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What can architects learn from ecological systems?

General Ecology (Arch5351)

Definition of ecology Scope of ecology

 Ecosphere: global circulation of matter and energy

 The term ecology was first coined by Ernst Haeckel(1869)  Biome: distinct biological communities that have formed in response to a
shared physical climate

 The word ecology is derived from the Greek oikos, meaning "household," and logos,  Landscape :the visible features of an area of land, its landforms, and how
they integrate with natural or man-made features
meaning "study."  Ecosystem: focus on nutrient recycling and energy flow

 Community: a group of different populations at a time per unit area

 Ecology is the study of the interactions of organisms with their environment
 Population: an aggregation of individuals of the same species

 Organism: individuals that can survive and reproduce

 Ecology is the scientific study of the interactions that determine the distribution and
 Organ systems: groups of organs performing the same activities
abundance of organisms (Krebs 1972).
 Organ : group of tissues performing the same functions

 Tissue: group of cells performing the functions

 Ecology is the scientific study of the structure and function of nature (Odum 1963)
 Cell: the structural and functional unit of life

Scope of ecology Scope of Ecology

Organismal ecology
 how do individual interacts each other
and their physical environment?
Population ecology
 How and why does population size change over time?
 How does amamal select delivery site?
Community ecology
How does species interact, and what are the
consequences?
Ecosystem Ecology
How do energy flow and nutrient recycle through the
environment ?
Global ecology: how do global mater and energy
circulation affect the globe?

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Scope of Ecology Scope of Ecology

Why study ecology? Why study ecology?

 Curiosity  Nature provide a guide or information for sustainable life
• how does the world around us work? • The living world has been around much longer than we have and has solved
many problems with creative solutions so we can learn from nature
• How are we shaped by our surroundings?
• Ecological systems are models for sustainability
 Responsibility • How can we feed our growing population?
• how do our actions change our environment? • Where will we live if ---?
• how do we minimize the detrimental effects of our actions?  Sustainability – a property of human society in which ecosystems (including
• How are the environment shaped by human impacts? humans) are managed such that the conditions supporting present day life on
earth can continue
• How do overfishing, habitat destruction, loss of biodiversity,
climate change, buildings or other physical structures affect
the equilibrium the ecosystems?

Why study ecology? Ecology and Architecture

 Basing ecological concepts and principles help to predict what will happen to
an organism, a population, a community or an ecosystem under a particular  Architecture is the art and science of designing buildings and other physical structures.
set of circumstances thereby preventing and controlling situations ahead is
possible to avoid or alleviate cascade effects  Ecology’ is the study of living systems and their relations to one another and their
 Environmental problems are now high on the political agenda and ecologists environments
clearly have a central role to play: a sustainable future depends fundamentally
on ecological understanding and our ability to predict or produce outcomes  A living system is an integrated whole whose properties emerge from the relations between
under different scenarios.
its individual parts. Each part reflects the whole but the whole is always different from the
 Ecological concepts and principles helps us understand how the world works. It
provides useful evidence on the interdependence between people and the mere sum of its parts. Through this basic definition of a living system we can begin to identify
natural world and, as well the consequences of human activity on the
environment. the main difference between living and non-living systems.
 Ecology help us to understand complex problems

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Ecology and Architecture Why the architects learn Ecology?

In a non-living system the components together form the whole through a  Architects create huge impacts with their designs on environment and hence learning ecology enhance

hierarchical structure of construction – each part of the system has its own knowledge based decision

function and is built specifically to perform this function. The interaction  Civilization will cease to exist if architects couldn't adapted their designs in ecologically sound and

between the components serves the whole but we cannot say that the whole environmentally friendly approaches

emerges from the interactions between the parts  As an architect, it is important to understand how natural systems function, as many of the resources

Nature is a material for architecture are the part of natural resources and understanding the full breadth of impact the architects designs

might have is crucial

Architects can learn a lot from the concepts and principles of living systems
 The rationale for sustainable policies emerges from a clear understanding of the threat that human
such as the principles of stratification, interdependence ……
activities pose to natural systems

Ecological concepts Basic ecological concepts

Ecosystem concepts Ecosystem management concepts
What are ecological concepts (ecosystem concepts and ecosystem management concepts) ?  Levels of biological organization
 Coarse and fine filter approach
 Native species
• Ecological concepts are general understandings (or facts) about ecosystems and ecosystem  Risk is an inherent aspect of decision-making
 Keystone species, ecosystems or processes
management
 Adaptive management
 Population viability/thresholds

• Ecosystem concepts provide a foundation for developing ecological principles  Ecological resilience  Ecosystem-based management

 Disturbances
• Ecosystem management concepts are basic tools that can be applied to support some of  Protected area
 Connectivity/fragmentation
ecological applications

Ecological concepts cont.'s

Ecological concepts cont.'s
Concept 2: Native species
Concepts1:Levels of biological organization
• Native species are those that naturally exist at a given location or in a particular ecosystem – i.e., they
• Life is dynamic and involves multiscale ecological patterns and processes. Although each scale is have not been moved there by humans

important, the interdependence of scales needs to be understood and assessed in order to conserve • Native species are the foundation of natural ecosystems that sustain biological diversity.

biodiversity • Non-native species move into an ecosystem as a result of humans having moved them at some point or
having removed a natural barrier
• The cross-scale nature of ecosystems includes ecological processes that operate from centimeters and days
• Invasive alien species have the potential to displace native species and threaten ecosystems or species
to hundreds of kilometers and millennia and collectively affect biodiversity with economic or environmental harm

• Invasive alien species can be particularly damaging since they are not subject to natural predators and
diseases that keep populations of native species in check

• Some invasive aliens cause a fundamental change in ecosystem composition, structure and function

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Ecological concepts Ecological concepts cont.'s

Concept 3: A keystone species, ecosystem or process
Concept 4 : Population viability/thresholds
• A keystone species, ecosystem or process has a disproportionate influence on an ecosystem
Population viability refers to the probability of survival of a population/species in the face of ecological
• Keystone species have effects on biological communities that are disproportionate to their abundance and biomass
processes such as disturbance
• The loss of keystone species results in broader community or ecosystem-level effects

• A keystone species interacts with other species through predation, symbiotic dependencies such as plant-pollinator When the amount of habitat available declines below the “extinction threshold”, a population/species will
relationships, or ecosystem modification (e.g., cavity nesters, beaver impoundments) decline and eventually disappear
• A keystone ecosystem is particularly important because it provides habitat for a large portion or critical elements of an area’s
In addition to habitat for particular populations, a species’ survival depends on maintaining healthy genetic
biodiversity
variability
• Riparian ecosystems near streams, lakes and wetlands are considered keystone ecosystem since they cover a relatively small
area yet support a disproportionately large number of species Species-level details about movement, behavior and life history traits demonstrate that threshold responses
• Estuaries are also a keystone ecosystem because of their disproportionately large influence relative to their size and vary by species and can be difficult to detect
abundance.
Although extinction is normal in natural ecosystems, present rates of extinction have been accelerated by
• A keystone process is fundamental to the maintenance of an ecosystem
human activities
• Pollination is another keystone process

Ecological concepts Ecological concepts cont.'s

Concept 4 : Population viability/thresholds Concept 5 : Ecological resilience

The concept of minimum viable population refers to the smallest isolated population having a reasonable • Ecological resilience is the capacity of an ecosystem to cope with disturbance or stress and return to a stable

chance of surviving over time despite the foreseeable effects of demographic, environmental and genetic events state.

and natural disturbances

• The concept of ecological resilience is consistent with the notion that ecosystems are complex, dynamic and

 Therefore, in smaller populations, the reproduction and survival of individuals decreases, leading to a adaptive systems that are rarely at equilibrium; most systems can potentially exist in various states

continuing decline in population numbers. This effect may be due to a number of causes such as inbreeding or
• Ecosystems continually change in unpredictable ways in response to a changing environment.
the ability to find a mate, which may become increasingly difficult as population density decreases
• Ecological resilience concept measures the amount of stress or disruption required to transform a system that is

maintained by one set of structures and processes to a different set of structures and functions.

Ecological concepts cont.'s Ecological concept cont.'s

Concept 6 : Disturbances
Concept 5 : Ecological resilience
 Disturbances are individually distinct events, either natural or human-induced, that cause a change in the
• A resilient ecosystem can better withstand shocks and rebuild itself without collapsing into a
existing condition of an ecological system
different state
 Disturbances can be described in terms of their type, intensity, spatial extent, frequency and other factors.
• Ecosystem change can occur suddenly if the resilience that normally buffers change has been
 Natural disturbances include wildfire, flood, freshet, lake turnover, drought, wind throw, and insect and
reduced. Such changes become more likely when slow variables erode
disease outbreaks. Some “natural disturbances” may be responding to human-caused climate change

• Slow variables include the diversity of species and their abundance in the ecosystem, and regional
 Extreme natural disturbance events often characterize an ecosystem and ensure the presence of some
variability in the environment due to factors such as climate. All of these variables are affected by
species
human influence.
 Disturbance is critical to maintaining the richness of systems (e.g., riparian ecosystems) or rejuvenating

them

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Ecological concept cont.'s Ecological concept cont.'s

Concept 6 : Disturbances Concept 6 : Disturbances
• Human-induced disturbances in terrestrial ecosystems include, for example, timber harvesting, road
• The term natural range of variability is used to describe naturally occurring variation over time of the composition
building, and rural and urban development
and structure found in a system, resulting in part from sequences of disturbances.
• Human-caused aquatic disturbances include damming, water extraction from rivers and streams, wetland
drainage and pollution • Climate change will play an important role in future changes to the natural range of variability
• Human related disturbances cause lasting changes that can fundamentally alter ecosystems and modify our
• The current rate of rapid climate change has the potential to shift ecosystems out of the range of conditions they
approach to ecosystem management

• Biological legacies are the elements of a pre-disturbance ecosystem that survive to participate in its recovery experienced historically. As a result, the past will become an increasingly unreliable guide for estimating the

They are a structural consequence of the selective filter that the disturbance process imposes on the ecosystem current and future natural range of variability for an area.
• Biological legacies are critical elements of ecosystem dynamics across a broad range of ecosystems studied
• Alternatively natural range of variability could be estimated using climate models, however, it should be
Examples are large fish in freshwater systems or standing live and dead trees in forests, which are common
within the perimeter of a wildfire and play critical roles in the establishment of new forests and in sustaining recognized that a time lag would be expected as the composition and structure of an ecosystem shifts due to
biodiversity
changes in the natural range of variability

Ecological concept cont.’s Ecological concept cont.'s

Concept 8 : Coarse and fine filter approach
Concept 7 : Connectivity/fragmentation
• Coarse filter is a metaphor to express the idea that by conserving the ecological communities of a given
• Connectivity/fragmentation is the degree to which ecosystem structure facilitates or impedes the
region, the majority of species will be conserved. The coarse filter approach refers to the management of
movement of organisms between resource patches
landscapes through a network of protected areas, and management practices in the surrounding matrix
• What constitutes connectivity is scale-dependent and varies for each species depending on its habitat
that attempt to emulate and conserve natural ecological processes within the natural range variability
requirements, sensitivity to disturbance and vulnerability to human-caused mortality.
• Fine filter is a metaphor to express the idea that some species, ecosystems and features need to be
• Connectivity allows individual organisms to move in response to changing conditions, such as seasonal
conserved through individual, often localized efforts because they fall through the mesh of the coarse
cycles, a forest fire or climate change. Loss of connectivity results in fragmentation.
filter. An example is a species of conservation concern that relies on a particular habitat feature within
• The degree and characteristics of natural connectivity vary with differences in landscape type. an ecosystem for survival where the feature is not normally conserved by a coarse filter approach

• Humans can impact connectivity and cause fragmentation in ways that can adversely affect biodiversity. • Some ecologists consider the retention of biological legacies following disturbances, such as live and

• Connectivity and fragmentation are both important contributors to ecosystem function and processes. dead trees, and coarse woody debris in forested landscapes as a “medium filter” approach that
conserves stand (or site) level biodiversity

Ecological concept cont.'s Ecological concept cont.'s

Concept 10 : Adaptive management
Concept 9 : Risk is an inherent aspect of decision-making
• As a formal response to the presence of uncertainty and risk, adaptive management is a systematic learning process that
• Given the complexity and variability evident in Concepts 1, 4, 5 and 6 above, it is formally plans and monitors the outcomes of decisions to improve our ability to better manage natural resources given
never been wholly certain of the consequences of a management action uncertainty

• The options to improve decision making with incomplete knowledge include: (1) “trial and error”, in which initial
• Risk is the potential for loss or damage resulting from a particular action or decision
choices are a ‘best guess’ with later choices chosen from a subset that gives better results; (2) “passive adaptive” where
• Risk assessment takes into consideration two elements: the likelihood of an event one model is assumed to be correct; and (3) “active adaptive” where multiple alternate models are linked to policy
choices.
occurring; and the magnitude of the consequences should that event occur
• Passive adaptive management can provide an effective means of identifying the best (or at least better) practices among
• Risk assessment is a formal appraisal of these two elements. Risk management is the existing practices.

process of weighing the assessed risks against the expected benefits to make the “best” • Active adaptive management can play a particularly important role by incorporating uncertainty in a dynamic system

decision. Uncertainty is directly related to risk, for example, because an increase in and thus providing greater learning opportunities for stakeholders, scientists, managers and citizens. The concepts of
risk and uncertainty are inextricably linked to adaptive management, where learning is a key output in support of
uncertainty can result in a higher perception of risk continuous improvement in decision-making.

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Ecological concept cont.’s Ecological concepts

Concept 11 : Ecosystem-based management Concept 12 : Protected area

• Ecosystem-based management can be defined as an adaptive approach to managing human activities that • Protected area refers to any area that has some form of protection and typically has a minimal human footprint.

seeks to ensure the coexistence of healthy, fully functioning ecosystems and human communities • Protected areas are often the core of a coarse filter approach to conservation.

• The intent is to maintain those spatial and temporal characteristics of ecosystems such that component
• Protected areas are used for fine filter purposes (e.g., to protect a population of a rare species or a significant
species and ecological processes can be sustained, and human wellbeing supported and improved.
landform); to provide connectivity; to serve as benchmarks; and/or to provide for research and education

• Thus ecosystem-based management is not only necessarily place-based but also takes into account two opportunities.

opposing value systems (intrinsic ecosystem value vs. value to humans). There are many definitions of

Ecosystem-based management and several include both socio-economic and biological considerations.

Ecological principles The basic principles of ecology

1. All things are connected but the nature and strengths of those connections vary
What are ecological principles?
2. Everything must go some where
• Ecological principles are basic assumptions (or beliefs) about ecosystems and how they function 3. Nature knows best
4. Everything we do has an effect
• Ecological principles build on ecological concepts (which are understood to be true) to draw key
5. Disturbances shape the characteristics of populations, communities, and ecosystems

conclusions that can then guide human applications aimed at conserving biodiversity
6. Climate influences terrestrial, freshwater and marine ecosystems
7. Protection of species and species subdivisions will conserve genetic diversity
8. Maintaining habitat is fundamental to conserving species
9. Large areas usually contain more species than smaller areas with similar habitat

Ecological principles
Ecological principle cont.’s
Principle 1: Protection of species and species’ subdivisions will conserve genetic diversity

• At the population level, the important processes are ultimately genetic and evolutionary process because these Principle 2: Maintaining habitat is fundamental to conserving species
maintain the potential for continued existence of species and their adaptation to changing conditions
• A species habitat is the ecosystem conditions that support its life requirements. Our understanding of habitat is
• In most instances managing for genetic diversity directly is impractical and difficult to implement. The most
based on our knowledge of a species’ ecology and how that determines where a species is known to occur or
credible surrogate for sustaining genetic variability is maintaining not only species but also the spatial structure
of genetic variation within species. likely to occur

• Maintenance of populations distributed across a species’ natural range will assist in conserving genetic
• Habitat can be considered at a range of spatial and temporal scales that include specific microsites (e.g.,
variability. This ensures the continuation of locally adapted genetic variants.
occupied by certain invertebrates, bryophytes, some lichens), large heterogeneous habitats, or occupancy of
• Retaining a variety of individuals and species permits the adaptability needed to sustain ecosystem productivity
in changing environments and can also beget further diversity (future adaptability). habitat during certain time periods (e.g., breeding sites, winter range areas). Therefore conserving habitat

• Species that are collapsing towards the edge of their range and disjunction populations are also particularly requires a multi-scale approach from regions to landscapes to ecosystems to critical habitat elements, features

important to consider, given climate change, in order to conserve genetic diversity and enable adaptation. and structures

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Ecological principle cont.’s

Ecological principle cont.’s
Principle 3: Large areas usually contain more species than smaller areas with similar habitat
Principle 4: All things are connected but the nature and strength of those connections vary.
• The theory of island biogeography illustrates a basic principle that large areas usually contain more species than
smaller areas with similar habitat because they can support larger and more viable populations. • Species play many different roles in communities and ecosystems and are connected by those roles to other
species in different ways and with varying degrees of strength. It is important to understand key interactions.
• The theory holds that the number of species on an island is determined by two factors: the distance from the Some species (e.g., keystone species) have a more profound effect on ecosystems than others. Particular
mainland and island size. These would affect the rate of extinction on the islands and the level of immigration species and networks of interacting species have key, broad-scale ecosystem-level effects while others do

• Other factors being similar (including distance to the mainland), on smaller islands the chance of extinction is not.

greater than on larger ones • The ways in which species interact vary in addition to the strengths of those interactions. Species can be
predator and/or prey, mutualist or synergist. Mutualist species provide a mutually beneficial association for
• This is one reason why larger islands can hold more species than smaller ones. In the context of applying the
each other such as fungi that colonize plant roots and aid in the uptake of soil mineral nutrients. Synergistic
theory more broadly, the “island” can be any area of habitat surrounded by areas unsuitable for the species on the
species create an effect greater than that predicted by the sum of effects each is able to create independently.
island. Therefore a system of areas conserved for biodiversity that includes large areas can effectively support
• The key issue is that it is important to determine which among the many interactions are the strong ones
more viable populations
because those are the ones toward which attention needs to be directed.

Ecological principles Ecological principle cont.’s

Principle 5 : Disturbances shape the characteristics of populations, communities, and ecosystems. Principle 5 : Disturbances shape the characteristics of populations, communities, and ecosystems.

• The type, intensity, frequency and duration of disturbances shape the characteristics of populations, • The type, intensity, frequency and duration of disturbances shape the characteristics of populations, communities
and ecosystems including their size, shape and spatial relationships
communities and ecosystems including their size, shape and spatial relationships.
• Natural disturbances have played a key role in forming and maintaining natural ecosystems by influencing their
• Natural disturbances have played a key role in forming and maintaining natural ecosystems by influencing
structure including the size, shape and distribution of patches
their structure including the size, shape and distribution of patches
• The more regions, landscapes, ecosystems and local habitat elements resemble those that were established from

• The more regions, landscapes, ecosystems and local habitat elements resemble those that were established natural disturbances, the greater the probability that native species and ecological processes will be maintained.

from natural disturbances, the greater the probability that native species and ecological processes will be • This approach can be strengthened by developing an improved understanding of how ecosystems respond to both
natural and human disturbances, thus creating opportunities to build resilience in the system
maintained.

• This approach can be strengthened by developing an improved understanding of how ecosystems respond

to both natural and human disturbances, thus creating opportunities to build resilience in the system.

Ecological principles
Ecological principles
Principle 5 : Disturbances shape the characteristics of populations, communities, and ecosystems.
Principle 6: Climate influences terrestrial, freshwater and marine ecosystems
• Since ecosystems can change dramatically at the site level due to natural disturbances, considering their
composition and structure of habitats at the landscape-level may be more useful. For terrestrial ecosystems, this • Climate is usually defined as all of the states of the atmosphere seen at a place over many years.
means taking into account: • Climate has a dominant effect on biodiversity as it influences meteorological variables like temperature,
 species composition precipitation and wind with consequences for many ecological and physical processes, such as photosynthesis and

 the amount and patch size distribution fire behavior. Because of the key role of climate, rapid climate change profoundly changes ecosystems.

 the variety and proportion of seral stages of terrestrial habitat from young to old • For example, climate change enables population outbreaks in some species

 the diversity of within community structure • Alterations to stream flow and timing of freshet resulting from climate change affects fish and waterfowl.
• It is important to recognize that for some less mobile species, distribution of habitat is potentially as influential as • A critical question therefore is: How should anticipated climate changes influence current conservation decisions
amount of habitat (i.e., patch size; connectivity). so that ecosystems remain resilient in the future?

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Architectures The environment

 encompasses everything
What could architects learn from ecological concepts? that is around us

 Everything connected
What could architects learn from ecological principles such as
with every other things,
fluctuations, stratification, and interdependence? but the extents and
strengths vary

 Ecology is the study of

the complex
interrelationships

Ecology of individuals Organisms/species

 Individuals identified by their genetic makeup,
 the heart of ecology lies in the relationship between organisms and their
behaviour, physical characteristics and ability to
environments breed with one another

 American biologist Theodosius Dobzhansky famously said: ‘Nothing in biology makes  Explain the principles of natural selection and the
survival of the fittest
sense, except in the light of evolution’
 Different sorts of species make their life possible in particular
environments while failure to live in other environments. Why?
 Likewise, nothing in ecology make sense , except in light of evoluation  Organism X is adapted to’ followed by a description of where the
organism is found. Thus, we often hear that ‘fish are adapted to live
in water’, or ‘cacti are adapted to live in conditions of drought’.
 Fish have characteristics that allow them to live in water (and
perhaps exclude them from other environments) or that cacti have
characteristics that allow them to live where water is scarce

Organisms/species Factors affecting the distribution of organisms

How natural selection works?
 Biotic Abiotic factors
1. The individuals that make up a population of a species are not
identical: they vary in size, rate of development, response to  Includes all living organisms  Air
temperature, and so on.
2 Some Indivitual variations are heritable. The characteristics of
which interact with each other  Water
an individual are determined to some extent by its genetic make-up. and with the abiotic
Individuals receive their genes from their ancestors and therefore components  Temperature
tend to share their characteristics
3 All populations have the potential to populate the whole earth,  predation  Light
and they would do so if each individual survived and each
individual produced its maximum number of descendants. But they  Competation  Soil
do not: many individuals die prior to reproduction, and most (if not
all) reproduce at a less than maximal rate.
 parasitism  Salinity
4 Different ancestors leave different numbers of descendants. This  Disease
means much more than saying that different individuals produce
different numbers of offspring. It includes also the chances of
survival of offspring to reproductive age, the survival and
reproduction of the progeny of these offspring, the survival and
reproduction of their offspring in turn, and so on.
5 Finally, the number of descendants that an individual leaves
depends, not entirely but crucially, on the interaction between
the characteristics of the individual and its environment

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Why a species has failed to colonize a particular habitat? Dispersal factors

 The absence of a species in a particular area may simply be due to the fact that the species has
failed to reach that area

 Ecologists call the ability and propensity of a species to disperse is a measure of the species'
vagility

 Species with high vagility are both willing and capable of travelling long distances

Behavioural factors Predation

 Pill bugs (Porcellio scaber) in a humidity gradient
move at random with respect to the gradient  Predation can also limit the distribution of a species
 Move more quickly in dry areas which causes them
to move out of the unsuitable environment  Deep water do have small number of macroinvertebrates due to fish
 Once they find themselves in a high humidity predation
environment they slow down and become
motionless
 This type of orientation is known as a kinesis
(orientation without respect to the direction of the
stimulus).

Parasitism Organism response to environmental factors

 Tsetse flies (Glossinia) occupy 4 million square miles of Africa  Organisms differ widely in response to in environmental factors.

 The tsetse fly is a vector for African Sleeping Sickness in humans and  Some species are extremely sensitivity to even slight environmental
in domestic animals changes, while others have the ability to modulate their metabolic

 1/4 of Africa can have no domestic animals other than poultry. process and cope with these changes.

 Salamanders reared in oxygen- deficient water develop larger gills

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Cont.'s Adaptations
 If the temperature in the nest is less than 32 degrees Celsius, the  Physiological or morphological features or form of behaviour used to
baby crocodiles will be female explain the ability of an organism to live where it does

 If the temperature is between 32 and 33 degrees the babies will be  An inherited characteristics that enhance an organism’s ability to
male survive and reproduce in a given environment

Adaptations cont’s Osmoregulation

 Organisms that leave few or no offspring contribute little or nothing to

the gene pool and so are considered less fit.

 The number of its descendants that influences the heritable

characteristics of the population.

 The differential reproductive success or fitness of individuals

organisms comes about through the process of natural selection

Tolerance Tolerance

 The adaptation of an organism to its environment is exhibited by its

ability to function between some upper and lower limits in a range of
environmental conditions

 Goldfish prefers temperatures between 6 and 34° C

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Law of the minimum (Liebig's Law ) Ecology of Populations

 Population is generally a group of individuals of a

 The function of an organism is controlled or limited by that
particular species inhabiting the same area at a specific
essential environmental factors or combination of factors
time.
present in the least favorable amount
 Defined within some kind of physiographic region such
 The rate of growth of each organism is limited by whatever
as a mountain range or contiguous habitat
essential nutrient is present in a minimal amount
 Population ecology is the study of population in relation

to the environment, including environmental influences

on population density, distribution, age structure and

population size

Population characteristics
Population size

• Size
• Density Every population has a specific size and specific geographical boundaries
• Distribution
Total size is generally expressed as the number of individuals in a population
• Age structure
• Natality
 Population size increases and decreases over time due to resource
• Mortality
• Life tables availability, competition, parasitism, predation, climate, etc. that usually

operate in an ecosystem to keep populations within certain boundaries

Population growth
Population density

• Accurately population can be estimated

Density is more informative estimates of any population
r = (b – d) + (i – e)
• Where, r = Population growth  Density of the population is expressed as the number of individuals of a
• b = Natality / Birth rate
species per unit area or volume of the environment
• d = Mortality / Death rate
• i = Immigration rate Larger organisms like trees are expressed as 500 trees per hectare, whereas
• e = Emigration rate
• If value of r is (+); population is increasing
smaller ones like phytoplankton can be represented per cubic meter of water
• If value of r is (-); population is shrinking In terms of weight, density can be expressed as 100 pounds of fish per
• If value of r is (0); population is constant
hectare of water surface

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Population density Population density

• Crude density: it is the density in which number or biomass of the

individuals of the population is expressed per unit total space

• Ecological density: it is the density in which number or biomass of the

individuals is expressed per unit of habitat space i.e. available area or the
volume that can actually be colonized by the population

• The distinction between crude density and specific density becomes important
due to the fact that organisms in nature generally grow into groups and are
Kahl’s experiment (1964) on Fish Density Showing Difference between Crude density
rarely found as uniformly distributed and Ecological Density

Population distribution Population age structure

• The spatial arrangement of individuals
• Age distribution is very important
• Random distribution occurs in the absence of strong attraction or
because it influences both, natality as
repulsion among individuals in a population, or when key physical or
chemical factors are relatively homogeneously distributed well as mortality of the population.

• Birth rate, death rate, immigration and

• Uniform distribution is rarely observed in nature but is common in managed
systems like cropland. Some plants secrete chemicals that inhibit the germination
emigration determine age distribution of
and growth of nearby competitor which result in even distribution of individuals. a population
Animal with territorial behavior show this kind of dispersion

• Clumped distribution : most of the populations exhibit this type of distribution to

• The ratio of the various age groups in a
some extent. In this type, the individuals are aggregated into patches. Such population determines the current
aggregation may result from social aggregation or due to most favorable
reproductive status of the population.
environment for the concerned population

Natality (Birth Rate) Mortality (Death Rate)

• Maximum or absolute or physiological natality • Mortality can be expressed as the number of individuals dying in a given period

• Ecological or realized natality • Minimum mortality: It is also called specific or potential mortality. It represents the

• ΔNn / Δt = the absolute natality rate theoretical minimum loss under ideal or non-limiting conditions. It is a constant for a

• Where, population. Thus, even under the best conditions, individuals would die of ‘old age’

• N = Initial number of organisms determined by their physiological longevity.

• n = New individuals in the population • Ecological or realized mortality: it is the actual loss of individuals under a given

• t = Time environmental condition. It is not a constant and varies with population and environmental

conditions

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Population life Tables Survivorship curves

• A graphic way of representing the data in a life table is a survivorship curve
• A life table is an age-specific summary of the survival pattern of a population
• Survivorship curves represent age-specific patterns of death for a given population in a given
• Information on natality and mortality in different ages and sexes can be combined in the environment

form of life tables • Each species has a characteristic curve of survivorship

• A survivorship curve is a plot of the numbers or proportion of individuals in a cohort of 1,000

• The best way to construct a life table is to follow the fate of a cohort, a group of individuals individuals still alive at each age

of the same age, from birth throughout their lifetimes until all are dead. • There are several patterns of survivorship exhibited by natural populations

• In population ecology, survival rates are of much interest than the death rates
• To build a life table, we need to determine the number of individuals that die in each age
• Survival rates or the pattern of mortality with age is best illustrated by survivorship curves.
group and calculate the proportion of the cohort surviving from one age to the next • These curves represent the different nature of survivors in different types of population

Population growth

• Populations grow, shrink, or remain stable, depending on rates of birth, death, immigration,
and emigration
r = (b – d) + (i – e)
• Where, r = Population growth
• b = Natality / Birth rate
• d = Mortality / Death rate
• i = Immigration rate
• e = Emigration rate
• If value of r is (+); population is increasing
• If value of r is (-); population is shrinking
• If value of r is (0); population is constant

Population growth models Exponential growth model

• This model is known as a J-curve growth model • Population growth curves show change in
• According to the model, population is growing at population size over time
• Scots pine shows exponential growth
• Exponential growth model its full biotic potential
• Biotic potential is maximum possible growth rate
of a population in absence of limitations to
growth
• Logistic growth model

• These models represent two different growth patterns or Strategies of

populations

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Exponential growth model

Exponential growth model
Can populations grow forever? If yes why ? If no Why?

Density dependent factors?

Density independent factors?
Ecological carrying capacity ?

Exponential population growth pattern

Oscillations:
Population growth: Oscillations
• Some populations fluctuate continually above and below carrying
•Populations overshoot the carrying capacity and capacity, as with this mite
experience a dieback

• Can be regular or irregular

• Overshoot: when a population surpasses the

carrying capacity of its environment or population
explosion

• Dieback: Population crash

Population growth: dampening oscillations r-Selected species growth rate can be best describe by exponential population growth model

• r = Growth rate
• In some populations, oscillations dampen, as population size settles toward • Reproduce young
carrying capacity, as with this beetle • High reproductive rates
• Many small offspring
• Short-lived
• Found in unstable or unpredictable
environments
• Examples of r-selected species are
weeds, bacteria, insects, algae, small
mammals

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Logistic population growth model K-Selected Species growth rate can be best describe by logistic population growth model

• K = Carrying Capacity
• Also known as S –curve • Reproduce later in life
• Low reproductive rates
• Growth slows as the • Fewer large offspring
• High parental care
population approaches • Long-lived
• Stable or predictable environments
carrying Capacity • Examples of K-Selected Species are elephants,
great apes, hippopotamus, whales, humans
• Populations stabilize at
carrying capacity

What determines population size or carrying capacity?

• Environmental Resistance:
All the limiting factors that
tend to reduce population
growth rates

• Balance between biotic

potential and environmental
resistance determines growth
rate

Community Ecology The characteristics of communities

Community ecology is study of the organization and functioning of communities Each biotic community characterized by diversity, density, dominance, composition and stratification
1. Species diversity: a biotic community has producer, consumer and decomposer. Within these species
Community ecology represents the population of all species living and interacting in an area at a particular time diversities, some populations influenced more than others in the community because they share a higher % of
energy flow
In ecology , communities are assemblages of interacting populations of two or more species occupying the same
2. Growth and structure: Community is usually described in term of growth forms
geographical area or habitat at a particular time
3. Dominance: in each community, one or a few species dominate either in numbers or in physical
characteristics or both over the other species. The dominant species are called ‘ecological dominants
Each community has its special limit. Sometimes the boundary between two communities may be very sharp or
4. Successions: it is very important in development of community. Community develops as a result of
gradual directional change in it with time
The transitional zone or junction between two or more diverse communities is called ecotone 5. Trophic levels: there are 3 broad trophic levels in a community which are producers, consumers and
decomposers
The ecotone harbors a community termed ecotonal community with organisms of over lapping communities and  The food produced by the green plants is consumed directly or indirectly by all kinds of animals. So these
some of unique types are known as consumers
 The dead bodies and excreta of both producers and consumers are decomposed by microbes into simple
substances

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Elements of communities Elements of communities

 Trophic pyramids and the flow of energy

 All biological communities have a basic structure of interaction that forms a trophic An ecological pyramid is a graphical representation of the relationship between different
pyramid

 The trophic pyramid is made up of trophic levels, and food energy is passed from one level organisms in an ecosystem. Each of the bars that make up the pyramid represents a different
to the next along the food chain

 The trophic level of an organism is the position it occupies in a food web trophic level, and their order, which is based on who eats whom, represents the flow of energy
 The base of the pyramid is composed of species called autotrophs, the
 Types of ecological pyramids: the pyramid of number, the pyramid of biomass, the pyramid
primary producers of the ecosystem

 Primary producers harness solar energy by photosynthesis to make organic of energy

substances from inorganic ones

 All organisms, excluding primary producers, in the ecosystem are consumers

and called heterotrophs, which either directly or indirectly depend on the
producers for food energy

The pyramid of number The pyramid of biomass

 A pyramid of numbers shows the number of A pyramid of biomass shows the total biomass of the

individual organisms involved at each trophic level in organisms involved at each trophic level of an

ecosystem
an ecosystem
These pyramids are not necessarily upright pyramid
 The pyramids are not necessarily upright
There can be lower amounts of biomass at the

 In some ecosystems there can be more primary bottom of the pyramid if the rate of primary

consumers than producers production per unit biomass is high.

The pyramid of energy Cont.’s

A pyramid of energy represents how much energy is retained or  Within all biological communities, energy at each trophic level is lost in the form of heat (as much

stored in the form of new biomass at each trophic level in an as 80 to 90 percent). This is because of that organisms expend energy for metabolic processes such as
ecosystem
staying warm and digesting food or movement
 Typically, about 10% of the energy is transferred from one

trophic level to the next, thus preventing a large number of  The higher the organism position on the trophic pyramid, the less energy is available to it

trophic levels
 Herbivores and detritivores (primary consumers) have less available energy than plants
Energy pyramids are necessarily upright in healthy

ecosystems, that is, there must always be more energy available  The carnivores that feed on herbivores and detritivores (secondary consumers) and those that eat

at a given level of the pyramid to support the energy and biomass

other carnivores (tertiary consumers) have the least amount of available energy
requirement of the next trophic level

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Cont.’s Cont.’s
The pyramid structure of communities
• Primary Producers are plants and algae that make food via photosynthesis

The organisms that make up the base level of the pyramid vary from community
• Herbivores: feed on primary producers
to community
• Carnivores (predators): feed on herbivores.

In terrestrial communities, multicellular plants generally form the base of the
• Omnivores : feed on plants and animals

pyramid

 In freshwater lakes a combination of multicellular plants and single celled algae

constitute the first trophic level

 The trophic structure of the ocean is built on the phytoplankton

cont.'s Food chains and food webs

Food chains and food webs

Because all species are specialized in their diets, each trophic

pyramid is made up of a series of interconnected feeding relationships called

food chains

 Species can be grouped according to where in the community they obtain

their food, and groups can be linked together by food chain, where each link

comprises a different trophic level.

 Food chains combine into highly complex food webs. Even a simplified food

web can show a complicated network of trophic relationships

 Disturbing food chains and foods could lead to negative cascade impacts

 How could architects' activities affect the natural food change and food
Generalized aquatic food web.
webs?

Size of communities Structure of communities

• Communities may be small, consisting a few species populations in • The community structures, composition and other characteristics can be readily described by visual observation

without actual measurement

a small space, or large, comprising several species populations in a
• Communities usually categories by the ecologists in various ways primarily based of habitat features like water
large area
availability, high exposure of light , or other habitat features

• Very small sized communities are the groups of microbes in such • For example , depending on the amount of water availability, plant communities may be hydrophytic (aquatic

microhabitats as leaf surface, fallen log, litter, soil etc habitats), mesophytic (moderately moist soil habitat) and xerophytic (dry or arid habitat)

• Habitat area and stability, resource availability, and species interactions are major factors that affect community

structure. Habitat area affects the pool of species available and the heterogeneity of habitat conditions and resources.

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Temporal distribution of communities

Spatial community heterogeneities
• Temporal refers to the timing of appearance and activity of species. These species called
• The way of ultimate distribution of species is
temporal species
relative to each other. In a particular habitat • For example many desert plants and animals are dormant most of the year. They emerge or
shared by several species, each of the species is germinate in response to seasonal rains. Other plants stick around year around , having
evolved adaptation to resist drought
usually confined to its own microhabitat or spatial

• For example the tropical forest trees are stratified

into several different levels ,each level is the habitat

of distinct collection of species

Patterns of community structure Patterns of community structure : primary succession

• Primary succession occurs in essentially lifeless areas regions in which the soil is incapable of sustaining
• Succession occurs in predictable stages , at each stage different species plants and animals
life as a result of such factors as lava flows, newly formed sand dunes
may be present

• As succession progresses ,new organisms move in , others may die or move out

• The first species to take hold in an area called Pioneer species

• Two types of succession: primary and secondary succession

Patterns of community structure : primary succession Patterns of community structure : primary succession

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Patterns of community structure : secondary succession Patterns of community structure : secondary succession

• Secondary succession occurs in areas where a community that previously existed but

has been removed by such as a fire or a storm which create patches of habitat that are

colonized by early successional species.

• Depending on the extent of the disturbance, some species may survive, and other

species may be recolonized from nearby habitats

• For example, many plant species in fire-prone environments have seeds that remain

dormant within the soil until the heat of a fire stimulates them to germinate

Patterns of community structure : secondary succession Community structure in early successional stage

Patterns of community Structure: the process of succession Patterns of community Structure: Community equilibrium and species diversity
• The sequential progression of species during succession at any landforms is
not random • In some environments, succession reaches a climax, producing a stable community
• At every stage of succession certain species have evolved life histories to exploit dominated by a small number of prominent species. This state of equilibrium, called the
the particular conditions of the community climax community, is thought to result when the web of biotic interactions becomes so
• Initially only a small number of species from surrounding habitats are capable of
intricate that no other species can be admitted
thriving in a disturbed habitat
• As new plant species take hold, they modify the habitat by altering such things • Diverse communities are healthy communities
as the amount of shade on the ground or the mineral composition of the soil
• species-rich communities are able to recover faster from disturbances than species-poor
• These changes allow other species that are better suited to this modified habitat
to succeed the old species. These newer species are superseded, in turn, by still newer communities
species. A similar succession of animal species occurs, and interactions between
plants, animals, and environment influence the pattern and rate of successional • The relationship between species diversity and community stability highlights the need
change to maintain the greatest richness possible within biological communities.

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Species interactions Interspecific interactions and the organization of Communities

• Structures arise within communities as species interact, and food chains, food webs and • The interactive relationships that arise between populations of different species form the
interactive web of communities.
other interactive webs are created
• These interactions range from antagonistic to cooperative and have either positive, negative,
• As populations of species interact with one another, they form biological communities. or neutral effects on the species involved

• The number of interacting species in these communities and the complexity of their • In antagonistic relationships the interaction is harm to individuals of either one or both
species
relationships exemplify what is meant by the term biodiversity
• In commensal relationships (commensalism) one species benefits while the other remains
• Why do we worry about the existence of high biodiversity ?! unaffected; and in mutualistic relationships (mutualism) both species benefit

Interspecific interactions and the organization of Communities Species interactions types: antagonism (predation, parasitism and grazing)
• The organization and stability of biological communities results from the mix of the • Although mutualisms are common in all biological communities, they occur side by side
different kinds of interaction. with a wide array of antagonistic interactions

• These relationships between species are not static; they are a part of the ongoing • One way of understanding the diversity of antagonistic interactions is through the kinds of
process of the evolution of interactions hosts or prey that species attack.

• As interactions between species evolve, relationships may shift from antagonism to • Carnivores attack animals, herbivores attack plants, and fungivores attack fungi. Other
commensalism to mutualism species are omnivorous, attacking a wide range of plants, animals, and fungi.

• As a result, the organization of biological communities is no more fixed than are the • Regardless of the kinds of foods they eat, however, there are some general patterns in which
characteristics of the species or their environments. species interact. Parasitism, grazing, and predation are the three major ways in which species
feed on one another. .

Predation Predation

• Predation is a biological interaction where a predator (an organism, often an animal) kills and

eats its prey (another organism). Predators are adapted and often highly specialized for

hunting.

• Specialization in predation: most predators attack more than one prey species. Nevertheless,

there are some ecological conditions that have permitted the evolution of highly specialized

predators that attack only a few prey species.

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Species interactions: parasitism Parasitism

• Parasitism is the relationship between the parasite and the host • Specialization in parasites: the parasites often favors extreme specialization to
• Parasitism is thought to be the most common way of life
a single host or alternation among small group of hosts
• Parasites are organisms that live in or on another organism and feed on it
• Living for a long period of time on a single host, a parasite must remain
without immediately killing it.
attached within or on its host, avoid the defenses of its host, and obtain all its

nutrition from that host.

Grazing Competition

Grazing is a method of feeding in which a herbivore feeds on plants such as grasses, or other • Competition is a powerful form of interaction in the organization of communities, but it

multicellular organisms such as algae differs from other interactions in that no species benefits from the interaction

• Grazing differs from true predation because the organism being grazed upon is not generally • In competitive interactions, species evolve either to avoid each other, to tolerate the

killed. presence of the other or to aggressively exclude the other

• Grazing differs from parasitism as the two organisms live together in a constant state of • Species compete for almost every kind of resource, and the same two species may

physical externality compete for different resources in different environments., but often one resource, called
the limiting resource because it limits the population growth of each species

• Limiting sources are factors that affect the population size of a species in a specific
environment

Competitive Exclusion Principle Mutualism

• 2 species cannot occupy the same niche in same community at the same time • Mutualism: a cooperative partnership between two species in which
both species benefit where is one species acts as the host, and the
• One will win, the other will die, migrate, or adapt other plays the role of visitor or resident. Such as Plants are hosts for
insects that pollinate them or eat their fruit and for microorganisms
• Competitive Exclusion Principle could lead to resource partitioning
that attach themselves to their roots.

• Resource Partitioning – differentiation of niches to allow similar species to coexist in a • The pervasiveness of mutualism: some mutualistic relationships are

community (space, behavior, temporal) so pervasive that they affect almost all life-forms Lichen( algae and fungi
• Mutualistic associations between animals and microorganisms are
• Character displacement: body changes as a result of resource partitioning
equally important to the structure of communities.

• Change of niches: fundamental and realize niches • E. coli with a human body s relationships could be mutualism,

• Fundamental niche – the niche a species could theoretically occupy, without competitors commensalism, parasitism and habitation

• Realized niche – the niche a species actually occupies, with competitors

Escherichia coli Termite

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Commensalism Ecosystem Ecology

• Commensalism: it is a symbiotic species interaction in which • What is an Ecosystem?
Commensalism benefits one organism one of the organisms neither
• An ecological unit consisting of both the biotic communities and the nonliving (abiotic) environment, which interact to produce a
benefited or harmed but the other benefits stable system

• Commensalism occurs when one organism takes benefits by interacting • All life forms within each ecosystem interact with each other and the non-living elements of the ecosystem like climate, precipitation, and
with another organism by which the host organism is not affected soil

• The commensal organism may depend on its host for food, shelter, • An ecosystem can be very small such as a puddle or under a rock.
support, transport, or a combination of these.
• An ecosystem can also be as big as an ocean or a desert
• A good example is a remora living with a shark. Remoras eat leftover
• All things (biotic and abiotic) must work together to provide a good living environment.
food from the shark. The shark is not affected in the process, as remoras
• For example, if there is not enough water, plants and animals will die and the ecosystem will not exist
eat only leftover food of the shark, which does not deplete the shark's

resources.

Ecosystem functions and processes Biogeochemical cycles

• The four fundamental ecological processes of ecosystems are the water cycle, biogeochemical
• In ecology , a biogeochemical cycle or cycling of substances is a pathway by which a
cycling, energy flow and community dynamics

• Ecosystem functions can be defined by the ecological processes that control the fluxes of energy, chemical substance moves through biotic (biosphere) and abiotic (lithosphere, atmosphere,
nutrients and organic matter through an environment”
and hydrosphere) compartments of Earth
• Functions within the ecosystem that help maintain the Earth's natural balance such as primary
production, decomposition of dead matter and nutrient recycling
• All chemical elements occurring in organisms are part of biogeochemical cycles. In addition
to being a part of living organisms, these chemical elements also cycle through abiotic
• Chemical elements and compounds are vital for the processes of life
factors of ecosystems such as water, land , and/or the air
• Living organisms expend energy to extract chemicals from their environment, they hold on to
them and use them for a period, then lose them again • Ecological systems have many biogeochemical cycles operating as a part of the system, for
• The activities of organisms profoundly influence the patterns of flux of chemical matter in the example the water cycle, the carbon cycle, the nitrogen cycle, phosphorous cycle
biosphere
• Energy cannot be cycled and reused; matter can recycle in an ecosystem

Fundamental cycles of water

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How human affect ecosystems process and functions

• Human activities imbalance the integrity of the biological, chemical and

physical components of an ecosystem and the stability of natural processes
and functions

• How the work of architects affect ecosystem processes

• How the works of architects affect ecological functions?

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