Interaction

1 Read and discover.

We perceive the world through our senses.
Sight, touch, smell, hearing and taste allow
us to explore the environment around us.
All the information received by our senses is
processed by our most important organ, the
brain. The brain is home to the conscious
and unconscious mind, as well as our
emotions and memory. It controls our
involuntary actions, such as breathing, or
digesting our food, as well as our thinking
and decision making. What other types of
involuntary actions do we have?

006_019_U1_1T_107572.indd 6 06/04/15 10:36

 2 W
 hy is the brain so important? What information does
it process?

3 What are feelings and emotions?

4 W
 hy are our senses important? What would happen
if we lost the use of one or more of them?

5 W
 hich body parts or organs do you associate with the
function of interaction?
• brain • stomach • sense organs • muscles
• heart • skeleton • kidneys • lungs

6 O
 ur body moves in response to the information sent from
the brain. Which system enables us to move?

7 W
 hat is the difference between a voluntary and involuntary
muscle? Give an example of each.

8 W
 hy is it important to keep fit and healthy? What happens
if we do not look after our bodies?

006_019_U1_1T_107572.indd 7 06/04/15 10:36

 Analyse and organise

1 S
 tudy the different parts of the body in the box. What functions
do they have? Copy and complete the table in your notebook.

• bones  • brain  • eyes  • neurons  • skin  • muscles  • skeleton  

• taste buds   • joints  • spinal cord   • nerves  • nostrils  • tongue

receiving information processing information giving a response

..... ..... .....

..... ..... .....
..... ..... .....
..... ..... .....

2 L
 ook at the photos. Do they show someone receiving
information or giving a response?

a b c

d e f

006_019_U1_1T_107572.indd 8 06/04/15 10:36

 3  ead the text about how the brain compensates for loss of
R
vision, then decide if the sentences below are true or false.

Stevie Wonder and Ray Charles are both examples of well-known

musicians who lost their sight at an early age. It is impossible to
know if this lack of sight has contributed to their excellence in
music, but more and more studies are showing that those who are
born blind or who lose their sight early in life are better at non-
visual tasks than those who can see.

In tests, sighted and blind volunteers were asked to localise the

source of different noises. It was found that the blind participants
performed much better than those who could see. The unusual part, however, was that when the
participants’ brains were scanned while they were performing the task, it was discovered that the blind
participants were using the part of the brain associated with vision to process the information. In effect,
they were seeing with their ears. So, their brains were helping them navigate a world without sight.

This is just one of the ways in which scientists believe the brain adapts to overcome injuries or the loss
of senses.

a. All blind people are great musicians.
b. Tests show blind people are better at certain
tasks than sighted people.
c. The participants had to say where a sound was
coming from.
e. The participants’ brain activity was observed
during the test.
f. The blind participants had a more developed
audio processing area.
g. The brain can adapt itself.

d. Both groups performed the task well.

4 How else might our bodies compensate for the loss of a sense or a limb?

5  Who is Maria Lyle? Listen to the recording and complete

the sentences in your notebook.

a. Cerebral palsy is usually caused by ..... damage.

b. Maria Lyle, who suffers from cerebral palsy, won two
sprint races in August .....
c. She is only ..... years old.
d. Maria holds two world .....
e. Maria was diagnosed with cerebral palsy when she was .....
f. Her mother, who is a ..... teacher, convinced Maria to
take up running.

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 The nervous system
What are
reflex
Living organisms are made up of cells. Cells that perform the same actions?
function come together to create tissue. Tissues group together to
form organs. Organs that work together form the systems which
make up the bodies of organisms. One of these systems is the nervous
system.
Did you know?
The nervous system sends messages from the brain to different parts of
the body, such as the locomotor system (or musculoskeletal system) The average adult human brain
which allows us to respond to the stimuli from our senses. It also controls weighs about 1.5 kilograms and
our internal systems such as the digestive or respiratory systems. contains about 86 billion neurons!

The central nervous system

The brain and the spinal cord make up our central nervous system.

Brain
cerebrum skull (cranium)
The brain controls our nervous
system. It is protected by the
skull (or cranium). It is made up
of three main parts.
• The cerebrum is the biggest
part of our brain. This is where
we process the information from
our senses and where we do our
cognitive thinking. We use the
cerebrum to take decisions, to
study or to play a game.
• The main role of the cerebellum
is controlling our movements,
coordination and balance. cerebellum
• The brain stem is the
continuation of the spinal
cord. It controls involuntary
actions such as our heartbeat
breathing and sleeping.
spinal cord

Spinal cord
The spinal cord is made up of
nerve tissue and runs from our
brain down our spine. The spinal
cord is protected by the vertebrae.
brain stem
It controls our reflex actions.

10

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 The peripheral nervous system axon dendrites

The peripheral nervous system is made up of nerves. Nerves are made

up of tiny cells called neurons that transfer information through the
nervous system using electrical and chemical signals. Different neurons
carry out different tasks. A neuron

nerves

1 2
Sensory neurons collect
llum information from our sense
organs (eyes, ears, nose, tongue,
skin).
3
The brain interprets the Motor neurons send messages
information and sends signals to from the brain to our locomotor
the rest of the body. system.

1 W
 hat other systems do you know? Work
with a partner. Write down the names of
the systems of the body and what they do.
2 What protects our brain?
3 W
 hat would happen if we did not have a
peripheral nervous system?
4 H
 ow do reflex actions differ from other
actions?
5 D
 ecide if the following movements are
voluntary (V) or involuntary (I).
a. breathing c. blinking
b. playing the guitar d. reading

11

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 The senses
An eye uses a
lens to focus.
What else uses
Our sense organs allow us to interact with the world around us. They
a lens to focus?
detect information which is then transmitted to the brain. Here, the
information is deciphered and the brain then reacts to the stimulus.

Sight
1. Light reflected from an object
enters our eyes through the eyelid retina
cornea and pupil.
2. The amount of light entering
our eyes is controlled by the
iris. The iris gives the eye its optic nerve
pupil
colour.
3. The lens focuses the light on lens
the retina at the back of the
eye. cornea
4. Nerve receptors in the
retina transmit the iris
information to the optic
nerve which then sends the
information to the brain. eyelash blind spot
The place where the optic
nerve leaves the eye is called
a blind spot. This area does
not respond to light.

Hearing
1. Sound waves enter the middle ear
auditory canal in the outer auditory nerve
ear and cause the eardrum
to vibrate.
2. In turn, these vibrations make
the three small bones in the
middle ear vibrate.
cochlea
3. The vibrations finally reach
the cochlea in the inner ear,
where they become electrical
signals.
4. The auditory nerve then
auditory
sends the signals to the brain eardrum
canal
for processing.

12

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 Smell
nerve
Chemicals in the air enter our nose through our
receptors
nostrils. The chemicals then come into contact
with nerve receptors which send the information
to the brain via the olfactory nerve.

Taste
Substances enter our mouth and come into
contact with our tongue. The tongue is covered
in taste buds which have receptor cells. These
receptor cells detect the different tastes (salty,
sweet, bitter and sour) and send the information
to the brain.
Chemicals from substances in our mouths also
enter the nose which is why if we have a blocked
nose, food often tastes different or bland. tongue
taste bud

Touch
The skin covers and protects our whole body.
dermis
The middle layer of skin, called the dermis,
contains nerves and blood vessels. These detect
sensations such as heat, pressure and texture.
The nerves in the skin send information to the nerve
brain through the peripheral nervous system and
the spinal cord. blood
vessel

1 W
 hy do eyes have eyelashes and eyelids?
What are they used for?
2 W
 e use our ears to hear. What other
function do our ears have?
4 H
 ow are our senses of smell and taste
connected? What can happen if we have
a cold?
5 What do sensors in our skin detect?

3 What do we use contact lenses for? 6 W

 hat healthy habits can protect our sense
organs?

13

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 How we move
Look at
the picture
of the skeleton.
Our body moves in response to signals from the brain. These signals Identify the
travel through the nervous system to our muscles. These contract and flexible joints.
relax to allow us to move, hold objects, kick balls and make other
movements. The muscles are supported by the skeleton and joints. The
whole system is called the locomotor or musculoskeletal system.

The skeleton skull

(cranium)
The skeleton is made up of bones.
There are three types of bones. clavicle

• Short bones, such as the

vertebrae in the spine, provide sternum
scapula
support and stability. Vertebrae
also protect the important
nerves which run through the
centre of the spine. humerus
vertebral column
• Flat bones, such as ribs and (spine)
the pelvis, protect the internal
organs. radius

• Long bones shape limbs and

ulna
are used for movement.
pelvis

Joints
Our bones are connected at the
joints by strong elastic tissue
called ligaments. The ends of femur
the bones at the joints are
covered in strong, flexible tissue
called cartilage. There are three
types of joints.
patella
• Fixed joints do not move.
tibia
The parts of the skull are
connected by fixed joints.

• Semi-flexible joints, such as fibula

the vertebrae in the spine, only
allow a small amount of
movement.

• Most joints in the body are

flexible joints which are
important for movement.

14

006_019_U1_1T_107572.indd 14 06/04/15 10:36

 Muscles
There are over 600 muscles in the human body.
These muscles are controlled by the nervous
system which makes the muscles contract and
relax. There are three types of muscles.
• Skeletal muscles are joined to the bones by
tendons. They work in pairs. For example, when
the biceps contract, the triceps relax.
frontal muscle
deltoid
pectoral muscle
biceps
triceps
abdominal muscles
quadriceps
1 What are the functions of the skeleton?
2 W
 hich bones protect the respiratory
system?
3 W
 hat is the difference between a ligament
and a tendon?
4 G
 ive examples of different flexible joints.
Which joints do you think are most
flexible?
006_019_U1_1T_107572.indd 15
• Smooth muscles are found in organs such as
the intestines or stomach.
• The cardiac muscle makes up our heart.
Skeletal muscles are voluntary muscles. We can
move them at will. Smooth muscles and the
cardiac muscle are involuntary muscles. They
work automatically and we cannot control them.
trapezius
dorsal muscle
gluteus
biceps femoris
calf muscles
5 Which muscles do we use to:
a. eat our food c. kick a ball
b. throw a ball d. sit on a chair?
6 W
 hat happens to our muscles if we do not
do sufficient exercise? Why is it important
to keep fit?
7 W
 hat should we do to keep our bones
healthy?
15
06/04/15 10:36
 Science project: How does smell affect taste?

Aim
Discover how the senses of smell and taste are linked.

• a blindfold
Hypothesis • different foods (for
example, slices of fruit
I think that ... and vegetables, sweets,
chocolate, flavoured
• I can taste food more when holding my nose, or
yogurts)
• I can taste food less when holding my nose, or • spoon (if needed)
• water (if needed)
• I can taste food the same when holding my nose. • a partner

Method
1. Blindfold your partner.

2. Ask your partner to hold their nose closed. No cheating!

3. Offer some food to your partner – one type at a time.

4. Ask your partner if they can identify the food.

5. Make a note of their answers.

6. Now ask your partner to let go of their nose, and repeat

the process with the same foods.

7. Swap roles with your partner and repeat the experiment.

Now compare your results. Are they the same?

Test
• Did your partner identify the food correctly when holding
their nose?

• Were the answers different the second time?

Conclusions

1 Which foods could be tasted when holding your nose?

2 Which foods had no taste when holding your nose?

3 How important is our sense of smell when we taste food?

16

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 Fragile world: Emotions and teenagers

Where are emotions located?

The mind is incredibly complex, but we cannot open up the

brain and see emotions, dreams and memory at work.
Psychologists study human behaviour to try to understand
how our minds work. However, we do know that the parts of
the brain involved with emotional responses and memory are
very active. This is the limbic system which is found below the
cerebrum on both sides of the brain.

Growing up

Adolescence is often a difficult time for humans. Teenagers can be

confrontational and rebellious; arguments between teenagers and
their parents or teachers are common. However, by early
adulthood, these tendencies almost completely disappear.
Scientists believe that adolescence is such a difficult period
because the emotional part of the brain develops much faster than
the cognitive part of the brain, the cerebrum, which keeps growing
into adulthood. Teenagers act impulsively and emotionally, but have
not developed the ability to think things through or consider the
consequences of their actions. On the other hand, teenagers are
usually very sensitive and empathetic. It is a period when people
often form strong bonds and friendships.

1 W
 hich part of the brain is mostly responsible for emotions
and feelings? Why do you think we have feelings?

2 What happens to the teenage brain? What are the results?

3 W
 hat functions does the brain have? How can we study
these different functions?

4 W
 hy do you think it is important for teenagers to rebel?
Why is this a transitory phase?

5  With a partner, think of the physical and emotional

changes which occur during adolescence.

17

006_019_U1_1T_107572.indd 17 06/04/15 10:36

 Revise

Study skills

1 Classify the words in the box below.

• brain   • cartilage   • cerebrum   • tissue   • joints   • ligaments   • neurons

• cells   • biceps   • skull    • spinal cord   • tendons   • brain stem

nervous locomotor
system system

2 R
 ead the text below about Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (A). Then, read the text about Joseph
Lister on page 98 (B). In your notebook, decide whether the sentences below refer to
text A, B, or both.

Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi was born in Al Andalus in ad 936. He
spent his whole life working as a surgeon in Córdoba and is
considered to be the father of modern
surgery. His greatest legacy was an
encyclopaedia of medicine in
which he described over 300
illnesses and their treatments.
He also created an
illustrated guide, On
Surgery and Instruments,
which described surgical
procedures and contained
diagrams of specific
surgical tools. Some of his
techniques and tools are still
used today. He died in ad 1013.
a. He wrote books about his
work.
b. He developed new
techniques.
c. He changed the way things
were done.
d. He was a pioneer in his
field.
e. He is still relevant today.
f. He used someone else’s
ideas.
g. He became famous in his
lifetime.

18

006_019_U1_1T_107572.indd 18 06/04/15 10:36

 Review
1 In your notebook, label the parts of the
brain using the words in the box. There are
some extra words.
brain stem   cerebellum   cerebrum
dermis   tendon   spinal cord
3
1 nerves
4
2
2 How do we see? In your notebook, write the
sentences in the correct order.
a. Information travels along the optic nerve to
the brain.
b. The lens bends the light.
c. The light produces an image on the retina.
d. Light enters the eye through the cornea and
the pupil.
3 C
 opy the chart into your notebook and put
the words into the correct columns.
pelvis   radius   biceps
gluteus    deltoid   trapezius
rib   patella   humerus   triceps
bones muscles
..... .....
006_019_U1_1T_107572.indd 19
4 Identify the odd one out.
a. cerebrum tissue cerebellum
b. cornea pupil cochlea
c. clavicle trapezius deltoid
d. scapula fibula ligament
e. gluteus rib deltoid
f. femur quadriceps retina
5 T
 alk about the nervous system. Use the
diagram to help you.
brain
central
spinal cord
the
nervous
system
peripheral
6 Complete the summary on page 99.
Checklist
• I can identify and describe
the main characteristics of
the function of interaction.
• I understand how different parts
of the body interact.
• I can identify the organs of senses,
the nervous system and the locomotor
system.
• I can describe how the body moves.
• I understand how emotions
and feelings form part
of the body.
19
06/04/15 10:36
 Reproduction

1 Read and discover.

Humans, like many living things, reproduce
by sexual reproduction. Reproductive cells
in male humans are called sperm while in
females they are called ova. When they
meet, they produce a zygote which
eventually becomes an embryo, which
turns into a foetus and then finally into a
baby! However, humans, like most animals,
have to reach sexual maturity before they can
reproduce. This happens in adolescence – the
stage between childhood and being an adult.
What do we call this process?

38

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 2 W
 hy do we need to reproduce? What would happen if we
did not? Can you think of any examples of animals that
did not reproduce enough?

3 Look at the photo above. What does it show?

4 H
 ow do we pass on genetic information? Why do you think
this is important?

5 In many animals, including humans, offspring

stay with their parents for some time.
Why does this happen?

6 H
 umans reproduce by sexual reproduction.
What is another type of reproduction?

7 In the past many children died

during infancy. Why do you think this was?
What has happened that has changed this?
Is this true of everywhere in the world?

39

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 Analyse and organise

1 O
 ur lives have different stages which we pass through from
birth to death. Each stage has its own characteristics and marks
our passage through life. Copy the table in your notebook. Use
the words from the box to complete the life stages.

• adolescent   • adult   • baby   • child   • elderly person   • toddler

stage characteristics and approximate age

Stage 1: ..... cannot walk or talk (0–12 months)

Stage 2: ..... starts walking and talking (1–3 years)

Stage 3: ..... fully mobile, learning to function in society (3–13 years)

Stage 4: ..... becoming independent (13–19 years)

Stage 5: ..... fully independent (19–75 years)
Stage 6: ..... declining health, may be dependent on others (75+ years)

2 Which stage of life do you associate these photos with?

a b c

d e f

40

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 3  ead the text about the reduction in infant mortality rates,
R
then decide if the sentences below are true or false.

In the past, infant mortality rates (the number of children under

the age of one who died per 1 000 births) was very high. A number
of major scientific developments reduced this rate to what it is
now – about 4 per 1 000 births in Spain. Firstly, understanding the
nature of diseases, how they spread through infected water or
materials, and the importance of hygiene was highly significant. Another reason for this
improvement was the development of vaccines for common childhood illnesses
such as whooping cough, polio and tuberculosis. The discovery of antibiotics and
their widespread use in the second half of the 20th century further helped combat
the spread of disease in babies and young children. Finally, the huge
improvements in hospital care and widely available health care reduced mortality
rates to their present all-time low level. While these advances are true for the
developed world, the infant mortality rate remains high in parts of Asia, South
and Central America, and in Africa, particularly Sub-Saharan Africa.

a. In the past many babies died. e. Antibiotics are dangerous for babies and
young children.
b. Spain has a high infant mortality rate.
f. Medical care has improved.
c. Humans have always understood how
diseases spread. g. Infant mortality rates are low all over the
world.
d. Vaccinations are an important tool in
combating childhood illnesses.

4 W
 hat steps can we take to lower infant mortality rates in
developing countries?

5  What is an ultrasound scan? Listen and complete the

sentences in your notebook.

a. An ultrasound scan creates images of organs using .....

b. It is used in .....
c. Pregnant women usually have ..... ultrasound scans
during their pregnancy.
d. The first scan is called the ..... scan and takes places
when a woman is about ..... weeks pregnant.
e. The second scan takes place between ..... weeks and .....
weeks.

41

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 The female reproductive system
What physical
changes do
girls experience
Sexual characteristics during
puberty?
The physical differences between men and women are called sexual
characteristics.

• Primary sexual characteristics are the differences between male and

female reproductive organs.

• Secondary sexual characteristics are other physical differences

between men and women, for example women usually have wider
hips and men often have more body hair. These characteristics appear
during puberty.

The female reproductive organs

Most of the female reproductive organs are internal. They are located in
the lower abdomen.

Ovaries
The ovaries produce female
reproductive cells called ova.
One ovum matures each
month. Women are born with Fallopian tubes
all the ova they will need for the The fallopian tubes connect
rest of their life. the ovaries to the uterus.

Uterus
The uterus is an organ with Vagina
muscular walls. During The vagina is a muscular tube
pregnancy a fertilised cell which connects the uterus to
develops into a baby in the the outside of the body. The
uterus. The part of the uterus vulva is on the outside of the
that leads to the vagina is called body and covers the opening to
the cervix. the vagina.

42

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 Puberty in girls

When girls approach sexual maturity, their bodies undergo a

series of changes. These changes happen during puberty,
usually when a girl is between 10 and 16 years old. The breasts
begin to develop and pubic
hair grows. They grow taller
and their body fills out;
glands in the skin and scalp
produce more oil which can
cause spots or acne. Armpit
hair begins to grow and
menstruation typically
starts between 10 and 15
years of age.

The menstrual cycle

Once a girl reaches puberty, the ovaries, in response to

hormones released by the brain, start to release ova.
An ovum is released from the ovaries into one of the
fallopian tubes about every 28 days. This process is
called ovulation. The walls of the uterus get thicker
with extra blood and tissue in preparation for
fertilisation. However, if fertilisation does not happen,
the ovum dries up and leaves the body through the
vagina about two weeks later. Blood, and the
thickened lining of the uterus comes away too, and
this is what women experience as menstruation.
Menstruation typically lasts from three to five days.
Women menstruate until they have no eggs left. This
usually happens when a woman is about 50. This
period is called the menopause.

1 What role does the brain play during puberty?

2 What secondary changes occur in girls during puberty? Link it up

3 Explain what happens to an ovum if it is not fertilised. What organs can you name?
Where are they located? What
functions do they perform? Look
4 What happens when a woman has no ova left?
at Units 1 and 2.

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 The male reproductive system
What
What physical
physical
changes
changes dodo
boys
boys experience
experience during
Sperm during
puberty?
puberty?
The male reproductive system
produces and transports sperm
cells. A sperm cell has an oval
shape and a tail. The tail allows
it to move up the female’s
fallopian tubes and fertilise the
ovum. Men produce millions of
sperm every day.

The male reproductive organs

Most male reproductive organs are external and are

located on the outside of the body.

• The testicles produce and store sperm. The • The prostate produces a liquid that also forms part
testicles are located in a bag of skin called the of semen. Semen carries the sperm and gives it
scrotum. The scrotum regulates the temperature nutrients.
of the testicles. They need to be a bit cooler than
• The penis contains the urethra. The sperm travels
the rest of the body in order to produce sperm.
through the urethra to the outside of the body. The
 perm travels through two tubes called the vasa
• S urethra also expels urine.
deferentia to the seminal vesicles. The seminal
vesicles produce a liquid that forms part of semen.

seminal vesicle

vas deferens prostate

scrotum
penis

testicle
urethra

44

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 Puberty in boys

When boys reach puberty, the brain

secretes hormones which activate the
testicles to produce testosterone. This
hormone brings about many physical
changes. Firstly, the testicles enlarge and
the scrotum becomes larger and coarser.
The penis grows longer and thicker, and
boys become fertile. Sperm mixes with
seminal fluid to form semen which is
ejaculated from the penis. Secondly, pubic
hair begins to grow, and boys become
taller and heavier. The voice deepens, and
hair starts to grow under the arms and on
the face. The skin becomes coarser and can be oily or develop acne.
Boys may also ejaculate spontaneously in their sleep.

Genes
Human beings pass on
some characteristics
to their offspring
through genes.
Humans have about Link it up
24 000 genes. Parents
pass onto their Which part of the eye gives it its
children colour?
characteristics such as Look at Unit 1.
eye and hair colour.

1 W
 hich part of the body secretes 4 W
 hat two functions does the penis
testosterone? What does testosterone do? have?

2 W
 hat changes do boys experience during 5 W
 rite the words in the correct order from
puberty? the production of sperm to ejaculation.

3 H
 ow are male and female sex cells urethra  seminal vesicles  prostate
different? vasa deferentia  testicles

45

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 Pregnancy and birth
How long
does
pregnancy
Human reproduction involves two different sex cells: a female ovum and
last?
a male sperm. Each cell carries different genetic information which is
why children are unique; they have genetic code from both parents. Male
and female reproductive systems are different: the male’s is designed to
produce and deliver sperm, while the female’s is designed to produce ova,
as well as housing, nourishing and protecting a developing foetus.

1. Fertilisation 2. Development of the embryo

Fertilisation of the ovum can occur after the egg
is released into the fallopian tubes. During
sexual intercourse the man’s penis is inserted
into the woman’s vagina, and the sperm are
deposited there. Then, using their tails they swim
up the vagina to the ovum in the fallopian tube.
Only one sperm can fertilise an ovum. Once the
ovum is fertilised, the cells will start to divide
and multiply. This ball of cells is called a zygote.
After fertilisation, the zygote travels to the uterus
where its cells carry on dividing and multiplying
until they become an embryo. The embryo fixes
itself onto the lining of the uterus where it will
continue to grow. At eight weeks, the embryo is
about the size of an adult’s thumb.

sperm fertilisation
zygote

ovum

embryo

zygote

foetus zygote

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 3. Development of the foetus
After about nine weeks, all the organs have
formed and the embryo develops into a
foetus. The foetus floats in a sac of amniotic
fluid which protects it from knocks and
bumps. The foetus receives oxygen and
nourishment from the mother’s placenta.
Waste matter and carbon dioxide are
transferred from the foetus to the mother via
the placenta. The baby is connected to the
placenta by the umbilical cord.
3 months 5 months
1 W
 hich of the following is not used in
fertilisation?
penis   ovum   placenta
ovaries   vagina   sperm
2 H
 ow many sperm are needed for
fertilisation to occur?
3 Put the stages in the correct order.
baby   embryo   foetus  zygote
038_051_U3_2T_107572.indd 47
4. Birth
Pregnancy lasts about 280 days. When the foetus
is ready to be born, it pushes against the cervix,
which starts to open and widen. Amniotic fluid is
released which is often the first sign that birth is
about to start. The muscles of the uterus begin to
contract and the cervix opens sufficiently to allow
the foetus, now a baby, to pass. The baby is pushed
through the cervix and along the birth canal.
Babies are usually born head first. The umbilical
cord comes out with the baby. This is cut and tied,
and forms our navel or belly button. The placenta
or afterbirth comes out after the baby.
7 months 9 months
4 W
 hat protects the foetus during
pregnancy?
5 W
 hat precautions should mothers take
during pregnancy?
6 H
 ow does the foetus receive oxygen and
nutrients during pregnancy?
7 In which position should a foetus be for
birth? What might happen if this is not
the case?
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 Science project: Life expectancy

Aims
• Find out about life expectancy around the world.

• Draw a graph representing the differences between different

countries. • paper
• a pencil
• a pen
Hypothesis • a ruler
I think life expectancy in developing countries is … • a computer
• Internet access
• lower than in developed countries, or • felt-tips

• higher than in developed countries.

Method
1. Use the Internet to search for information on life expectancy
at birth. Collect data for life expectancy from ten countries from
different continents. Collect data for both men and women.

2. In groups, prepare your data and draw a graph representing life

expectancy in the countries you have chosen. Use different colours
to represent life expectancy for men and for women.

3. Compare your results with other groups.

Test
• Which countries have the highest life expectancy?

• Which countries have the lowest life expectancy?

Conclusions

1 D
 o developing or developed countries have
a higher life expectancy? Why do you think
this is?

2 W
 ho tend to live longer: men or women?
Why do you think this is?

3 F
 ind out about life expectancy in Spain.
What is the life expectancy for men and
women in Spain?

4 H
 ow has life expectancy in Spain changed
over the last few decades?

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 Fragile world: Gender equality

A basic right

Gender equality is an important part of the United Nations Universal

Declaration of Human Rights. According to this, men and women
should be treated equally; and no one should be discriminated against
on the basis of their gender. Several laws have been passed to
guarantee this, particularly in developed countries. This has led to
many changes over the past 50 years. For example, these days, women
can vote, they can inherit property, they have the right to be paid
as much as men for doing the same work, and they can participate
in government. Women can also expect to have paid time off
when they have a baby (maternity leave). Changes have affected
men too. These days, they are expected to play a part in
housekeeping, and take more responsibility for parenting. Many
men now take paternity leave so they can help look after their
children. Also, more and more men are doing jobs that were
traditionally carried out by women, such as nursing and cleaning.

A long way to go

In spite of all the laws, there is still a lot of discrimination based on

gender. This is particularly the case in developing countries. So, why
is this the case? Several issues can lead to women being treated as
second-class citizens. These include poverty, religion and a lack of
education. Violence against women is also a problem, even in
developed countries. In general, women are much more likely to
suffer violence than men.

1 Why is it important to legislate for equality?

2 Why do developing countries have less gender equality?

3 T
 hink of some examples of jobs which women do today
which they didn’t do in the past.

4 Why do mothers need to take maternity leave?

5  What can be done about domestic violence?

Think of some ideas with a partner.

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 Revise

Study skills

1 In your notebook, copy the table and classify the words.

• prostate • semen • vagina • uterus • fallopian • vasa • urethra • ovaries •

• prostate gland • sperm • vagina • uterus • fallopian • vasa • urethra • ovaries • seminal
seminal

reproduction

female reproductive system male reproductive system

..... ova testicles .....

..... tubes ..... deferentia

..... ..... vesicles

cervix .....

..... penis

vulva .....

2 R
 ead the text below about identical twins (A). Then, read the text about fraternal twins on
page 98 (B). In your notebook, decide whether the sentences below refer to text A, B, or both.

Identical twins, siblings who look the same, occur when an a. They develop from one
ovum is fertilised, and subsequently the zygote splits into two. zygote.
It then goes on to form two embryos. These embryos share b. They have the same genes.
identical genetic material, so the babies
look the same. The chance of c. They can be of different
conceiving identical twins genders.
naturally is the same all around d. Any woman can conceive
the world: about 3 per 1 000 this type of twin.
births. However, zygotes are
often split as part of in-vitro e. They are more common in
fertilisation treatment to some parts of the world.
ensure success in pregnancy. f. Older mothers are more likely
Splitting a zygote can also to have this type of twin.
result in conjoined twins.
This is when the embryos are g. They can be created
not completely separate, but artificially.
may share limbs or organs. h. Sometimes the twins can
be connected physically.

50

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 Review

1 In your notebook, complete the diagram 6 W

 hat happens during pregnancy? In your
with the sexual characteristics. notebook, put the stages in order.
a. The breasts develop. a
b. The voice deepens. c d
b
c. Facial hair grows.
d. The skin can develop acne.
e. Menstruation begins.
f. The skin gets oily.
g. Hair grows under the arms.

7 T
 alk about human reproduction. Use the
diagram and the pictures from Activity 6 to
help you.
girls boys
fertilisation (ovum and sperm)
zygote

reproduction embryo
foetus
2 W
 hat happens during the menstrual cycle?
Put the sentences in the correct order. birth
a. The lining of the uterus thickens.
b. Blood and the lining of the uterus leave the body.
8 Complete the summary on page 99.
c. The ovum leaves the body.
d. An ovum is released by the ovaries.

3 W
 hat is the difference between identical Checklist
and fraternal twins? Explain the difference
• I can identify and describe the
to a partner.
characteristics of human
reproduction.
4 In your notebook, put the stages of life in
order. • I can identify and describe the different
a. toddler d. adult characteristics of male and female
reproductive organs.
b. adolescent e. baby
c. elderly person • I can describe the process of fertilisation,
pregnancy and birth.
5 W
 hat measures can we take to ensure
gender equality? What changes could we • I can identify different factors
make in our own lives? which have improved health
and life expectancy.

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