7. State and explain the classification of connections in steel structures.

• Connections are structural elements used for joining different members of structural steel framework.
• The various elements of steel structures like tension members, compression members and flexibility members are connected by fasteners (connectors).
• Different types of fasteners available are rivets, bolts, pins, welds.

- Classification of connections

Classification based on means of connections Beam and Column Splice connections Bracket connections Classification based on forces to be transferred

Moment connections
Shear connections
• Also known as simple connections • Also known as rigid connections
• Transfers shear forces and little or • Carries a portion of the full moment capacity of
Rivetted Connections- Welded connections no moment to the connecting the supported member this preventing any end
Bolted Connections-
• Rare in modern construction practices. • Are direct and efficient means of transferring member this allowing end rotation rotation of the member and also carries the
• It is the preferred method of connecting members on the site.
of the member. shear component of the load.
• Applicable for members subjected to tension or shear or both • Were predominantly used in railway bridges in India. forces from one member to the other
• Are generally made of melting base metal • Shear connections may be made to • Relative rotation between the supporting and
tension and shear. • Very similar to bearing type of bolted connections.
the web of the supported member supported member is negligee
• This connection has the advantage of flexibility in assembling as • Structural rivets are driven hot and the river shank expands to fill from parts to be joined with the weld metal
while flanges remain unconnected. • Both the webs and the flanges are connected
well as dismantling the parts of the structure when necessary. the hole while being driven. which upon cooling form the connection.
• The length of the rivet should be sufficient to form a second head.

Types of bolts used in bolted connections

Advantages Disadvantages Classification of bolted connections
• Less manpower • Subjection to vibratory
required loads results in the
reduction in strength
and loosening of the Lap Joint-The two Butt Joint-
bolted connections. members are connected by • The two members are to be connected
• High strength bolts • Unfinished bolts have overlapping. by placing the members end to end and
Unfinished/Black/C grade bolts ( 151364:2002) Precision (A- Ribbed High strength Turned additional plates provided on either one
• Most common type of bearing holts in the clearance are much stronger lesser strength because
grade) and bolts - bolts (IS: bolts- or both sides to attach them properly.
than rivets, hence less of non-uniform
holes semi- precision rarely 3757- 1985 expensive • The additional plate is called cover plate
numbers of fasteners diameter. • If the cover plates are provided on both
• Often referred to as ordinary bolts (B- grade) bots used in and IS: 4000- are required. the sides of the main plate then it is
• Popular since they are economical both in terms of (IS: 1364- ordinary 1992)- • It is a cold process; referred to as double cover butt jint.
material and installation costs. 1992)-They are steel friction type hence no risk of fire is
• Have adequate strength and ductility when used use when no structures. connections involved.
properly. slippage is • Bolting connections
• Mostly used in light structures under static load. permitted. are much quicker.

Advantages Disadvantages
Classification of rivetted joints according
• Can join dissimilar • High labour cost.
to the arrangement of rivets and plates materials Category Of Welded Connections
• Ability to make joints • Process is noisier Advantages- Disadvantages
regardless of the
location Butt welds- are • Economical - in • No provision for
Fillet welds - are
made by putting terms of both expansion or
made against two
• High shear strength, • Joints are bulkier than plate surfaces material and contraction,
surfaces of adjacent
good fatigue welding and brazing labor cost therefore greater
plates to join them against one another
Lap joint Butt joint Snap head rivet - resistance • 100 % chances of cracking
together. and filling the gap
• Single riveted lap joint- has • Single riveted single cover butt joint- has one • Most commonly used • Uneven heating
between contact efficiency
row of river on each plate. type of rivet • Relatively inexpensive Do not make a leak proof and cooling causes
only one row of rivets surfaces with the • Provides rigid
• Single riveted double cover butt joint method, the joint unless using hot members to
• Double riveted lap joint- has • Used in large structural weld metal in the joints.
production of rivets is rivet or a sealant distort.
two rows of rivets • Double riveted double cover butt joint - has work where strength is process fusing the • Easy fabrication • Defects
cheap like
two rows of rivets in each main plate of cover needed. base metal also of complex internal air pockets
• together. structures. slag inclusion and
incomplete
penetration are
difficult to detect
 1. Define steel structures and explain the classification of
steel in details.
• A structure that is made up of a combination of structural steel members designed to carry loads and
provide adequate rigidity is known as a steel structure.
• Because of the high strength grade of steel, this structure is reliable and requires less raw materials
than other types of structure like concrete structure and timber structure.
• In modern construction, steel structures are used for almost every type of structure including heavy
industrial building, high-rise building, equipment support system, infrastructure, bridge, tower,
airport terminal, heavy industrial plant, pipe rack, etc.

Steel - is basically an alloy of iron and carbon with a small percentage of other metals such as nickel,
chromium, aluminium, cobalt, molybdenum, tungsten, etc.
Classification of Steel

Very low carbon Mild steel Medium carbon High carbon Alloy
steel steel- steel steel-
• The percentage of
• The percentage of carbon content in steel • The percentage of • Percentage of Any
carbon is less than is up to 0.25%. carbon content is carbon context steel
0.1% • Tensile strength of 565 between 0.25% to is between 0.7
other
• Relatively soft and N/m 0.7% to 1.5.
• Soft and malleable • Much stronger than • Once heat than
weak
• They possess good • This steel can be used low carbon steel treated, it carbon
formability and in flat round products • Increased carbon becomes steel is
weldability. (sheets/ strips) by using means increased extremely hard called
• Cannot be hardened cold rolled and hardness and tensile and brittle. as alloy
appreciably by heat annealed condition strength and • High carbon
steel.
treatment but can be (used for rolling into decreased ductility. steel is
strengthened by cold thin sheets) • Medium carbon steel extremely
treatment. • Used in automobile is difficult to form, difficult to cut,
parts, seamless tubes, weld and cut. bend and weld.
tin can sheets, metal • Medium carbon steel • Less prone to
roofing sheets, etc. is quite often wear
hardened and • Capable of
tempered using heat holding a sharp
treatment. cutting edge

Stainless
Low Alloysteel
steel (3 to 4 % alloying element) High Alloy steel (more than 5 % allowing element)

Tool and die steel Stainless steel

2. When and where are steel structures used?

Steel is employed in construction where-

To Build High Rise Buildings
Structural steel is resistant to external forces such as wind and earthquakes. It is a flexible metal,
so in the case of a storm or an earthquake, the steel component in the building will not break but
bend.
• Structural sections: these provide a strong, stiff frame for the building and make up 25% of the
steel use in buildings.
• Reinforcing bars: these add tensile strength and stiffness to concrete and make up 44% of steel
use in buildings. Steel is used because it binds well to concrete, has a similar thermal expansion
coefficient and is strong and relatively cost-effective. Reinforced concrete is also used to provide
deep foundations and basements and is currently the world’s primary building material.
• Sheet products: 31% is in sheet products such as roofing, purlins, internal walls, ceilings, cladding,
and insulating panels for exterior walls.
• Non-structural steel: steel is also found in many non-structural applications in buildings, such as
heating and cooling equipment and interior ducting.
• Internal fixtures and fittings such as rails, shelving and stairs are also made of steel.

To build long span structures

The ability of steel to span greater distances with steel ceiling joists creates unobstructed and
column free spaces.
To Build Industrial Sheds
Another benefit of structural steel is that it is cost effective. With the availability of ready-made
steel sections, structural frameworks can be erected in no time. Moreover, a lot of work can be
pre- done in the industrial site, thereby saving time and money.
For infrastructure
Steel has a high strength to weight ratio, which means, steel is a tensile metal. It is durable and can
withstand the weight of a fleet of cars and people. These qualities enable engineers, designers,
and fabricators to build large, monumental bridges that can stand the test of time
• Transport networks: steel is required for bridges, tunnels, rail track and in constructing buildings
such as fueling stations, train stations, ports and airports. About 60% of steel use in this application
is as rebar and the rest is sections, plates and rail track.
• Utilities (fuel, water, power): over 50% of the steel used for this application is in underground
pipelines to distribute water to and from housing, and to distribute gas. The rest is mainly rebar
for power stations and pumping houses.
3. Explain the various IS codes in steel structures.
Indian Standard Codes are a list of codes used for the purpose of design and anlaysis of structures.
Various I S Codes used in designing steel structures are-
IS : 800 : 2007 - Code of Practice for general construction in Steel
It is based on the limit state method of design
IS : 2062 : 1999 – Steel for general structural purpose specifications
It specifies standards for hot rolled medium and high tensile structural steel.
IS : 875 : 1987 – Practice for design of live load, dead load, wind load, snow load, etc.
• IS : 875 PART 1 : 1987 – dead load ( includes self-weight and perm load )
• IS : 875 PART 2 : 1987 – Live load
• IS : 875 PART 3 : 1987 – Wind Load ( It is a dynamic load. The intensity of the wind pressure on the surface
depends on wind velocity, orientation of structures, shape and area of contact surface)
• IS : 875 PART 4 : 1987 – Snow load ( Downward force on the building due to accumulation of snow on the
top of the building)
• IS : 875 PART 5 : 1987 – Special load and load combinations ( involves different load combinations live
load + dead load or live load + snow load )
IS : 808 : 1989 – Dimensions for hot rolled steel beam, column, channel and angle sections
IS : 456 : 2000 - RCC
IS : 802 PART 2 : 1978 – Code of practice for use of structural steel in overhead transmission,
towers, fabrication, galvanising, inspection and packing.
IS : 806 : 1968 - Code of practice for use of steel tubes in general building construction
IS : 1161 : 1998 – Specifications for steel tubes for structural purposes.
IS : 814 : 2004 – Covered Electrodes for Manual Metal Arc Welding of Carbon and Carbon
Manganese Steel Specification
IS : 816 : 1969 – Code of Practice for use of Metal Arc Welding for General Construction in Mild
Steel.
IS : 1182 : 1983 – Recommended practice for radiographic examination of fusion welded butt joints
in steel plates
IS : 1363 Part 1 & 3 : 2002 – Black Hexagonal Headed Bolts, Screws, Nuts & Locknuts of Product
Grade C- Hexagon Head Bolts (M5-M64)
IS : 1367 Part 1 To 3 & 5 To 7 : 2002 – Technical Supply Conditions for Threaded Steel Fasteners
IS : 1852 : 1985 – Rolling and Cutting Tolerances for Hot Rolled Steel Products
IS : 2062 : 1999 – Steel For General Structural Purposes- Specification
IS : 3502 : 1994 – Specification For Steel Chequered Plates
IS : 3658 : 1999 – Code of Practice for Liquid Penetrant Flaw Detection
IS : 3757 : 1985 - High Strength Friction Grip Structural Bolts
IS : 4260 : 2004 – Recommended Practice for Ultrasonic Testing of Butt Welds in Ferritic Steel
IS : 5334 : 2003 – Code of Practice for Magnetic Flaw Detection of Welds
IS : 5369 : 1975 – General Requirements for Plain Washers and Lock Washers.
IS : 5372 : 1975 - Specification – Taper Washers for Channels.
IS : 5374 : 1975 – Specification – Taper Washers for I – Beams
IS : 6639 : 2005 – Specification for Hexagon Bolts for Steel Structures
IS : 7205 : 1974 - Safety Code for Erection of Structural Steel Work
IS : 7215 : 1974 – Tolerances for Fabrication Of Steel Structures
IS : 8500 : 1991 – Weldable structural steel (Medium and High Strength qualities)
IS : 12843 : 1989 – Tolerances for Erection Of Steel Structures.
IS : 9595 : 1996 - Recommendation for metal arc welding of carbon manganese steel
4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of steel
structures?
Advantages Disadvantages
Steel is a tensile material and has a high strength Steel is an alloy of iron. This makes it susceptible
to weight ratio which means it has high strength to corrosion. This problem can be solved to
per unit mass. So even if the large the overall some extent using anti-corrosion applications.
structure is, the steel sections will be small and
lightweight, unlike other building materials.

Steel can be easily fabricated and produced Maintenance- Steel structures exposed to air
massively. Steel sections can be produced off-site
and water, such as bridges, are susceptible to
at shop floors and then assembled onsite. This corrosion and should be painted regularly.
saves time and increases the efficiency of the Application of weathering and corrosion-
overall construction process. resistant steels may eliminate this problem
Ductility- Structural steel is very flexible, movable
Fireproofing - The strength of steel is reduced
and ductile. You can mould it into any shape, substantially when heated at temperatures
without changing its properties. You can convert commonly observed in building fires. Also, steel
it into sheets or turn it into wires as per the conducts and transmits heat from a burning
design. portion of the building quite fast.
1.
Susceptibility to Buckling- As the length of the
Structural steel is very durable. Steel structures
can withstand external pressures such as steel column increases the chances of buckling
earthquakes, thunderstorms and cyclones and also increases. Steel has a high expansion rate
with changing temperatures. This can be
well-built structures can last up to 30 years if well
maintained. detrimental to the overall structure.
It is relatively cheap. Fatigue- Steel structures are prone to fatigue
failure when subjected to cyclic loading.
Steel is very well sustainable and recyclable. Very small resistance to fire when compared to
concrete.
Modifiable- Existing steel columns and beams can Brittle - Under certain conditions, steel may lose
be strengthened through the attachment of steel its ductility which may lead to brittle fracture at
plate to the flanges or the web of the sections, the places of stress and concentration.
allowing for greater loads.
The ability to span greater distances with steel Clasping- The odds of clasping increase with the
ceiling joists. expansion in the length of steel sections.
With the usage of bolted connections, steel Fabrication error- Though steel is a versatile
structures can easily be dismantled and material, its not easy to make corrections if one
transported. or more components do not fit properly.
Provides aesthetic appeal. High expansion rate- Steel has a high expansion
rate in changing temperatures, thus is heavy
and expensive to transport.

333
 5. State various types of rolled steel I sections and angle
sections, mention one example of each.
Rolled Steel I Sections
Examples
Thickness Thickness Flange
Depth Width
Code Name of the of the Slope M in
Code (D) in (B) in R1 R2 Graphics
flange (T) web (t) in (α) in kg/m
mm mm
in mm mm degrees

Indian
ISJB
ISJB Standard 225 80 5 3.7 6.5 1.5 91.5 32.8
225
Junior Beams

Indian
ISMB
ISMB Standard 225 6.5 11.8 6.5 12 6 98 31.1
225
Medium Beams

Indian
ISWB
ISWB Standard Wide 225 150 9.9 6.4 9 4.5 96 33.9
225
Flange Beams

Indian
Standard ISSC
ISHB 250 250 12 10 23 12 98 85.6
Heavy beams/ 250
column section

Indian
ISLB
ISLB Standard Light 225 100 8.6 5.8 12 6 98 23.5
225
Beams

Angle Sections
Examples
Code Name A *B in Thickness(t)
Designation R1 R2 Graphics
mm in mm

Indian Standard
ISA Equal Angle ISA 150 * 150 *12 150*150 10 12 4.8
Sections

Indian Standard
ISA Unequal Angle ISA 150 * 115 *13 150*115 10 11 4.8
Sections
 6. Explain the various types of hot rolled steel sections
• Hot rolling refers to a steel process in which steel is rolled at a temperature above its
recrystallisation temperature.
• When steel is heated past its recrystallisation point, it becomes more malleable and can be
properly formed and shaped.
Types Classification according to IS Graphics
T- sections • ISNT – Indian Standard Normal Tee
• It consists of a flange and a web. Bars
• Designated by depth and weight per unit • ISHT - Indian Standard Heavy Tee
length. Bars
• Widely used as members of steel roof • ISLT - Indian Standard Light Tee
trusses. Bars
• Also used to form built up sections. • ISJT - Indian Standard Junior Tee
• Available in various sizes ranging from Bars
20*20*3 mm to 150*150*10 mm.
Angle sections • ISA - Indian Standard Equal Angles
• Available as equal and unequal angles. • ISA - Indian Standard Equal Angles
• The legs of equal angles are equal and in • ISBA - Indian Standard Bulb
the case of unequal angle sections, the Angles
length of one of the legs is greater than the
other.
• Have great applications in fabrications.
Channel sections • ISJC - Indian Standard Channel
• They consist of a web and two flange Sections
angles. • ISLC - Indian Standard Channel
• The junction between the flange and the Sections
web is known as fillet. • ISMC - Indian Standard Channel
• Used in crane girders, beams, columns etc. Sections
• ISSC - Indian Standard Channel
Sections
I-sections • ISJB – Indian Standard Junior Beam
• Also known as steel beams, or rolled steel • ISLB – Indian Standard Light Beam
joists. • ISMB – Indian Standard Medium
• Used extensively as beams, lintels, Beam
columns etc. • ISWB – Indian Standard Wide Beam
• Consists of two flanges and a web. • ISHB – Indian Standard Flange
Beam
Hollow Structural Sections
Can be square, circular or rectangular.

Corrugated Sheets
• Plain steel sheets are passed through
machines which produce bends by pressing
them called corrugations.
• Used for roof coverings.
Ribbed Bars • Ribbed Bars (HYSD)
Ribs are projections produced on bars by • Ribbed Bars (Mild Steel)
cold hoisting in hot rolled conditions.
8. State the difference between fillet and Butt weld.
Fillet Weld Butt Weld
Fillet welds are made against two surfaces of Butt welds are made by butting plate surfaces
adjacent plates in order to join them together. against one another and filling the gap between
contact surfaces with weld metal, in the process
of fusing the base metal also together.
Simple, fast and economical to make. Costlier than fillet welds because of the
requirement of edge preparation.
No prior edge preparation is necessary. Early designed and fabricated to be as strong as
the member.
Does not require very skilled labour. Requires more skilled man power than that of
fillet welds.
Less attractive in appearance. Better appearance as compared to fillet welds.
Thickness = 0.707 *weld size Thickness =5/8 *thickness of the thinner plate
Poor performance under fatigue loading. Better fatigue characteristics compared to fillet
welds.
Not appropriate to transfer forces large in Easy to detail and the length of the connections
magnitude. is considerably reduced.