Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Mathematics
A collection of informal reports and seminars
Edited by A. Dold, Heidelberg and B. Eckmann, Z0rich
104
i i
Eigenfunction Branches of
Nonlinear Operators,
and their Bifurcations
$
Springer-Verlag
Berlin-Heidelberg- New York 1969
Work performed underthe auspices of the U. S. Atomic
Energy Commission
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be translated or reproduced in any form without written permission from
Springer Verlag. @ by Springer.Verlag Berlin" Heidelberg 1969
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 70-97958 • Printed in Germany. Title No. 3710
-1 -
TABLE OF CONT~VgS
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I. An Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. T h e E x t e n s i o n of B r a n c h e s o f S o l u t i o n s for N o n l i n e a r Equa-
t i o n s in B a n ~ c h S l ~ c e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii
3. D e v e l o p m e n t of B r a n c h e s o f S o l u t i o n s for N o n l i n e a r Equa-
tions near an Exceptional Point. Bifurcation Theory . . . 18
4. S o l u t i o n of t h e B i f u r c a t i o n E q u a t i o n in t h e C a s e n = i;
Bifurcation at the Origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
. T h e E i g e n v a l u e Problem; H a m m e r s t e i n Operators; S u b l i n e a r
a n d S u p e r l l n e s r Operators; O s c i l l a t i o n K e r n e l s . . . . . . 43
6. O n t h e E x t e n s i o n o f B r a n c h e s of E i g e n f u n c t i o n s ; C o n d i t i o n s
Preventing Secondary BifUrcation of Brancke~ . . . ~ . . . 58
7. E x t e n s i o n o f B r a n c h e s of E i g e n f u m c t i o n s o f H a m m e r s t e i n
Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8O
8. T h e E x a m p l e o f S e c t i o n l, R e c o n s i d e r e d . . . . . . . . . .
Bibliogral~hy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . if4
Additional References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Zl6
Appendix: A n o t h e r B i f u r c a t i o n Method; t h e E x a m p l e of
S e c t i o n i~ R e c o n s i d e r e d A g a i n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
120
-2-
INTRODUCTION
telle Research Center in Geneva. The material is taken from the re-
Los Alamos, New Mexico. Much of this material had previously been pub-
lished in the open literature (see the Bibliography). This effort was
sired end; but in the newer Im~rts of the theory, as with secondary bii%xrca-
tion in these notes, progress seems to be made more easily with concrete
oscillation kernels.
propriate use of Sobolev Sl~Ces to render the operators bounded, have pre-
where LI, L2 are linear and NI, N 2 are nonlinear. Such is the case with
M. S. Berger [ref. 4]. In these notes we had the less ambitious goal of
equation
the form of the kernel, any solution of eq. (I.i) is necessarily of the
form O(s) = A sin s + B sin 2s with undetermined constants A,B (which will
(i.i), we have
2
A[A sin s + B sin 2s] = fo [a sin s sin t + b sin 2s sin 2t]
in°I A÷ A3÷ 21
in2sI A2 ÷ 31
where use has been made of the following values of integrals:
-5-
~o sin t sin 2t d t = ~
~o
sin3t sin 2t dt =
f
=o
~ sin t sin32t dt = O.
AA = aA + ~ aA3 + dAB 2
(1.2)
bB 3 .
cancel A ~ 0 to obtain
k=a+~aA 2
whence
cancel B ~ 0 to obtain
k = b + @ bB 2
whence
B=± 2
~ A 2 + 2~ B2 k
a
i
(1.3)
=~-1.
Solving, we get
Lab
~3(s,~ ) = 4- 23 ~J~zl-b
ab A-I sin s 4- ~2 ~-a
~A-I sin 2s. (1.~,)
Clearly 2a-b > 0 since we assumed that b < a. Hence the question of whether
or not solutions of the form (1.4) can be real hinges upon whether or not
2b-a > 0, or b > ~i • We have the following cases:
(i.i) are the trivial solution ~(spk) • O, and the two main branches:
~ sin 2s.
-7-
The solutions q~l and q02 branch away from the trivial solution q0 m 0 at
b
> sin 2 s
b<±
O- 2
sin s
FIG. 1.1a.
I1¢11 -- , / ~ + B2
l
0 b
_
FIG • l.lb.
o
:~ A
_b<±
0 - 2
-8-
In Fig. l.la we simply plot the two normal modes vs. the l~rameter k,
which serves well for eq. (1.1). In more general problems, as for
Fig. 1.1b must be used, where some norm of the solution is plotted vs.
the parameter k.
b 1
Under Case II above, i .e. when ~ > ~ , we again have the trivial
l(S,x) = 4. sin s
~2(s,k ) = 4. 2 ~ . I sin 2s
a third type of solution branch appears, namely that in eq. (1.4). Note
ab ab
that as k ~ ~ , k > ~ , the coefficients abJ2b'a k - l -
¥ 0 and
~ 2 aab
- b k -i ~ ~¥ 2b-a " On the other hand note that - i T 2b-a as
2 J2a-b ..... 2
~3+(s,~.) = -~ ¥ - y ~ ~-i sin s 4- ~ V ab sin 2s
sub-branch (twig)
~i '
b 1
We have h~e, under Case II, when ~ > ~ , the ~ ~ of "secondary
J
b
sin
/
$
> sin 2s
b I
-~>~
FIG. 1.2a.
: /AZ+B 2
I
0
FIG. 1.2b.
2b -0
b>±
o 2
- I0
loci in (k, sin s, sin 2s) space. There are two main branches: ~01(s,A)
splits off from the trivial solution ~-- 0 at k = a, and its two l~Lrts
and its two parts ~2+,~2" differ only in sign. a and b on the k axis are
If ~b > ~1 , i .e. Case II, two sub-branches or twigs split away from
b~l b~l b 1
~ , or ~ ~ . The c o n d l t i o m ~ ~ in this simple problem is a
example shows.
The example of this section is such that the solutions can be com-
Banach Sl~.qes.
In this s e c t i o n we c o n s i d e r g e n e r a l bounded c o n t i n u o u s l y F r ~ c h e t - d i f -
xx -- ~(x) + r , (2.1)
Using the definition of the Fr~chet derivative T' (xo) [ref. i~; p. 183]~
IIRlcxo,h)ll
il~il ~ - o
as llhll- o. u.~ the a s ~ = ~ i ~ that Xo, X o ~ t i s ~ eq. (2.1) we have
Since T' (xo) is a bounded linear transform~ti~ such that T' (Xo)h E X
tions will he discussed in the next section. Thus Ao I - T' (xO) has a con-
Hence
- T' (Xo)(hi-h2),
so that
+ll~i(~o+h2,hi'H2~l~
{I1~' C~o+H2)-T'(xoIll -.0
Theorem 2.2: There exist positive constants c,d such that for 151 < c,
the mapping h* = MFs(h) carries the ball [hlI ~ d into itself, and is con-
tracting thereon.
Proof: We have
I IR~ (x ,h)ll
IIh*ll < II1~I 151!IXo!l + 15II!h!l + - ~ !lhll I •
First let us take d I > 0 small enough that
!IR~<~o,h)11
]]h~ < 2~ for IlhLI ~ d I,
Again,
ing Le.m~ 2.1, we can take positive constants c2,d2 small enough that
i
II~I"A(5,hl,h 2) < ~ when 151 < 82, llhlllg d2, IIh211 < d 2. Then Ilhl*-h2*!l g
i
llhl-h211 for 151 < 52, llhl!l~ d2, llh211< d2, which shows that for 151 < 52,
IIhll < d into itself and is also contracting thereon, provided 151 < c.
This proves the theorem.
Xo,k o, x o EX, is a solution pair for eq. (2.1). Then there exist posi-
ball !lhll ~ d, ~ I d e d 181 < e. T h ~ the pair Xo+h, ~o~ solves ~ . (2.1).
The constants c,d can be taken so that the operator (ko+5)I-T' (Xo+h) has a
bounded inverse for llhll g d, 151 < c. The function h(5) solving eq. (2.2)
~99f: Let Cl, d I be the constants of Theorem 2.2. Use of Theorem 2.2 and
the Contraction Mapping Principle [ref. 19, P. 27] yields the existence and
uniqueness of h(5) E X, 151 < 51, i.e., the solution of eq. (2.3). Since
eq. (2.2) and eq. (2.3) are equivalent, the pair 5,h solves eq. (2.2) and
the pair Xo+h , ko445 solves eq. (2.1). By a known result [ref. 15, P- 92,
Th. 3'] there exist positive constants c2,d 2 such that (ko+5)I-Tt (Xo+g)
has a bounded inverse provided 151 < c2, llgll < d 2" If we take c = min(cl, c2)
and d = ~n(dl, d2), then for 151 < c there exists a solution pair Xo+h(5) ,
kO + ~ satisfying eq. (2.1), unique in the ball !lhll < d, and such that
2II~1 "ll~o+d!l'ts~'l
w h i t e hC~), 151 < c, is conti~uo~. ~e ~eor~ is now ~o~en.
We now study how a solution of eq. (2.1), x(k), valid in a neighbor-
ber system; for w q W, we denote the norm by II~l = ll~l + Ikl where x q X,
such that every neighborhood contains points of W (O), i.e., w B ~ W (°) but
then there exists a unique sheet W (°) of solutions with the following prop-
erties:
a) W( ° ) contains w .
o
c) The o~ly boundary points (xB,k B) of the sheet W (°) are exceptional
solutions W (I) having properties a) and b). Let W (°) be the "least
solutions of eq. (2.1) follows from Theorem 2.3 and property b).
in such a way tb~t the newly extended sheet satisfies a) and b), contra-
(2.1) having properties a)~ b) and c). Then W (2) c W (O) and there exists
r2=l.u.b.[rlr ° < r < rl~ F(r) E W(2)]. Then F(r 2) is a boundary point
J l
are continuous.
being the null element. Again we consider solutions of eq. (2.1). Since
led to eqs. (2.2) and (2.3) to be solved for the increment h E X, for
k o E ~TS(Xo). (See [ref. 21, p. 2921 for the spectral notations ~,C~,R~,
and I~.)
At the present state of the art, we cannot speak on the behavior of
k o E RoT ° (xo) • We are equipped only to handle the case k ° E P~T t (xo) •
then by a known theorem [ref. 14, p. 135, L e - ~ 4.1] the Fr~chet derivative
Rv(Xo) , [ref. 19, P. 183, p. 2171 • Thus the null space ~l(Xo) and range
AOI -T' (Xo) has a closed range RI(X O) ( ~ exlsts)~ we do have a pseudo-
Lemma 3.1: Let A be a closed linear operator and suppose R(A) is closed.
of course R(A)I~(A) and ~(A) stand for range of A, nullspace of A and domain
of A respectively.
Proof. The operator A induced by A on X/~(A) is i:i onto R(A), and thus has
where y is the minimum modulus of A, [ref. i0, p. 96]. Hence given y 6 R(A)
there exists an element x E [x] with y = Ax such that llxll < cllA~l = cll~l,
2
where c = -- •
7
Now define M on R(A) as follows: put My = (I-E)x where y E R(A),
then Xl-X 2 E ~(A), whence (I-E)x I = (I-E)x 2. Also AM = I since AMy = A(I-E)x
a proper choice of x.
[~oI-T'(Xo)]M(xo) = I on Sl(Xo)
~(~o)[~J-T' (Xo)] -- ~.
We extend the pseudo-inverse M(Xo) to the entire space X by writing
With the aid of the extended pseudo-inverse, let us study the fol-
Theorem 3,2: There exist positive constants c,d,e such that for 151 < c
a n }!~I < e, u ~ ~l(Xo), eq. (3.2) has a solutlon h(5,u) ~lque in the
ball llh!l ~ d. The solution is continues in 8.
u 6 ~l(Xo). We have
llRl(Xo'h)II 1
s m a l l that ! t h l I < . . . . for !thtl < d 1. With d I thus fixed, we can
3!t~t
find B I such that
dI
1~1 "!!Xoll ÷ 181 "11h!I ~ I~l (llXo!l÷dl) ~ 3!I~! for I~1 < ~l"
d1
Next we ~ e !1~1 ~ T ; then llh*ll = IIR F8(h)+u~l ~ d I i f 181 < 51. Thus
d1
i f I~I < h ' and II~l < 7" the map c a r r i e s ~ e ~ll Ilhll < d I into i t s e l f .
d
Take e = rain (ci,c2) , d = d I < d2 , and e = ~ . Then the map carries
the ball llhll ~ d into itself sad is contracting thereon, provided !lu!! ~ e.
Therefore if 151 < c and !I~! g e, the iterations hn+ I = MFs(h n) + u con-
verge to a solution of eq. (3.2) unique in the ball llhl! < d. The con-
Theorgm 3-3: Let T' (xo) satisfy H-l, (which can be arranged by assuming
that T(x) is everywhere compact and continuous). Then the condition that
~. (2.3) is that
(~-ER)F~%Cu)) = ~ (3.~)
- 22 -
Proof: Since T' (xO) is com~ct, kol-T' (xo) has close~ range, an~ as we
have seen~ the null s~ace ~l(xo) admits the projection E . Thus by
exist where ~ projects on the range Rl(X o). We have ~(M) = X. Let
cation of eq. 43.2) with k I-T' (x) and use of eq. (3.1) give
o o
which is Just eq. (2.3). On the other hand if h,5 satisfies eq. (2.3),
= F6(h) - ~Fs(h) --
In. the proof of Theorem 3.2, the solution of eq. (3.2) was produced
by the method of contraction -~ppings under the assumption that 151 < c
and II~I < e, where c and e are positive constants. Hence h = V5(u) is the
vs(u) = u + ~ s [ ~ s [ ~ s [ ~ . . . e t c . ] ] ] . (3.5)
By Theorems 3.2 and 3.3, in order to study small solutions h,5 of eq.
(2.3), it is well to study small solutions of eq. (3-4) and eq. (3.2).
Th. i], the annihilator of the range Rl(Xo) is the null sl~ace~l*(xo) of
to more terms:
Fs(h) = . 1
sx ° - 5 h + ~. d~(Xo; h,h) + ~31~.d3T(xo;h,h,h) (3.7)
+ R3(Xo,h)
where d2T(Xo;hl,h2) and d3T(Xo;hl,h2,h3) are respectively the second and
third Fr@chet differentials of the nonlinear operator T(x), linear in
- o a ~ !!hll ~ o .
Llhll 3
- 24 -
+ "~.
i a3T(Xo;~MFs(h), u + ~Fs(h), u + ~4Fs(h))
+ R3(Xo,~F 5 (h))
= - 8X O - 5U - 5MFs(h) + i d~(Xo;U,U)
1 d3T(Xo;U,~Fs(h), ~Fs(h) )
+3"~.
+3'.
~ ~%<~o~5 <~),~5 <h), ~8 ~)) + ~3~o'~B oh))
Continuing to substitute,
i
F~Cv~Cu)) -- - ~xo - ~u + ~. a2~(Xo;U,u) + ~.. d3T(xju, u,u)
~[~Xo~h i d~CXo;h,h)
+ ~. + 31--[.d~(Xo;h,h,h) + R3(Xo, h)])
Since eq. (3.7) contains no terms in which h appears alone raised to the
first p~wer, this process results in terms containing h and 5 to successively
hi@her degrees.
So as to estimate the higher order terms, consider eq. (3.2):
h = ~(Xo)Fs(h) + u
1 d~(Xo;h,h)
where Fs°(h) = - 5h + ~.. + ~,. d~(Xo;h,h,h) + R3(Xo,h) "
Note that Y5°(e ) -- e and
1
tlM(Xo)It-ilFsO(h 1) - Fs°(h2)!l < ~ ilhl'h211' !lhl!! < d2, !lh21t ~ d2, 151 < 52,
where d2,52 are numbers arising in the proof of Theorem 3.2.
or
that
the time being only those terms of order up to, but not ineludiI~,
o¢isti!lul!J), i + ~ = ~.
R3(Xo,h) = d4T(Xo+toh;h,h,h,h), 0 ~ to ~; i,
c=O,
- M¢Xo){-52xo - 5 ~ + ~ a~(Xo;h,h)}
2 d2T(Xo;U,[4[ ..~Xo.Sh+2..~d2T(Xo;h,h)} )
z
+ ~. a~(Xo;~(Xo){~Xo~~ ~. 1
1 dT(Xo;h,h) },y(xo){~xo~h+~., d~¢Xo;h,h) })
+ +
- 2? -
1
+ ~. ~%(Xo;y{ "~o}' ~oS, ~Xo~)
+ ~ ~ij(~;U) where ~(~,~) = o(l~l~llull~)
i+J=3
= - ~x o -
~:~(Xo;U,U,U)
~u+ ~.. ~(~o;U,U) ÷~.
- ~(Xo;U,~) + ~.
~ ~(Xo;U,~(Zo;h,h))
52
+ ~. ~(~o;YXo,~o ) + ~2~(Zo;~,~o)
"~.5 d2T(Xo;~Xo~c]2T(Xo;h,h))
"~. ~¢~o;U,U,~o ) + ~.
~2 ~(~o;U,~o,~o)
- ~ ~¢~o;~o,~o,~o) + ~+~=3
~ ~¢~,u)
+y
- 28 -
+ 62
7" ~ T ( ~ o ~ o ' ~ o ) * 5~T(~o;~'~o ) " 5~( ,,~:o )
. ~_
2 ~(~o)~o,~(Xo)U,U) ) + 5~(~o~o,~(Xo)U,~o ))
.5_2~ a~(Xo~mo,r~%,(~o~o,r%))
.6 3
"Y e:~(~o)~o'~o'MXo) + • i~(5,u)
i+j--3
= - 5~ o - 5 { ~ ( ~ o ) U , ~ = o ) ]
+~l ~(~o;U,u)
i+J=l
Again if Ul,--.,un and Ul* , ---,Un* are bases respectively for the
- 5~*x o - 5 ~ * ~ + ~. = ~a%¢~o~U~,r%)
n n
+ ~1' ~ * X X (3.8)
/,z--I ;,2-i ~*l%2~(~°;U~l'U~2 )
n n n
E ~2=I
~l=l ~ ~l~2~3a~(~°;U~l'U~2'u~3)
~ ~3=i
5 ,J,:Z
Eu~ =0 k = l~2,...,n
i+J=l uJiJ \
ll~II = !I~-II = 1.
for those values of 5,~£ such that our iterative solution V5 of eq. (3.2)
has validity, i.e., for 181 ~ c, I~£I ~ e, where c,e are constants occur-
at the Origin.
El'"" "' ~n" If solution can be accomplished, then by Theorem 3-3, letting
n
u = ~ ~kUk in eq. (3.2), we produce solutions of eq. (2.1) in a neighbor-
k=l
hood of the exceptional point (Xo,k o) . Here, of course, the elements
Ul,...,u n are assumed to be a basis for the null space ~l(Xo) of the
The solution of eqs. (3.8) presents much difficulty in the cases n > l,
although attempts have been and are being made to study these cases, [refs. 3, 12
am~ 48]. For the present, we here confine the discourse to the case n = 1.
and to be spanned by the elements u I and Ul* respectively, i.e., T' (Xo)U1
ilUl!1: 11ui-II-- i.
For convenience we write eq. (4.1) as follows:
- 30 -
where a I = - Ul~Xo
a3 = i ul.d(Xo;U1,1)
and we h a v e defined
_ _d%o%o%o ). ~2(~'q ) = 5q
~i(5, ~i ) - 5 ,
Ul~02 Ul*~03
~3 (8'~I) = 2" ' ~4 (8'~I) = " 3
Z~ q [ai+~i(5,q)]= o (4.3)
i=l
with m = 4; a I = i, 81 = O; ~2 = i, 82 = i; cL3 = O, 8 3 = 2; 64 = O, 84 = 3.
Equations such as eq. (4.3) were treated by the method of the Newton Polygon
studies it was necessary to assume that~ among those terms in eq. (4.3) with
a i ~ O~ rain ~i = rain 8 i = O. Thus with the exponents listed for eq. (4.2)
l~i~n l~i~n
we ~ o ~ d want a I ~ 0, ~ a a 3 ~ 0 or % ~ 0 in o r a ~ to ~ i ~ the ~ o n
ing those real values of k such that nontrivial solutions exist. The
Theorem 4.1: Let the nonlinear operator T(x) satisfy H-2. Then T' (x)
is an even operator: T' (-x) = T' (x), and ~' (x) is an odd operator:
and we have T' (-x)h = lira ~1 [T(-x+th) - T(-x)] = llm 1 [T(x-th) - T(x)]
~o t-.o
= T' (x)h. This shows the evenness of T' (x). Again ~' (-X)hlh 2 -- d2T(-X;hl, h2)
shows the oddness of %#'(x). Here, of course, x,h, hl,h 2 E X. This ends
the proof.
Just as the oddness of T(x) implies that T(8) = 8, so does the oddness
be written as follows:
in eq. (~.~).
At this point we explain the -/~--er in which J. Dieudonn& treated
smaii, ¢(5) ~ of z ( 5 , q ) -- 0.
For simplicity let us take the case where there is only one side,
=0.
i=l
Noting now that ~ k + ~iBk " ~181 = 0 for all points on the single side
k i
(n-to)q = > o,
~i ~F
derivatives - ~ exist and are continuous near (0,0), then ~ exists and
Implicit Function Theorem [ref. ii, p. 138], since the Jacobean is non-
- t o = 5k/q[F(5,~)] ~.
This one real branch can then be uniquely solved for any real b, again
Theorem 4.2: Under H-l, H-2 and the supposition that (e,ko) is an ex-
ceptional point of the nonlinear operator T(x), (i.e., koI - TS(8) has
no bounded inverse,or k
O
E P~(T'(e))), there exist two nontrivial solu-
tion point k = k o. The two branches differ only in sign. If a2a4 < O,
the two branches exist only for k > k o and bifurcation is said to be to
the right; if a2a 4 > O, the two branches exist only for k < k o and the
ing 5, we get
1 1 ~j ~ --
2
Solution of the leading part, a 2 + a4~ = O, leads to ~]1,2
--~ a4
This represents two real solutions of unit multiplicity if aud only if
a2%< O. Then with these roots we can rewrite eq. (4.6) as follows:
1 1
(n~nl)(n~na)= - ~2(~,~ g) - na~ (8,~ g)
1
=^(5,~5~ ) - 0 as ~ - o , 5 > 0 .
1
Since A(5,r~ 2) is differentiable with respect to ~1, we can solve the two
equations
1
w
1
+ A ~(5,~_5a). A(~,~aa)~
~=~i ~..n2 ~3 = ~2 + o-~l
neighborhood. We get two real functions ~i~(5) for small 5 > 0, one
~i,5 pairs in eq° (3.2) with u = ~lUl , provide two real solutions
C l e a r l y s i n c e ~1 = ~5~' 5 > O,
4-
we see that ~i ~ 0 as 5 ~ 0 and
only one side, there are no other solutions of T(x) = kx such that
two real roots of unit multiplicity if and only if a 2 a 4 > 0. The re-
are no real solutions. Likewise if a2a 4 > O we have seen that there are
no real solutions for 5 > 0 (the leading part in eq. (4.6), namely
2
a 2 + a4~ = O has no real roots), while for 8 = - 151 < 0 we have pro-
duced exactly two real nontrlvial solutions. This ends the proof of
Theorem 4.2.
only near k = ko, and since the bifurcation equation, eq. (4.1) is valid
Theorem 3-2, we see that Theorem 4.2 is really only a local theorem.
of the origin x = 8.
Theorem 4.3: Under H-I but ngt H-2, and with the supposition that
k ~ Ko, k ~ k o.
ProQf: In this case, eq. (4.1) is written as follows:
3
ul~ij(~,ul) -- o .
i+j--i
Since we can show again that Wl0 = ~20 = ~30 = O, the bifurcation equation
[ae+)2(~,~)] + ~[aB+~(~,-~)] = o. 2
(4.8)
The leading part, a 2 + a3n = O~ has the I
a2
single root, ~o = " 3a ' regardless of the
v
)
sign of a2a 3. Then eq. (4.8) is put into
Newton Polygon
the form
Fm-~ ~.~-
n~o=-)2(~,~) - ~(8,~)
= A(5,~) - 0 a s ~ - O. (4.9)
pairs in eq. (3.2) provide unique small solutions x(k) of T(x) = kx for
methods.
i So
O I- sin s sin t [ l + ~ o ] - d
tlh = - 5~o - 5h +
L sin s sin t h2(t)dt = F~(h)
mainder term@
has an eigenvalue k ° = ~sin2t[ 1÷~ o(t) ]at and the normalized eigenfunctlon
sin s. Since the kernel is syumetric, k ° has Riesz index unity [ref. 21, p.
342, Th. 18], where we assume that our Benach space is L2(0,2, ) . The null
space of the operator koI - --JoR"Sln s sin t [ l + ~ o ] -dt is one dimensional. Let
E project on ~; then since the Riesz index is unity, I-E projects on the
- 40 -
= ~-6(I-E)h+O} + E sin s
=
I ~
E{-5~
sin s + ~2
fosin s s ~ 3 t at
sin s} = - 8~ sin s = O.
tions valid in the large because the iteration process for eq. (3.2) is
- 41 -
finite in duration, and the local requirements of Theorem 3.2 are not
necessary.
for which the llnearization at the origin again has the single elgenvalue
Again let E project on the one dimensional null space ~ Sl~uned by sin s.
- M{~(I-E)~O} + ~ sin s.
not form a lines~ space as in linear problems and the previous nonlinear exsarple.
Rather they form a nonlinear manifold, which has been given the D/~me: "con-
tinuous branch."
- 42 -
Again, since the iterations are trivial, the sort of local restric-
tions imposed in Theorem 3.2 do not apply, and we have produced here solu-
sin s, namely
kh - sin s sin t [
i + 4 °in2t] h(t)dt = O,
function sin s. Since kl,~l could be any point on the continuous branch,
are applicable.
attention was then confined to the case where the null space ~l(Xo) of the
point. In this case eq. (3.8) becomes just one scalar equation in one
scalar unknown. The Newton Polygon method was used to treat this case
have a situation which may roughly be compared with the situation per-
talnlng to compact linear operators on a real Banach space X, and the real
~x = ~(x) (5.l)
nontrlvlal solutions. Eq. (5.1) always has of course the trivial solu-
pletely continuous linear operator, the study of eq. (5.1) leads along
apt one. Indeed, there are nonlinear operators with linear elgenspaces
The problem therefore in dealing with eq. (5.1), for an odd completely
hood of x = @, and then to extend these branches into the large. In other
tions from the small to the large, we run out of general theory. Branches
"ordinary point," i .e., where kl-T' (x) has a b o u ~ e d inverse. The con-
not get past the "exceptional points" which may occur, i.e., pairs (x,k)
where kl-T' (x) has no inverse. In order to investigate this latter problem
[ref. 14, p. 20], namely fx = f(spx(s)), defined on some ftmction space, pre-
a few such applications, of course. One might mention the rotating chain
problem [ref. 38] and the rotating rod problem [refs. 2~ 20]. Rather, we
like H~mmerstein operators because they are amenable to the study of branches
difficult now.
In the present study, we let the Banach space X be the space C(011)
derivatives:
.I
T'(x)h = Kfx'h = JO K(s,t)fx'(t,x(t))h(t)dt,
i
"'nlh2h3 = 50 KCs't)fx~Ct'x(t))hlCt)h2Ct)h3(t)dt
T~(X)hlh2h3 = "--x~f
All of the theory developed in sections 2-4 holds for these operators.
(i) Sublinearity: f
O~ s~ I~ - ~ < x < + m
(s,x) > o
f
O~ sm i, - ~ < x<+~
class of operators.
is asymptotically linear if
cally linear.
plicit bifurcation equation, namely eq. (4.2) 3 we put down the coeffi-
cients of that equation in the Hammerstein case (here we use the setwise
aI =. (UI*,Xo)
1
a2 = - (Ul*,Ul+ ~0 K(s,t)f~l~(t'x° (t))ul(t)Mx°(t)dt)
a3 : g
~01K(s,t)fx" (t,Xo(t) )u12(t)dt)
% =g *, ~oiK(s,t)fx"(t,Xo(t))Ul3(t)at).
~oiK(s,t)fx'(s,O)h(s)dso
- 51 -
Let us examine the sublinear and superlinear cases and the signs
which the above coefficients assume. In the sublinear case, we have for
k ° > 0 that a I = a 3 = O, a 2 < 0 and a 4 < 0 so that a2a 4 > 0. With refer-
with abstract operators. Indeed let X = H, a real Hilbert space, and let
pose that T(x) is completely continuous and of variational type [ref. 14,
Fr~chet differential [ref. 15, P. 183] and the fact that ~' (e)x = e,
(5 .~)
= dT~(e;ax)x + R(e,ax)x,
aI 0, % = - (ul,uI)---I, a 3 =0
Here of course, (kol-T' (e))u I = e. Thus in the sublinear case, a2a 4 > 0
and we have bifurcation to the left. On the other hand, if it were the
superlinear case, we should have a2a 4 < 0 and bifurcation to the right,
p. 236].
Definition: An nxn matrix A = (alk) is a completely non-negatlve matrix
(or respectively completely positive) if all its minors of any order are
kernel if for any set of n points Xl, x2, ..., Xn, where 0 ~ x i ~ l, one
n = i, 2, 3, ....
(b) All the eigenvalues are positive and simple: 0 ( . . . ( k n < k n . l ( ..-(ko.
open interval 0 ( s ~ I.
" 54 -
2, ... .
operators stems from the fact that with fx t(s,x) > O, 0 g s ~ l, - ~ < x < +
that appearing in eq. (G-G), so that the properties (a)-(f) listed above
are true for its eigenvalues and eigenfunctions. We wish to stress as very
important for H~mmerstein operators that properties (a)-(f) hold for opera-
tor (5.6) whatever the continuous function x(t) used in the definition of
the eigenvalues.
eigenvalue, or the null space ~l(Xo) is one dimensional. Hence our bifurca-
tion theory with the Newton Polygon method is applicable, in ~erticular eq.
(4.2).
(.O b v+v 3 =k ,
a > b (5-7)
(~ . 8 )
o b k (l+3v2)k! = ~" •
At the origin~ u = v = O, and we have primary bifurcation points a > b.
k = b. Of interest is the
branch , and
///
/ "!/(+F-_-, k
letting u = 0 a n d
Q
a.2b
~2 < ~i' for k > ~ we have ~2 > ~i" Moreover a situation is attained
where k = ~I = a. At this point on the second branch, eq. (5.8) has the
11\
o r o = =o ooo.
place.
that eigenvalues ~i,~ 2 would always be simple, and the crossover point at
a+2b
= ~ would have been impossible. We should have had ~2 < ~I always,
a ~rstein e q u a t i o n i n v o l v i n g an o s c i l l a t i o n k e r n e l must o l d e n be
solved.
- 58 -
r 1
In this section we assume that T(x) = ~_ K(s,t)f(t,x(t))dt, i.e.,
-u
for any x(s) E C(O,1). T(x) also satisfies H-2, i.e., T(-x) = - T(x) if
We again note that f " ( s ~ O ) < 0 in H-4a; fx"(s,0) > 0 in H-4b; 0 < s < i.
requirement:
Hypothesis H-6 together with the condition fx' (s,x) > 0 stated in H-4
functions such that h n(s) has precisely n nodes (odd order zeros) and no
in eq. (6.1).
value Wp
(o) , p = O, l, 2, "'" is a primary bifurcation point for the non-
Here [~(n°)] is the sequence of simple eigenvalues for linearized eq. (6.1)
with y(t) m O. Indeed Theorem 4.2 is applicable, and there exist exactly
two solutions of small norm which branch away from the trivial solution
left since ~p
(o) > O; i.e. there exist two sm~ll solutions if A < ~ o ) ,
but none if k > ~ p (o) • In the superlinear case on the other hand (H-4b) I
the branching is to the right, i.e., there exist two small solutions if
.Co). The two solutions of small norm which
k > ~P(°)' but none if k < ~p
bifurcate at k = ~p
(o) , p = O, i t 2, ..., differ only in sign. We denote
Theorem 6.1:
x~ (s,k), where defined for k ~ ~p
(o), has exactly p nodes
~oI f(t,~(t,k))
~u(s) = K(s,t) x;--(t,A) u(t)dt, (6.3)
which has the eigenvalue sequence {~n} and eigenfunction sequence {Un(S)}
where, as indicated for oscillation kernels, Ul~(S) has exactly p nodes on
s,~)) +(s,x))
~V(s) = ' ' K(s,t) ........ v(t) t.
,)
(6.~)
- 61 -
(We note that £(s,X)x > 0.) By H-3 as k - ~P(°)' k ~ ~p(°), the symmetric
i
w(s) --
i Jfx'(S,O) K(s,t) Jfx'(t,o) W(t)dt
But obviously we then have ~........ = hp(°)(s), where "np(°)(s) is the p'th
We prove the following result for the sublinear case. The superlinear
Theorem 6.2: Suppose hypothesis H-$a holds~ i.e.~ we have the sublinear
case. Let (xp*,k*) be a solution pair for eq. (6.2) on the p'th branch
X;(S,k). Then ~p* < k*, where ~p* is the p'th elgenvalue of eq. (6.1)
: . (6.5)
Hf~p H~ =
/o H(s,r)f x' (r,xp*(r,k*))
foH(r,t)~(t)dtdr;
Likewise t h e problem
5z = H _ L
Xp* Hz, (6.6)
with a sy~m~etric operator, has the same eigenvalues [Sn] as problem (6.3)
with x;(s,k) = Xp*; the eigenfunctions of equation (6.6) are used later
(in the sublinear case, H-4a, f(s,x) has t h e p r o p e r t y fx'(S,X) < f(s~X)
X
0 < x < + m and - ~ < x < O). Then, using Courant's minimax principle
(~. H~,u)
n~n max ~ .....
(u,u;
{ v l , ' " N . l} ~vl,'",~. 1
(Hr'x W Hu,u) (H ~ . Hu,u)
g max - - - ~(u,u) < max P
.......
(u,u) .... = 5p,
UlZl~ • • .~zp. 1 ulz I, • • -, zp. 1
Since K ( s , t ) i s an o s c i l l a t i o n k e r n e l , 5p c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h a t e l g e n -
. •
f u n c t i o n Up(s) o f e q . 46.3) (with x~ ( s , k ) = x ) which has e x a c t l y p
~ xW(s,k*)
nodes on 0 < s < i. Therefore u~, !I~I = i i. identical with ,rJ , ~ , ~. ,
r ' ~ | I X ~ & w,,~W J H
and 8p = kw. Hence ~p* < kw and the theorem is proven.
- 64 -
In the superlinear case, it can be seen from H-4b that f ' (s,x) > f(s,x)
x x '
0 < x < + ~ and - ~ < x < O; thus for the superlinear ease, the inequality
into the large is that of finding an ordinary point (i.e. (Xp,k) such that
kl-Kf'px has a bounded inverse, where Kftxp is the operator of eq. (6.1)),
employing the process of Theorem 2.3 in a stepwise manner, which process can
Theorem 6.2 above represents about half of the task of showing that
xp* = xp±(stY*) is an ordl~ry point. We have shown that ~p* < k* (~p* > k*)
oscillation kernel s ~p* is of unit multiplicity and so ~n* < ~p*# n = I~i,
The other half of the Job of showing that xp* = Xpe(S,k*)is an ordinary
= K(s,t)~9(t)h(t)dt (6.8)
-85 -
norm.
has the same eigenvalue ~arameter k as the problem ~h = K~h for the opera-
tor defined in eq. (6.8). Here of course we have the symmetric operator
L
with ~(s) m O. As ~ - ~*, m, q~* E C(O,l), in the L2(0,1) norm, we have
.i
Jo '~'(8)'K2(s,t)'~'~'2dtds 1
4-
fSoSo I
ImP(s)IK2(o,t) l~(t)-m*(t) Iatd
L2(O,I) norm, n = O,1,2, .... Here of course ~n(K,q~) is the n'th eigen-
branch:
Ap = sup
+ "~.i(K'~ ~
~S l
Lp-m~ 6.4: Ap > 0 is less thsm unity, and the maximum is actually
,~(K,~) ,~(K.~)
~o,, ^p : s:p ~p.i(k,~ ) since ~(~) : ,~z(k,~)-is strongly
by ~p(g) at g*. I f llg*ll < i, we should then have ~p(g*) = (g*,g*) + FpCKg~)
!lg*!l = l, and both ~pR(g) and Fp(Kg) assume their maximum v a l u e s , 1 + Ap'
n = 0,1,2, ..., such that ~n(K,~*) < ~n.l(K,~*) (strict inequality); this
to state our main results having to do with whether or not a given point
xf ' (s,x)
x 1
"f(S,x) <--, 0 ~ s ~ i, - ® < x < + ®, (6.9b)
Ap~l
where An, n -- 1,2,3,--. was shown in Le,w ~ 6.4 to be less than unity. The
fact that 0 < A n < i, n = 1,2,3,..- means that there exists a class of sub-
or (6.9b) is realizable.
Proof: As in the proof of Theorem 6.2 we again split the kernel: K = H-H,
_L
where, if the square root operator H has a kernel H(s,t), we may write
1 f(r,x*(r,k*)) o~
H H p~ =
~0 H(s,r) ' ' ~
xp*(r,×*)
H(r,t)~ (t)dtdr.
(6.ii)
a s f o l l o w s from t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f Ap. But
max (u,u)
"'A, "",Yp-2
- 70 -
where YI' "'"Yp-2 can be any set of p-2 elements in ~(0,i). I n parti-
was discussed in the proof of Theorem 6.2. Then since by condition (6.9a),
.i .i
{~u]2as < ]o %' (s,~*(s,~*))CHu]2as
(6.~)
= (H%. Hu, u)
max Ap (u,u)
UAYI' " " "'Y- 2
(Hf' . Hu, u)
< mm~x
-~ (u,u) --- ~-i '
ulyll ..,tYp. 2
which proves the result in the sublinear case.
~^-(~'x
* ~u,u) = ~( f'~ . Hu, Hu)
= ~l X
where we have made use of condltion (6.9b). Then using inequality 46.13)
we hay% with Zl,...~zp. I representlr~ eigenelements of H Xp* H~
__r
(a~. ~u,u)
P
mln mex
~ <~ {,, , . . . , ~ UlVl~ •, .~vp_i
c~ ~ Hu,u> ~ Ru,u
m~
< ~i UlZl ~... zP'I %~ZlS '''~zp. 1
= ~p ~ = 5p = k*~
of the operator Kfx'h = Jo K ( s ' t ) f x ' ( t ' x P e ' ( t ' A ) ) h ( t ) d t ' where x ; ( t , k ) rewe-
sents the p'th branch of the eigenflmctions of the nonlinear problem. On the
~rX' (s,x) 1
other hana, in the superlinear case (Hypothesis H-~b), if 1 < f(s,x) <
Thus, since (kI-Kfx' )-i can fail to exist as a bounded inverse only
when k = ~n for some n = 0,1,2,..-, and since under the assumption that
we have an oscillation kernel (Hypothesis H-6) all the ~n'S are a priori
stein operator from the small into the large. In essence we have opened
was used in the proof of Theorem 6.5 (inequalities 6.11 and 6.13) to repre-
sent anupper bound for the ratios ~ p - l ( KI+ / a n d " p'- i ( K-; ' x - p* ) "
the definition of ~ (Lelnmla 6.11.) we took the sup of the ratio l~i(K,o- )
as m assumed ~ l u . i n the set Sl+ = [ml~c¢o,1), llmll = l, m ~ 0]. crawly
however it would have been better to have taken the sup over a more re-
stricted set of functions which would have reflected somehow the property
that functions on the p'th branch xp* = V(s,k*) have exactly p nodes on
To begin with, we see that in the sublinear case (H-4a) we have the
inequalities A(s) g ~ P
. g fX '(s,0) and A(s) < ft
Xp* g fx (S,0), while in
Hence the set over which we compute the sup in the definition of ~ should
SA~ fo
, = [~I~ ~ c(o,i), ACs) ~ ~(s) ~ fX '(s,O)],
and consider the cone in S+ all of whose rays intersect this convex set:
+
CA, fo, -- [,l×,(s) ~ SA, fo, for some k, × > 0].
and then consider the cone in S+ all of whose rays intersect this set:
~l~(K,q~)
~= sup
~°ES;aCA, fo' ,p
- 74 -
as a yet more refined definition which takes into account that in inequali-
ties (6.11) and (6.13) we are really only interested in the p'thbranch.
of eq. (6.2), which is much less concrete than that given by inequalities
condition is that
>
(6
O~s~l ~ -
~E S+ •
~ e remember that f(s,~) and fx(S,~) are even functions of ~, so that an
oscillatory ~(s) would satisfy the inequality in (6.15) along with ]~(s) I .)
- 75 -
less than unity, while the right hand functional in equality (6.15b) ex-
ceeds unity. Hence the conditions are realizable for sublinesr respec-
Theorem 6,7: Under hypothesis H-4a (sublinearity) let f(s,x) be such that
case being shown similarly. We split the kernel: K = H.H, and have eq.
" (u,u)
(6.16)
uAYI' "" "Yp-2
where the arbitrary set of p-2 elements YI' "'"Yp-2 in L2(O,I) can be the
Up (.'),
\ X* is a pure number. Then in view of condition (6.15a), we can
f( s,x *(s,~.*) )
I ~ . . . . . . . t~Hu] 2ds
xp*(s,~*)
~*<~'~*)fx'(s'x*{~'~*)) i'(s,x*Cs,~*))
of
1
(Rf'x . Hu,u)
k* <
(U,u) = ~.-1 '
uJ'YI' "" "'Yp-2
I <
;~. f(s,~S~ rain ~ < z, ~ s÷ ,
then ~p < k < ~p-l' and there is no secondary bifurcation of the p'th branch
mfx (s.®)
i
,p(K.rx'(S.m))
then ~p+l < k < ~p, and again there is no secondary bifurcation.
operator repre-
x jo l~ p
using obvious notation from the proofs of Theorems 6.9 and 6.7. Here
Zl,.. ",zp. I are of course the first p-i eigenelements of the operator
H x-~p
f H. Then for s o m e ~ ± Zl, -.-, Zl~l, we have
(H m"h) <
ma~
(h,h) (h,h)
hlZl, •..zp. 1 b,Zl, • .., zp. 1
~p'l (K' X * )
- 78 -
which leadsimmedi&tely to
P
<
(~,~') (~',~')
Or
II -
~p-I(K" Xp
~P~;
~_(K,f.,.
_ f'
Xp*
<0
~p.l(K,f~. )
~oI Xp(S,~*) ~ p ~ fx'(s,xp(s,~*)) [~a~2ds < 0.
p
or
ficient condition (6.15a) for the sublinear case~ but these two conditions
~D
80 -
As remarked i n t h e t e x t o f s e c t i o n 6 p r i o r t o i n t r o d u c i n g Theorem
deed under Hypotheses H-2 through H-6 there exist exactly two branches
point k = ~(o).- In the sublinear case (H-4a) these exist for k < ~(o),
while in the superlinear case (H-4b) they exist for k > ~p(0) . By the
sign.
the p'th branch xp~(s,~) from the small into the large~ we needed assur-
ance that there existed some ordinary point (x:,k*) on that branch, i.e.
a point such that k*I-T t (xp*) has a bounded inverse. This assurance is
given by Corollary 6.6 o_~rCorollary 6.8 under the assumption that either
the p'th branch Xp&(S,k) are indeed ordinary points. Of course the
latter can be inferred also from Theorem 2.4 once a single ordinary
point is found~ but there is no assurance that the branch cannot termi-
Accordingly we invoke Theorem 2.4 and state that there does exist a
point k = ~p(o) • The only finite boundary point such a sheet may have
Proof: If there were such a boundary point (xp*,k*), then XpCS,k)" xp*
nodes on O < s < i. Accordingly in view of Theorem 6.2 and either Theorem
6.9 or Theorem 6.7 we have ~p* < k*< ~ - I in the sublinear case and ~ i <
k* < ~,* in the superlinear case. Hence k * I-Kf x' must have a bounded in-
A"
P
verse, i.e. k* is not an eigenvalue of Kf'x *" This however is a contradic-
P
tlon t since by Theorem 2.~, a boundary point is an exceptional point.
Theorem T.2: There exists a number [ m 0 such that lira sup llxp(s,k)ll = ~.
k~k
(Note: In the superlinear case it is possible that [ = ®.)
similar. Let
By sublinearity (H-4a), Theorem 4.2 and Chapter 9, rip includes some small
trary to the st~tememt of the theorem, that there exists a number M > 0
such t2~at llxp(s,k)ll ~ M, k E ~p. Then we show that lip is closed relative
kI
sequence {kkl} such that [KfXp 3 converges in norm. We have that
k1
be done.) Then~ = lim x is a solution of eq. (6.2) with k = [ =
P kl~® P
kl~lim~ kkl , i .e. [ Xp = KfXp, and by Theorem 6.1 ~p has exactly p nodes in
0 < s < i. Hence ~ E rlp, which shows that lip is closed. On the other
(°)
hand [Tp must be open relative to -P ) since, given ~ 6 np, Xp(S,[): ~p
such that Xp(S,k) exists, k 6 N~k ; i.e. % c Hp. A set such as Hp which is both
left neighborhood of ~p(°). Hence [~p = (0,~(O)) under the assumption that
llXp(S,k)!! ~ M, A 6 lip- But by Theorem 6.2, we must have ~p < k for k E Hp,
where ~p is the p'th eigenvalue of linearized eq. (6.1) with y(s) = xp(s,k).
Now for functions x(s) E C(O,l) with llx!l~ M, we have f'(s,x) a f.'(s,M) by the sub-
linearlty assumption, (H-4a). Let ~pM be the p'th eigenvalue of the opera-
i
tot Kf~ = Jo K(s,t)fx(t,M)-dt. Using the sysmetrized operators of Theorem
6.2, which are such that Hf.OHxhas the same spectrum as Kf'x, we can write
- 83 -
(.f~u,u)
= ~n max + -(u,u.)- - -
"~ {Vl,...,~p.l} ~Vl,'",vp. 1
of the operator Hfx H. Hence for k E Hp we necessarily have 0 < ~pM <
P
,p < × ~.d.r the ass~tion t h a t !lXp(S.×)!! ~ M. ~ i s i s a e o n t ~ d i c t i o n
since we also proved that • p = (O,,p). Thus xp(s,k) cannot remain bounded;
In the superlinear case (H-4b) the argument is the same except that the set
~p, where xp~(s,k) exists and is continuous, lies to the right of the pri-
.(o) , (o)+®)
mary bifurcation point ~p , an~ is a subset of t h e interval t~p , • This
I
yh(s) = ~o K(s,t)A(t)h(t)dt (7.1)
Th~eorem 7.S: ~ = 7p, where ~ 0 is the number appearing in the last re-
Proof: Let KA be the operator of eq. (7.1). By Theorem 7.2 there exists
a sequence k k ~ k such that kk~k
lira llxp(s,kk)ll= -, end xp(s,kk) satisfies
eq. (6.2) with k = k k. We subtract the element FAx from each side of
P
eq. (6.2) to obtain
.i
(kl-KA)xp(s,kk) = ~[ K(s,t) [f(t,xp(t,kk) )-A(t)xp(t,kk) ]dt,
11xp(s,~k)ll~ II (~'KA)'~I'II~I'IIr(S,%(S,~Q)'A(s)~Cs,~k)II-
implies that [ 6 {yn} where {yn} are the elgenvalues of eq. (7.1).
llXp(S,~kJIl-- ~q
1
1 ........ f K(s,t)f(t,xp(t,kk))dt
- ~kllxp(~,~ n
i j£. ~0
K(s,t)A(t)hj(t)dt + I
~0
K(s,t)A(t) [, (t) - llXp(t,kk)ii @
1
1
[ K(s,t)[A(t)xp(t,kk)-f(t,xp(t,kk) )]dt.
"O
Having developed some methods for treating more general cases, let
us now reconsider the example of section I, namely eq. (i.i). This equa-
stein operator of odd type. In fact we find that hypotheses H-I through
H-3p H-4b, and H-5 with A(s) = A = w~ are satisfied. The second rank
can live with whatever deficient l~roperties a specific kernel does have~
• dt (8.1)
~he fact that (~o,Ao) solves eq. (i.i) allows some cancellations in eq.
At the trivial solution ~o(S) --- 0 we have the linearization eq. (1.5)
with two eigenvalues a,b, with a > b as assumed, to which are associated
the eigenspaces Slm~nned respectively by sin s, sin 2s. We thus have two
primary bifurcation points, a,b~ where the operator on the left in eq.
where here E is the orthogonal projection on the null space spanned by sin s,
is equal to ~ sin s, and therefore h = VS(~ sin s) = ~ sin s. Then the bi-
-- 3] sin s = O.
Eq. (8.~) has the trivial solution ~ = 0 and the nontrivlal solution
5=k-b:
where E is now the orthogonal projection onto the null sp~ce spanned by
Starting with the first iterate h = ~ sin 2s and substituting this on the
o
right in eq. (8.5)p we again hare the integral vanishing~ whence h I = ~ sin 2s.
We ~ a n t h e n see that hn = ~ sin 2s also I so that h = V~(~ sin 2s) = ~ sin 2s.
= {- 8 ~ + ~ b ~ 3] sin 2s = O. (8.6)
Eq. (8.6) has the trivial solution ~ = 0 and the nontrivial solution
eq. (8.6), to get h(s) = ± 2 Sb. i sin 2s for the second branch of eigen-
solutions.
tribal in this case, the ~resslons OlCS,~) = Oo+h = * 2__~ ~a 1 sin s and
- 88 -
need for the process of Theorems 2.3 and 2.4. Of course one could follow
the steps. The uniqueness property of Theorem 2.3 would yield no other re-
suit.
(8.7)
behaves as the is, branch ~l(S,k) evolves. The eigenvalue ~i does not
does happen if 2b
a
> 1 but cannot happen if 2b
a
g 1. Hence we get the same
direct elementary methods, that the two sub-branches or twigs split away
from the main branch ~l(Stk) at this point and evolve to the right. When
equation, eq. (4.2), we find that difficulties arise. When we compute the
for which K(l-s,l-t) = K(s~t) and f(l°s,x) = f(s,x). The example of section
eq. (4.2) at a secondary bifurcation point, whence the Newton Polygon method
Section i. Some writers prefer to call such a point a limit point of the
for the more intuitive idea of the splitting of a branch. In any case, however,
We can compare and assess the two conditions ngainst secondary bifurca-
1
must be no higher than ~ . Now in the present example, A 2 can be given a
most refined definition. In connection with eq. (8.7) we saw that the two
first branch ~l(S,k) evolved. We know these expressions for 141 and 142
142(K, :L+,-~2 )
over this known branch only, rather than over the positive
2)
b
cone. The m~xi~um of the ratio is ~ and is assumed at k = a, i.e. at
tion in this example. Hence condition (6.9b) while being a sufficient condi-
< 3X.-2a
l+~. -1 2~
-91 -
against s e c ~ bil~rcation.
- 92 -
~'t s , s<t
I
n
a(s,t) =
~'s t , s > t (9.1)
N
2
sin ns sin nt, O< s~ t ~ t
n
point boundaryvalue problem (we have changed the upper limit of integra-
tion in eq. (6.2) to ~)~
Xss + ~-if(s,x(s)) = o
(9.2)
x(o) = o x(~) = o.
The question arises of what alternative methods there may be for studying
f(x(s)). We now study the autonomous case to see how the absence of
We take a definite case; namely let us deal with the Hammerstein Equa-
tion
mss + k'l[~u~3] = 0
(9.4)
~(o) = o ~(~) = o.
Then ~s = k
%~ and ~ss = k
-1~ , whence the problem takes the form
m~+ [o~ 3] =o
(9.5)
~(o) -- 0 ~(×~) = o.
This sets the stage for using the initial value problem
m~+ [~3] = o
(9.6)
m(o) = o, ~(o) = e > o
(%)2 + ko a + ~ ~ 1 = c2
÷C' "
(9.7)
,/7--2 _-c~
"2
~4~ + Cp - C =
- 94 -
~0e~OE ~"~3 t ~ ,
Om$~p,
= ,~ i sn'l(sin $,k)
~ _L -~÷~ /2,% 2)
and $ -- sin"I "P ~]~ -q .....
= 2 2 = ~
P +q 2 ~
= .o2(2.q2) .
have
or sn ~,k = p q sn ~,k .
pqsn ( ~,k)
Thus ~(~) -
sn 2 ~+q2
The elliptic function of the first kind sn(x,k) has the real period
TT
dt
K(k) --
q(i.t2)(i.St2)
is monotone increasing in k, [ref. 5, P. 19]. Hence if we seek to solve
the boundary value problem (9.5), we are interested in matching the zeros
~gl - 2K(k)
and
2K(k) 2 |
ri dt
Jo ~(l-t2) (l-2t 2 )
ol÷
where we remember that k = k(c) = ~ 2 V l + 2 e 2 • We have N ~ K(k) < ---
n2 2 ~ l+~c I _
=
z2(c!) - (9.8)
and eq. (9.8) tells how the eigenvalue k varies as we vary the initial
slope. Thus eq. (9.8), together with problem (9.6), defines a branch of
~ + ~ = 0
(9.9)
: o m(x : o.
1 , n : 1,2,-...
Linear problem (9-9) has simple eigenvalues at k = -~
n
In a similar fashion we match the n'th zero ~n of the solution of
~n(C) = = n~l(C).
2 2 ~
k ~ n i
-- - ............... - 0 (9.10)
and k-, = as c -. ~ .
n
slope Cn; eq. (9.10) gives the eigenvalue while problem (9.6) with c = cn
1
gives the eigenfunctions. The primary bifurcation f r o m ~ m 0 is at k = -~ .
n
For future reference, we note that the n'th maximum of the solution of
Now let us consider again the solution of problem (9.6) which forms a
h~ + [i+3~2]h = 0
(9.12)
h(o) = 0 h~(o) -. 1.
98-
Problem (9.12) has a trajectory which also revolves around the origin
O, i, 2, • • • • By inspection we
have
but not for m+l. Then we have a m < ~ < ~m+l ~ ~m+l" The integrand in
eq. (9.13), (in which we put V = m)1 is positive since h and £0 have the
same sign between ~m and ~m+l under our assumption, and since sgn h(~m,C)
L e m B 9-2: ~ < ~v+l' and ~v+l < ~v+l' v = 0,1,2, ...; in other words,
the le~d of the (h,k) trajectory over the (~,$) trajectory in Fig. 9.3
Pr+oof: The first statement follows from the second since by inspection
of Fig. 9.3, it is clear that ~ < ~+i' ~ = 0,i,2,---. The second state-
ment can be proves by showing that sgn h(~,c) = sgn ~(r~,c), V = 1,2,3, "'"
(.1)~-1 .JV l + 2 c 1 .
d
But
Therefore sen h(~,c) = s~s O(~,c), ~ = 1,2,3, "'', which proves the i ~ .
t i o n s of problem (9.~).
Proof: Solutions of problem 49-5), equivalent to problem (9-~), are given
'I 2
~n(C) = k ' ~ . By eq. (9.10) we had k = ~ as the n'th branch eigen-
~ J ( c n)
value of problem (9-5) expressed as a function of the initial slope cn of
h~ + (l+30n2)h = 0
(9.1#)
h(o) = 0 h(k'~) = 0
are obtained by matching the zeros @v of the solution of the initial value
2
problem (9.12) with the value k'~11; thus ~v = ~ ( C n ) " By Le-,-as 9.1 and
2 2 2
~n+l(Cn ) = 2 ~J(Cn) = ~n(Cn )
~n+l(Cn ) ~n2(Cn )
0 < C <~.
n
A = ~n+l or k = ~n" Since the eigenvalues ~n' ~n+l of problem (9.14) are
the Ha.,.erstein equation (9.3), we can say that ~n+l < k with a ~rgin.
2 2 2
:
~n+l(Cn ) = -2 .... < .... 2 . . . . . . . . <
=n+l(Cn ) nn+l(C n) ~J(c n)
O~ C <=e,
n
7?
we merely chose the first two terms of this kernel. In the present sec-
tion we have discovered that there indeed do exist sets of constants {~(o)}-
10 . . _S_ummary;
~ C o_llect!on .0f_ . ~ . . ~ e s e s ; _ U n s e t t ! e d Qu_estione.
and t h e c o n c l u s i o n s , i n a p r o g r e s s i v e f a s h i o n .
I n s e c t i o n 2 i t i s assumed t h a t T(x) i s a g e n e r a l l y n o n l i n e a r c o n t i n u -
derivative of T(x) is a linear operator T' (x) defined for each parameter
T(x), i.e. the transformation AoI-T' (xo) has a bounded inverse, and sup-
pose also that (Xo,A o) solves the nonlinear equation (2.1), i.e.,
(Theorem 2.4). This sheet is the only locus of solutions passing throu@h
the ordinary Point (Xo,Ao) , and the only finite boundary Points it can
coml~ct (statement H-I); such is the case if the nonlinear operator T(x)
AoI-T ' (Xo) , (see Lemma 3.1). Let h = Vs(u) be the unique solution of the
eq. (2.1), then (h,5) also satisfies h = MFs(h)+u where u conforms to the
tion of this algebraic system in terms of assumed bases for the null spaces
eq. (3.8).
eq. (2.1) a t a n exceptional point (Xo,k o) such that the n u l l space ~l(Xo)
of AoI-T' (xO) has dimension one, is taken up. Bifurcation eq. (3.8) is
then one equation in one unsown, viz. eq. (4.1). The Newton Polygon
method of solution is introduced and described, but for more details the
T(x) is an odd operator, i.e., T(-x) = -T(x) (statement H-2). With this
there exist two nontrivial solution branches x~(A) of the equation T(x) -- ~x,
tion x = e at the point A = A o. The two branches differ only in sign. The
branching is to the left or right according to whether a2a 4 > 0 or a2a4 < O,
eq. (5.2)). Also two pure categories of nonlinearity are introduced for
and Theorem 4.2 are interpreted for Ham~erstein operators. Lastly, the
for its use: operator (5.6) has only simple eigenvalues whatever the
of the Has~erstein operator (5.2) from the s-~ll into the large. Assump-
tions about the operator, mentioned in section 5, are given precise defini-
eigenvalue problem, given in the small by Theorem 4.2, which arise at the
"primary" bifurcation points~ (O), n = 0,1,2,..-, are such that the p'th
AA
I05 -
branch functions have exactly p odd order interior zeros (and no other
interior zeros). Actually this result holds in the large as well. Next,
Xfxl (s,x)
in the sublinear case it is shown that if, (a priori), ~ ~ ~ ~ i,
i
A ~ 1 , O ~ s ~ i, - ~ < x ~ + ~ . A couple of attempts are made to re-
(6.17); the two conditions bear some resemblance to each other but also
the p'th branch xp~(s,k) (the two parts differ only in sign) is a con-
tion point ~p
Col , exists in the large, and becomes infinite as k ~ Vp,
bifurcation point."
not enough of the lumped terms seem to cancel as was the case in producing
secondary bifurcation for Hammerstein operators which are such that K(l-s,l-t)
In s e c t i o n 9 we f i r s t n o t e t h e e q u i v a l e n c e between t h e e t g e n v a l u e
* P l e a s e s e e Appendix h o w e v e r .
- 107 -
that K(s,t) has the form given in eq. (9.1), and a certain familiar two
boundary value problem, namely (9.4), in a way which clearly relates this
only the first two terms). But kernel (9.1) is that particular choice of
there actually do exist sets of constants {~(o)} such that the eigenfune-
problem (9.14), with the complete kernel (9.15)~ such that there is no
Thus, assumptions H-I through H-6 have been made on the nonlinear
operator T(x) mapping a real Banach space X into itself, with T(e ) = 8,
for a n y x 6 X.
Ha-~erstein operator in C(O,l), (see eq. (9-2)). They are used in sec-
tions 6 and 7-
H-3:
z u
f(s,x) is four times differentiable in x, with Ifv ivl, bounded uni-
a%
H-4a: Subllnearity; i.e. fx'(S'X) > O, 0 < s < i, and Xfx" (s,x) < O,
O~ S< i.
While these notes may answer some questions about nonlinear eigen-
tion pair (Xo, k o) such that koI-T' (xo) has a bounded inverse. A more
- 1 0 9 -
dition x = Xo, k = ko, provided one could carefully show the differen-
CqT' and R~T' can be exceptional points with respect to the nonlinear
tion (3.4) using the extended pseudo inverse has some aesthetic appeal,
namely eq. (3.8), do not. The method used was that of Bartle [ref. i,
B. Zwahlen [ref. 23], and D. Sather [ref. 48] of the University of Wis-
pp. 229-231] .*
[ref. 4, p. 134], Bazley and Zwahlen [ref. 3], Graves [ref. 12] and Sather
there was trouble in applyiv~ the Newton Polygon method in the case where
the leading coefficient a I in eq. (4.2) vanishes (see section 8). This
problem needs attention in that this situation does arise with HAmmer-
secondary bifurcation can arise through the possibility that on the p'th
above. This provides a rich field for study. Again, is there a weaker
tion kernel) which would guarantee that the operator (~.6) has only simple
we know them now. Could such a weaker assumption about K(s,t) enable us
must live with the oscillation kernel, for the time being, in our desire
preciated in these notes how our need for the oscillation kernel forces
formulation.
With sections 6 and 7, the need is clearly that of a yet more re-
problem; the case does not lend itself very well to the Newton Polygon
a new method?*
i~ircation points ~n
(o) = -~
l for eigenvalue problem (9.14), which is
n
equivalent to boundary value problem (9.4), must satisfy some condi-
the boundary value problem. What is this condition on the primary bi-
furcation points? Whatever the condition may be, we see that it is not
VACUOUS •
their own right in physics. We mention the problem of the buckled beam
[ref. 14, pp. 181-183], the buckled circular plate [refs. 28, 35, 36, 53],
the problem of waves on the surface of a heavy liquid [ref. 42] t the prob-
lems of the heavy rotating chain and of the rotating rod [refs. 20 and 38]p
the problem of Taylor vortices in a rotating liquid [ref. 37], the Benard
problem [refs. 27, 29, 35], and the Problem of Ambipolar Diffusion of Ions
and Electrons in a Plasma, [refs. 22, 24]. There are certainly many more.
useful in connection with eq. (2.1)? The reader might wish to read
In this connection, the reader might consult the recent work of Dorroh,
These notes have dealt largely with the point spectrum of the non-
linear operator T(x). These are the points A of the spectrum to which
Are there other kinds of points in the spectrum of T(x)? Under very
bread assumptions J.Neuberger [ref. 44] has shown that a nonlinear opera-
tors? Are there any other parts of the spectrum of these more general
operators?
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Berlin (19~).
i0. Goldberg, S., Unbounded Linear O~erators, McGraw Hill, 1966.
- 115 -
PP. 127-193.
14. Erasnoselskii~M. A., ~ i c a l methods in the theory of nonlinear
Institute (1961).
17. Pimbley, G. H. Jr., "A sublinear Sturm-Liouville problem," J. of
Pp. 81-9~.
21. Zaanen, A. C., Linsar ~n~lysis~ Interscience Publishers Inc., New
York (1953) •
- 116
ADDITIONAL REFERENCES
Studies Center (Geneva, Switz.), Math. Report No. 16, Oct. 1968.
Laboratory (1959) •
pp. 839-888.
Washington 25, D. C.
problem," Comm. on Pure and Applied Math., Vol. 8 (19~5), PP. 395-
4O8.
1964.
41. Krasnoselskii, M. A. "Some problems of nonlinear analysis," A.M.S.
42. Nekrasov, A. I., "The exact theory of steady waves on the surface
813.
43. Neuberger, J.W., "An exponential formula for one-l~rameter semi-
groups of nonlinear transformations," J. Math. Soc. of Japan, Vol.
Vol. 31 (1968).
46. Pimbley, G. H. Jr., "Positive solutions of a quadratic integral
eq~tion," Archive for Rat. Mech. and Anal., Vol. 24 (1967), No. 2,
PP. 107-127.
versity of Wisconsin.
- 119 -
Albuquerque, N. M.
the bifurcation equation, eq. (3.4) into a form suitable for application
pute the q~antity Fs(Vs(U)). As the patient reader discovers, this method
is very arduous.
[ref. 4~ p. 37], N. Bazley and B. Zwahlen [ref. 23], and D. Sather [ref.
process. Their treatments are rather special, however, in that they apply
For simplicity, however~ we confine the treatment here to the case of unit
multiplicity (i.e., n = I); the above authors treat cases of higher multi-
plicity as well.
(where koI-Tt(x o) is singular) to eq. (3.2) an~l eq. (3.4)~ which is more
unity, [ref. 21, p. 334, Th. 6]. In particular it works then in the case
Hilbert space H, [ref. 21~ p. 342, Theorem 18~ p. 397, Theorem 3]. This
- 121 -
' = - o + + lRl(Xo,h)
E1Fs(h) = ( I - E 1 ) F s ( h ) = [AoI-T'(Xo)]Elh
--e
which is Just eq. (3.~).
Tt(Xo) , is unity, the approach to the bifurcation equations (3.2) and (3.4)
is straightforward.
a real scalar 8,nd u 0 the normalized element Slm~rAning ~l(Xo). In the sequel
- 1 2 2 -
We now seek to pass directly from eq. (A.3) to a form which resembles
eq. (4.3) and to which the Newton polygon type of analysis may be applied.
~%*Xo + ~%~o
-- g%o~Cx (%) i+ u o
o g%o~x (uo)
o
uo *~x ° (h) ]
+ o
g~UJCxo(%)
- 123 -
Following Bazley and Zwahlen [ref. 23, P. 4], we must show that the
Proof: The result follows from the generalized Implicit Function Theorem
(which yields the same result about eq. (3.2) as our Theorem (3.2), if not
the same nonlinear develolXaent (3-5) needed in Section 3) and its corollary
v(~.~+t)-v(~.~t
) = R(Xo)F~(v(~,~+t)-F~t
(v(~,~)) + U •
0
Using eq. (A.2) and passing to the limit as t - O, we get the following
e q u a t i o n f o r V~(5,~):
+ ~Dxo(VCS,~);v
~) 1+ %; (A.~)
I- +
here dCx (h;k) and dD x (h; k) are the first Fr~chet differentials of the
o o
n o n l i n e a r o p e r a t o r s Cxo(h) , Dxo(h ) a t h o E X.
1
lldCXo(h,k)II < ~ K(Xo)llh]la'l'll~l
since (8;k) = o(1121) and D (h) = o(llhll~). Thus lira d O (h;k) = 8 unl-
Exo Xo ,h!l~ ~o
ro~ on II~l = 1.
where d2,5 2 are numbers arising in the proof of Theorem 3.2. Thus
~1~oll
1-211~ql{ ~K(x o)llv (8,~)II~'~+IID~ ¢v¢8,~ ) )11
o
o
- 125 -
u°* IC Xo
(v(~,~))-c xo (,uo)I
~aUo*Cx (uo)
o
-.0
0 as Isl,l~l -" o
in v l e w o f the s-homogeneity of C x (h), a n d L e m m A . 2 . Also
o
Uo*DXo(v (~, ~ ) )
~%o~x O
(%) o
0 a s 5 , ~ -. 0
We now see, with reference to eq. (A.4), that the bifurcation equa-
where
(u o )
t e n d s t o z e r o as ~,~ ~ O.
- 126 -
a I : - ~o*~o, a2 : . ~o~o,
C~
= C o) =
o
integer ~ m 2.
Theorems 4.2 and 4.3, proved in exactly the same way as in Section 4.
wise C x (h) might more properly be taken as the first Fr~chet differential
o
form such that ~ l # 0.)
It is interesting to see how we can resolve a difficulty which arose
nated eq. (5.3). The corresponding coefficients for eq. (A.7) are
z ,~(~) m.z,
al=-Of;, Uo, X o ) , a2=-(f~:o~O,'%), %l=~.~.o ~x '~o J'
o o
integer a ~ 2.
become:
- 127 -
a2
= - ([l+3~s 2 ]sin 2s, sin 2s)
= - I1 + ~_~]a-b . < O~
1 ab
a S = ~[. ~ ( ~ s b ,sinB2s)
N
ab ~ ..22 sin s sin32sds = 0
= ab (1,si n4 2 s ) ab
..............
2b..a ~si~2~S
ab
= ~ 2-~.a ~ O,
ab
on the zero'th branch at k = Ash = ~ where secondary bifurcation takes
place.
Eq. (A.8) is handlea in the same way as similar equation (4.4) is treated
in the proof of Theorem 4.2. Since a2a4 < O, bifurcation is to the right,
of eq. (A.8) which when substituted in eq. (3.2), along with x o = Osb,
branch away from the secondary bifurcation point (q0sb,ksb). Again these
now write as
+ ~±(8)sin 2s,
have yet to obtain a good understanding of this, and to reconcile the two