or 30 MW for
compressors and much more for driving alternators. The rotation speed, 1500
or 3000 rpm for electric power plant turbines, can attain 12000 rpm and even
more for other applications. It may be associated with a reducer gear.
8.3.1.1 Steam Cycle of a Condensing Turbogenerator

Figure 8.43 shows a simplified steam cycle for an electric power producing
facility. The steam produced by the boiler 1 feeds the turbine 2. After the
steam expands in the turbine it is condensed in a condenser 4 cooled by water
or air circulation. An extraction pump 5 sends the condensates to the feed
tank 6 which assures water degassing and allows the feed water to be heated
in order to improve cycle efficiency. The tank works at low pressure (1 to 5 bar
m a . ) , so a feed pump 7 supplies the pressure required at the boiler.
;
A
Figure
Simplified steam cycle.
1. Boiler. 2. Turbine.
3. Alternator.
4. Condenser. 5. Extrac-
tion pump. 6. Feed tank.
7. Feed pump.
Figure 8.44 shows a cycle with no bleed for heating the feed water on a
Mollier steam diagram. Points A, B, C and D in Figure 8.43 are positioned in
Figure 8.44 to calculate cycle thermodynamic efficiency. AB represents the real
expansion line for the steam inside the turbine and AB' the ideal expansion
line (efficiency 1). The energy recovered in mechanical form per kg of steam is
(HA - HB) and the energy input to the cycle is (HA - Hc).
546 Chapter 8 PUMPS, GOMPRESSORS, TURBINES, AND EJECTORS
H Isobar
Enthalpy Superheated
Saturation
-
Figure
8.44 Cycle represented on a
Mollier diagram.
/
/ Wet
The turbine power (P) is expressed a s follows:

P = steam flow rate x ( H A - HB)
(kW) (Ws) (kJ/kg)
H designates the enthalpy at given cycle conditions.
Two efficiencies are defined:
HA - HB
the internal turbine efficiency: q = -
HA - HB,
HA - HB
the cycle thermodynamic efficiency: q = -
HA - HC
The internal efficiency of an industrial multi-stage steam turbine varies
from 0.75 to 0.85 depending on the number of stages and the steam conditions.
In an initial approach, the efficiency could be taken a s equal to 0.80 integrating
mechanical losses. The cycle efficiency (power generated over power con-
sumed) can be estimated at 0.27 t o 0.31 for industrial installations. Bleeds dur-
ing expansion in the turbine are used to heat the feed water. The efficiency is
thus improved by 1 t o 2 points, i.e. 4 to 8%additional energy recovery depend-
ing on the number of bleeds.
8.3.1.2 Different Types of Turbines

The most common turbines are listed below.
a. Condensing Turbine
The steam expands from the turbine inlet (the pressure varies generally from
10 to 140 bar and the temperature from 350 t o 540°C) t o a condenser where the
pressure is lower than atmospheric (Fig. 8.45). The pressure is dependent on
Chapter 8. PUMPS, COMPRESSORS, TURBINES,AND EJECTORS 549
the temperature of the available cold source (river water, seawater, air, etc.).
The steam exiting the turbine is thus kept at the lowest pressure possible (0.05
to 0.2 bar abs) t o benefit from considerable enthalpy drop and therefore opti-
mum cycle efficiency.
b. Back-Pressure Turbine
The steam exiting the turbine is used in the process. Its pressure is higher than
atmospheric, a s high as 60 bar in some applications (Fig. 8.46).
c. Condensing Controlled Extraction Turbine

In this type of turbine, part of the steam flow is withdrawn during expansion.
For example when the process steam flow is lower than the available inlet
steam flow or is insufficient t o produce the required turbine power, the pro-
cess steam is withdrawn from the turbine at the utilization pressure. The
remaining steam required to produce the power is then expanded in the low
pressure part of the turbine up to the condenser. Here the pressure of the pro-
cess steam network is controlled by the turbine (Fig. 8.47). A grid valve regu-
lates the steam flow rate passing through the low pressure section of the tur-
bine. It is an advantageous substitute for conventional steam chest valves, as
it improves steam flow and simplifies general turbine design.
d. Condensing Uncontrolled Extraction Turbine

This type of turbine is simpler in design than the preceding one. The pressure
of the extracted steam is variable and depends on the flow rate of turbine
steam downstream from the bleed. The pressure of the network supplied by
the draw off is controlled by a pressure reducing valve external to the turbine
(Fig. 8.48). The use of a controlled extraction turbine is preferable when the
extraction flow rate is high (higher than 20% of the inlet flow rate) and when
the condensing flow rate varies significantly in the turbine operating range.
8.3.1.3 Impulse Stage and Reaction Stage

A turbine consists of expansion stages which break down the enthalpy drop
between inlet and exhaust. There are two types of stages:
an impulse stage where all the steam expansion occurs in the stationary
blades,
a reaction stage where expansion is divided up between the stationary
and the rotating blades.
a . Impulse Stage (Fig. 8.49)

The velocity increase occurs totally in the stationary blades (nozzles or
diaphragms). Based on the first principle of thermodynamics, the steam veloc-
ity exiting the nozzle is:
vl(m/s> = ~ 5%
0,
._
8
._
Q
Q
8
0
._
c
0
??
c
X
W
U
Figure
8.48 Condensing uncontrolled extraction turbine. 16 MW at 4500 rpm. Inlet pres-
sure: 12 bar; condenser pressure: 65 mbar
with AH (Jfkg) being the differencein enthalpy between the inlet and the out-
let. This kinetic energy is converted into mechanical energy on the rotating
blades. If U (m/s) is the driving velocity at the average diameter (D,,,) of the
blade, the result is:
U = xD,N
with N being the rotation speed (rps). The optimum efficiency is obtained for
UfV1 = 0.45 to 0.50.
b. Reaction Stage (Fig. 8.50)

The reaction ratio is generally 0.5:
HA - HB = Hs - Hc
and the steam velocity exiting the stationary blades is:
1' = 2AHstationary blades
with: AHstationary blades = HA -

H Isobar
PO
V,, V,: Absolute steam velocities

U: Rotating blade
driving velocity
Stationary Rotating W, ,W,: Relative steam velocities
blades blades
Figure
8.49 Velocities in an impulse stage.
P(; stage inlet pressure; P2. nozzle and stage exhaust pressure.
The optimum efficiency of a reaction stage corresponds to U/V, = 0.9 to 1.

With an identical base diameter, an impulse stage allows twice as much adi-
abatic drop as a reaction stage. Since in addition its base diameter is usually
greater, there are approximately three times more reaction stages than
impulse stages for the same application. An impulse turbine consists solely of
impulse stages, whereas a reaction turbine includes an impulse stage at the
entrance (called a regulating stage) followed by reaction stages.
8.3.1.4 Control
The steam flow rate inlet in the turbine is regulated by inlet valves which are
generally actuated by a hydraulic servomotor piloted by the governor. The
basic control is a velocity control which proves quite inadequate for industrial
applications (except for production of energy alone). In centrifugal compres-
sor drive uses, it is possible to control the compressor discharge or suction
pressure for example. For turbogenerators working connected to the network,
a parameter such as the delivered power, the back-pressure or the pressure of
the inlet steam network can be controlled.
I L
V , , V,: Absolute steam velocities

U: Rotating blade driving
velocity
Stationary Rotating W , ,W,: Relative steam velocities
blades blades
-
Figure
8.50 Velocities in a reaction stage.
Po: stage inlet pressure; P2: stage exhaust pressure;
For automatic extraction turbines, the two sets of valves will allow two
parameters to be controlled at the same time.
a . Mechanical-Hydraulic Control
This type of control is sometimes still used in driving variable speed machines
in an explosive environment. It requires the controller to be driven by the shaft
with speed reduction.
b. Electronic Control
This type of control has displaced mechanical-hydraulic systems particularly
for turbogenerator and complex process control. The development of digital
systems has further accentuated this trend. Electronic control allows total
automation of the whole string start-up procedure with continuous monitoring
of safety devices. It supplies all the operating and adjustment parameters and
assures much greater control accuracy than mechanical-hydraulic systems.
However, great care must be taken in selecting the equipment installed in an
explosive environment (sensors and actuators).
554 Chapter 8 PUMPS, COMPRESSORS, TURBINES,AND EJECTORS
8.3.1.5 Steam Turbine Design

Engineering and construction rules for the turbines used in the oil industry are
generally defined by American Petroleum Institute standards:
API 611: general purpose steam turbines,
API 612: special purpose steam turbines.
The main problems encountered when turbines are started up or in opera-
tion are considerable shaft vibration and blade failure. They can lead to pro-
longed equipment downtime.
a . Shaft Dynamics
Severe shaft vibration is generally caused by:
faulty alignment during assembly,
excessive unbalance,
insufficient clearance between the stationary part and the rotor,
improper positioning or lack of damping of critical velocities,
fluid-structure interactions, especially in internal seals, particularly in
overhung turbines.
Proper positioning of critical bending velocities of rotors in relation to the
operating velocity range is defined by API standards. Two important criteria
are observance of API recommendations and verification of correct vibration
damping when the first critical velocity is attained during velocity increase.
They are crucial for turbine reliability over time (reducing vibrations, pre-
serving internal clearances and consequently maintaining efficiency). These
parameters are similar t o the ones for centrifugal compressors and precau-
tions are always necessary when starting up the string.
b. Mechanical Sizing of Blades

Blade failure is an important cause of steam turbine downtime. Failure is gen-
erally due t o vibratory phenomena or poor steam quality or often both. The
dynamic study of rotating blades for each turbine stage is therefore essential
and is briefly discussed below.
Natural modes
The natural modes taken into account are those that exhibit a significant
response to sources of excitation that may be found in a turbine. For a set of 4
blades connected to one another by a shroud at the top, the main calculated
modes can be schematically represented as shown in Figure 8.51.
Sources of rotating blade excitation

The sources of excitation are directly related to the steam flow. Any distur-
bance in the flow generates excitation of a greater or lesser degree on the rows
of downstream rotating blades.
Tangential 1 in phase Tangential 2 in phase Axial 1

(view along FJ
Tangential 1 out of phase
Figure
8.5 1 Vibratory modes of a set of 4 blades.
The following sources can be mentioned:

nozzle wakes with high excitation frequency (Hz) equal t o the number of
nozzles multiplied by the rotation speed in revolutions per second,
rotation speed harmonics: the first 15 harmonics are usually considered,
partial injection (steam injection on only part of the circumference)
which increases the stimulus of the two sources mentioned above.
Campbell diagram
The calculated values of natural blade frequencies and the excitation fre-
quencies are plotted versus the rotation speed on a diagram, called a
Campbell diagram (Fig. 8.52), for each row of blades. The natural blade fre-
quencies vary little with rotation speed. In contrast, the excitation frequencies
are proportional to the rotation speed and are therefore represented by
inclined straight lines passing through the origin. The possible resonances
that might be found in the turbine operating range can thus be visualized. As
an example, resonance of the first tangential mode can be seen with the fif-
teenth harmonic of the rotation speed (Fig. 8.52, point A).
Fatigue diagram
When it is impossible to avoid resonance risks, even by modifying blade
geometry for example, a fatigue diagram (Goodman or another) is used to ver-
ify the safety coefficient at all points on the blade. This study must take stress
concentrations into account.
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000

Speed (rpm)
Figure
8.52 Campbell diagram of an impulse stage.
8.3.1.6 Steam Purity

Impurities in the steam are the cause of the deposits seen inside turbines, par-
ticularly on the rotating and stationary blades. These deposits gradually lead
to fouling which will reduce turbine capacity and sometimes dangerously
increase the thrust on the thrust collar.
Quite a few cases of blade failure are also the consequence of poor steam
quality. The most hazardous impurities from this standpoint are chlorides, but
also sulfates and phosphates. These impurities give rise to corrosion, fatigue
and stress-corrosion phenomena, especially in the stages near the saturation
line where their solubility in steam is the lowest. The table below gives approx-
imate recommended values for a number of parameters:
Conductivity 0.2 pS/cm
Silica < 0.02 mg/kg
Chlorides < 0.01 mg/kg
Sodium < 0.01 mg/kg
Sulfates < 0.02 mg/kg
8.3.I .7 Examples of Steam Turbine Applications

Compressors in refining and petrochemical units are driven by electric motors
or steam turbines. Here turbines are usually of the condensing type, but in
some applications the use of medium or low pressure process steam will
require a back-pressure turbine or even a condensing controlled extraction
turbine. The steam characteristics at the turbine inlet are highly variable
according to the site, with the most frequent values being approximately
40 bar, 380°C. Catalytic reforming, isomerization and hydrocracking units use
2 to 10 MW turbines, with the compressor directly driven at its rotation speed.
Other applications such as in steam-cracking or petrochemical units require
higher powered turbines to drive their compression lines. Turbines can go up
to 30 MW with upstream steam conditions of up to 100 bar and 520°C.
There are also turbogenerators that use waste steam recovery in these
industries to supply all or some of the electric power consumed. The three
types of turbine can be found here also (condensing, back-pressure, condensing
controlled extraction), with power per generating unit varying from 8 to 20 MW.
8.3.2 Gas Turbines

A gas turbine is a prime mover, i.e. a machine that can convert the thermal
energy from continuous, constant pressure combustion of a fuel (natural gas,
fuel oil, etc.) in an oxygen carrier, usually air, into mechanical energy. It con-
sists of three main component parts (Fig. 8.53):
an air compressor,
a combustion chamber,
an expansion turbine at atmospheric pressure for hot gases.
Turbines are classified into two categories according to design:
industrial turbines called heavy duty, from 10 to 210 MW;
derivatives of aviation engines, from 2 to 50 MW.
The power turbine delivering mechanical energy to the machine driven
may or may not be connected t o the one that drives the air compressor. It is
generally connected when the machine driven is a generator, i.e. at constant
speed. It is preferably free when the machine driven is a compressor or a
pump. Its speed can then be varied independently of the speed of the air com-
558 Chapter 8 PUMPS, COMPRESSORS, AND EJECTORS
TURBINES,
Fuel Exhaust gas
1
/
LPT
-
Figure
8.53 Diagram o f a single open cycle gas turbine.
~
A C air compressor; CC: combustion chamber; HPT: high pressure turbine; LPT.:
pressor and its driving turbine. In this case the assembly (air compressor, its
driving turbine and the combustion chamber) is termed a gas generator. The
gas generator can itself have a single or double body Fig. 8.54).
For small power ratings (1 to 2 MW), the air compressor can be of the cen-
trifugal or axial-centrifugal type and the turbine can be of the radial type. For
large power ratings, the compressor and turbine are of the axial type. Gas tur-
bines are remarkably compact for their power and for aviation engine deriva-
tive turbines they are additionally very light.
Very complex techniques are used for the aerodynamics, materials and
cooling systems in order to achieve thermodynamic cycles with air compres-
sor compression ratios of 30 and more and average temperatures at the com-
bustion chamber exit of over 1200°C. Here the overall single-cycle turbine effi-
ciency is 38%.
8.4 Ejectors
An ejector is a device that uses a motive fluid passing through a diffuser at
high speed. A negative pressure is thus generated that entrains another fluid
(Fig. 8.55). The motive fluid is most often steam. The principle is in fact an
Chapter 8 PUMPS. COMPRESSORS, TURBINES, AND EJECTORS 559
Fuel Exhaust gas
\
AC
LP
/
(1)
-
Figure
8.54 Diagram of a gas turbine derived from aeronautics with a single open cycle gas
generator with a double body.
Pressure Temperature
ear) ("9
I 15
J 0-30 350-550
10-30 1000-1 200
3-4 700400
I 450-550
application of the Bernoulli theorem that expresses the conservation of

momentum in a system. The steam expands isentropically through the
entrance orifice in the suction chamber. It then mixes with the gas being evac-
uated at constant pressure and with no loss in momentum. A large part of the
steam kinetic energy is converted into heat. The mixture then flows through
the diffuser, with the mixture kinetic energy being converted into a pressure
increase. Isentropic compression efficiency is approximately 80%.
Ejectors are static devices that allow vacuum pressure to be maintained in
a group of pieces of equipment (vacuum distillation column, vacuum evapora-
tor). They also serve to drain certain vessels. They can include one or more
orifices for steam injection (Fig. 8.55). The important parameters in adjusting
ejector performance are:
the pressure of the motive steam (P"),
the suction pressure (Pa) and discharge pressure (Pd),
the physical properties of the inlet gas mixture and its temperature.
. Figure
8.55 Schematics of ejectors.
A. Single nozzle. B. Multiple nozzle.
The following possible ranges can be noted for the values of the first two
parameters:
PVIP, 5-200
P,/Pa : 1-10
In order to size an ejector it is important to know the composition of the
gas being evacuated. It usually contains air from equipment leakage, but also
condensable or non-condensable gases from the process along with steam.
In a system with several in series stages, it is advantageous t o incorporate
condensers between stages in order to eliminate the condensable vapors and
thereby reduce the load on subsequent ejectors. Since the pressure is very
low, very cold water is required to accomplish this condensation. A mixing
condenser is often used where cold water falls in a shower. A tubular con-
denser is needed if the condensate is t o be recovered. A final condenser is
often incorporated before discharge into the atmosphere. Condensates are
discharged by piping approximately ten meters high which is immersed in a
well at ground level in order to obtain an adequate barometric column. The
use of a liquid ring pump (centrifugal pump with a rotor submerged in circu-
lating water) after a tubular condenser makes a barometric column unneces-
sary.
8.4.1 Operating Range

A single ejector (1 stage) can compress the suction gas with a factor of 10
(Pd/PJ. Discharging to the atmosphere it can thus accommodate a suction
pressure of 76 mmHg (absolute). In order to achieve a greater vacuum, a cas-
cade of 2 or 3 ejectors must be used in series, with or without intermediate
condensers. Table 8.8 gives the number of ejectors versus the required vac-
uum (Power, 1964). It can be noted that possible operating ranges overlap,
bearing witness to the relative flexibility of these systems.
Number of Number of Absolute suction Steam

pressure consumption
stages condensers
(mmH@ W/ks air)
500-75 0.5-10
100-10 5-50
100-5 2-50
15-3 25-100
15-1.5 5-100
5-0.25 10-150
1-0.05 20-200
1 Table
w Performance o f an ejector system versus the number o f stages
The suction weight flow rate of the ejector is expressed in relation to the
weight flow rate of injected steam (W") and can vary between 0.1 and 2 for a
stage.
To allow for more flexible operation, one or more ejectors can be used in
parallel with one or more stages working in series. Since a given ejector can
not deviate from its characteristic vacuum-flow rate curve, this set up permits
savings on steam when the feed is likely t o vary. The suitable number of ejec-
tors can be made to operate in parallel so that the flow rate is assured with the
desired pressure. Figure 8.56 gives an example of standard commercial ejector
performance (after Croll-Reynolds, 1989).
8.4.2Sizing an Ejector
In order to select a type of ejector from a range of devices, the total flow rate
must be determined along with the sum of all condensable and non-condens-
able compounds. The first ejector will have to provide a flow rate corre-
sponding t o the total flow rate, whereas the last one will draw in only non-con-
densables and can consequently be much smaller.
Hence, in a cascade including intermediate mixing condensers, it must be
remembered that the gases become saturated in steam at the local tempera-
ture. As a result, the following ejector will have to handle the amount of steam
corresponding t o saturation in addition to the gases. The greater the vacuum,
the more steam there is. Additionally, the water vapor pressure at the con-
denser temperature is the absolute limit that the vacuum can attain, assuming
that the amount of non-condensable gases becomes nil. Thus, in order to
attain an industrial vacuum of 20 mmHg with a single stage, water must be
available at a temperature lower than 22°C.
Steam consumption (Wv) in kg per kg of equivalent dry inlet air, depends
on the absolute suction (Pa and discharge (Pd)pressures in mmHg and the rel-
ative pressure of the steam (Pv)in bar gauge. It can be obtained in an initial
approximation by the following equation (adapted from Power, 1964):
P, - 10.2
+ 0.475 10-3 pa)- o.w]( 1.2 -
20
This value will need t o be corrected to take gases other than air, both con-
densable and non-condensable, into account.
The main application of ejectors in refineries is in vacuum distillation of
residues. Here the desired pressure is between 10 and 20 mmHg, requiring 3 or
4 in series ejectors.
350
?
m
--. One stage
300 - --------- Two stages t condenser
E --- Two stages without condenser
2- 250 -
::
- 200
9
e,
150 -
(I)
P
g 100
:’
0
.-
5
c?
50-
---r-
-7- ---
-r-
I
. Y
#, ’
___--,
0
__
-
Figure
8.56 Example of ejector performance (After Croll-Reynolds).
Chaioter 8. PUMPS, COMPRESSORS, TURBINES, AND EJECTORS 563
References
API 617 (Feb. 1995) Centrifugal compressors for Petroleum, Chemical and Gas
Service Industries, 6th Edn.
Childs D. (1993) Turbomachinery Rotordynamics. John Wiley & Sons Inc.
Croll-Reynolds (1989) Brochure CB 91, Croll-Reynolds Co. (USA).
Friberg J. (1996) Approche the'orique et calcul pratique des diffuseurs,LAJF.
Glickman M. (1971) Positive displacement pumps. Chemical Engineering,
Oct 11, 1971,3742.
Hodge J. (1955) Cycles and Performance Estimation (Gas turbines series),
Butterworks Publications.
Houberechts A. (1972) Les turbines, Ed. Vauder.
IS0 10439 Centrifugal compressors for general refinery service in the petroleum
and natural gas industries (to be published).
Japikse D. (1996) Centrifugal Compressor Design and performance. Concepts
ETI, Inc.
Karassik I.J. et al. (1986) Pump handbook. McGraw-Hill Book Co.
KSB Documentation: Pump program.
Lalanne M. et Ferraris G. (1990) Rotor Dynamics Prediction in Engineering. John
Wiley & Sons Inc.
Lefevre J . (1978) L'air cornprime, tome 1, Ed. J.B. Baillere.
Lewa (1995) Documentation DO-100fr.
Power B.R. (1964), Steam-Jet Air Ejectors. Hydrocarbon Processing & Petroleum
Refiner 43, 2, 121-125; 3, 138-142; 4, 149-152.
Ricard J. (1962) Equipement thermique des usines ge'ne'ratrices d'gnergie e'lec-
trique. Dunod.
Sawyer J. (1985) Sawyer's Gas Turbine Engineering Handbook. Turbomachinery
International Publications.
Vivier L. (1965) Turbines h vapeur et h gaz. Editions Albin Michel.

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526 Chapter 8 PUMPS, COMPRESSORS, TURBINES, AND EJECTORS

Discharge valve losses

-Inlet valve losses

8.2.1.3 Selecting a Compressor

a. The application is defined by:

70% H, + 30% CH,

c. Determining the number of stages.

d . Determining the type of actuating section

e. Determining the type of cylinder

The theoretical volumetric efficiency (sucked volume/swept volume) is:

allows phenomena such as internal leakage to be taken into account.

8.2.1.4 Flow Rate Control

8.2.1.5 Installation and Environment of

The discontinuous nature of the suction and discharge phases generates

8.2.2 Centrifugal Compressors

8.2.2.1 Description and Operating Principle

Production Sour natural 18-26 A few bar Highly

Recycle 50430% H, but 8-13 5-30 bar 1.5-3

Lsdl Applications for reciprocating compressors.

The energy transmitted to the impeller includes two components:

The polytropic efficiency of a compression stage generally ranges between

Hp= m [(2)'"-1] (8.19)

For an ideal gas: m =

Molar mass g/mol 2.016 28.054 29 12.081 56.108

(*) Values taken at inlet conditions

0.005 0.01 0.02 0.04 0.08 0.16

A multi-stage centrifugal compressor consists of one or more compression

Inlet volume flow rate (m3/h)

This overall performance for a section can be verified in the factory by a

(approximately 220°C). Additionally, cooling is necessary to avoid fouling and

Operation at fixed speed

Operation at variable speed

Protection against “pumping”or surge

Balance piston (Fig. 8.39)

8.2.2.4 Shaft End Sealing

Oil film and seal rings

Mechanical contact seals

Stationarv seal rinqs _Y

The effect of rotation and viscosity forces allows clearance to be estab-

8.2.2.5 Bearing Assembly

8.2.2.6 Barrel Compressor (Fig. 8.41)

8.2.2.7 Axially Split Compressor (Fig. 8.42)

8.3.1.1 Steam Cycle of a Condensing Turbogenerator

The turbine power (P) is expressed a s follows:

8.3.1.2 Different Types of Turbines

c. Condensing Controlled Extraction Turbine

d. Condensing Uncontrolled Extraction Turbine

8.3.1.3 Impulse Stage and Reaction Stage

a . Impulse Stage (Fig. 8.49)

b. Reaction Stage (Fig. 8.50)

1' = 2AHstationary blades

with: AHstationary blades = HA -

V,, V,: Absolute steam velocities

The optimum efficiency of a reaction stage corresponds to U/V, = 0.9 to 1.

V , , V,: Absolute steam velocities

8.3.1.5 Steam Turbine Design

b. Mechanical Sizing of Blades

Sources of rotating blade excitation

Tangential 1 in phase Tangential 2 in phase Axial 1

Tangential 1 out of phase

The following sources can be mentioned:

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000