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V MICRO 2 200 - M - Microbial Metabolism PDF
V MICRO 2 200 - M - Microbial Metabolism PDF
Module V
BACTERIAL METABOLISM
Objectives:
On successful completion of the module, students will be able to:
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2. Chemotrophs are microbes that obtain their energy from chemicals (organic
and inorganic compounds). Some chemotrophs are seen as either chemo-
The individual bacterial cell bounded by the outer surface of the cell wall
is a thermodynamic system whose properties and behavior are related with
metabolism. A living bacterium grows and some point during its growth, each
bacterium divides into 2 bacteria. The size of the single cell at the beginning of
division varies and also does the relative size of the two daughter cells but
there could be lower and upper bounds on cell volume. Bacterial life is then a
cyclic process beginning with the newly separated daughter cell and commence
again when the next generation proceeds to grow as a free entity. It seems that
there is no end to bacterial life, given the proper environment.
2. The second law says that the entropy of any isolated system always
increases.
3. The third law states that the entropy of a system approaches a constant
value as the temperature approaches absolute zero.
chemical energy and stored in the form of glucose (or any form of metabolite) to
form complex compounds needed by the cell. In a biological process, the transfer
of energy is not always complete and not all of the light energy is absorbed by a
phototroph. Some energy is lost as heat and the loss of energy to the environment
results in an increase of disorder or entropy in the cell/organism surroundings
(Second law). (Entropy is referred to as the measure of disorder in a closed
system). The entropy of a system approaches a constant value (equilibration) as
the temperature approaches absolute zero (third law).
1. Glycolysis
Glycolysis is carried out by the help of ten enzymes for ten reactions of
the glycolytic pathway. These enzymes are present in the soluble portion of the
cytoplasm. All the intermediates of the glycolytic pathway are phosphorylated
compounds. The most important use of phosphate groups is in the production
of ATP from ADP and phosphate. The involvement of phosphate groups has to
be mentioned in several reactions such as phosphorylation which refers to
a process by which a phosphate group is added to an organic compound
while the removal of phosphate group/s from an organic compound refers to
dephosphorylation.
Fig. 2. The glycolytic pathway that shows the synthesis of 2 ATP molecules and
pyruvic acid (with respective enzymes)
Lactic acid fermentation usually takes place in animals (milk and cheese
production). It is also evident in humans, when too much muscular strength is
exerted leading to lack of oxygen, thereby forming lactic acid which causes
muscle cramps. While alcoholic fermentation usually happens in plants and
fungi (in the production of beer and wine).
It is clear that two molecules of carbon dioxide are released from the 2
molecules of pyruvate (3-Carbon molecule) as end-products since acetyl CoA is
only a 2-Carbon molecule. One carbon molecule (converted to CO2 after
binding with oxygen) is removed from each pyruvate molecule.
2 molecules of pyruvate
C C C C C C produced from the
previous reaction
Pyruvate Pyruvate
One carbon
C C C C C C separates from the
pyruvate molecule
Becomes CO 2
Acetyl CoA for Acetyl CoA for Becomes CO 2 released and combines with
Krebs Cycle Krebs Cycle oxygen to become CO2
Fig. 3. The Methyl Glyoxal Pathway as an alternate EMP Pathway for glycolysis
(Pseudomonas spp.)
Three (3) enzymes are involved in PPP or HMP and these include trans-
ketolase, trans-aldolase and ribulose-phosphate 3-epimerase. Trans-ketolase
catalyzes the transfer of glycol-aldehyde group (CH, OH-CO-) from xylulose 5-
phosphate to ribose 5-phosphate to yield sedo-heptulose 7-phosphate and
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate. Trans-aldolase acts on the products of
transketolase and transfer dihydroxy-acetone group to form fructose 6-
phosphate and erythrose 4-phosphate. Ribulose phosphate 3-epimerase
catalyzes the conversion of ribulose 5-phosphate into the epimer xylulose 5-
phosphate.
The tricarboxylic acid cycle (also known as Krebs Cycle or Citric acid
cycle) occurs in all the aerobic organisms and leads to complete oxidation of
glucose to CO2 and H2O in comparison to the incomplete oxidation of glucose
to pyruvate in the glycolysis pathway and of pyruvate to Acetyl CoA in the
grooming phase. All the reactions of tricarboxylic acid cycle take place in the
inner compartment of mitochondrion. Some of these enzymes occur in the
matrix of inner compartment while other enzymes occur on the inner
mitochondrial membrane. For the start of the cycle, the pyruvate formed in the
glycolysis is first converted to acetyl Co-A by a preparatory reaction.
There are few key steps in the tricarboxylic acid cycle which control the
cycle depending upon the need of the cell. The first of these controls is the
preparatory reaction. The activity of pyruvate dehydrogenase is reduced in the
presence of excess ATP and again increases in the absence of ATP.
The tricarboxylic acid cycle was first given by HA Krebs in 1937 then
eventually gave the name citric acid cycle. Citric acid is the first product of the
Krebs cycle and the reason it is also referred to as TCA cycle, due to the
presence of 3 carboxylic groups in a molecule of citric acid.
This is a reaction in which oxalo-acetate is taken from the TCA cycle to meet
the demand of bacteria for carbon needed in amino acid biosynthesis. These
intermediates have to be replenished via an alternate route called anaplerotic or
glyoxylate pathway which reportedly operates for gluconeogenesis.
In this cycle, the CO2 evolving steps of tricarboxylic acid cycle are by-
passed and instead a second molecule of acetyl CoA is utilized (which
condenses with glyoxylate to form malate). Succinate is a by-product used for
biosynthesis particularly in gluconeogenesis.
The two key enzymes, isocitrate lyase and malate synthase of glyoxylate
cycle are localized in cytoplasmic organelles called glyoxysomes. Glyoxylate
cycle goes on simultaneously with the tricarboxylic acid cycle while
tricarboxylic acid provides energy, glyoxylate cycle provides succinate for the
formation of new carbohydrate from fats.
This cycle is a modified form of tricarboxylic acid cycle found in plants and
those microorganisms which utilize fatty acids as the source of energy in the form
of acetyl CoA. Glyoxylate cycle was first defined by Krebs and HR Kornberg.
1. Autotrophic metabolism
All autotrophs use CO2 as a carbon source for growth while their
nitrogen comes from inorganic compounds such as NH 3, NO3 or N2. The energy
source for these organisms is the oxidation of specific inorganic compounds.
Among the autotrophic microorganisms are the sulfur-oxidizing or sulfur-
compound-oxidizing bacteria and the obligate nitrifying bacteria. The
representative sulfur compounds oxidized by such bacteria are H2S, S2 and
S2O3. All autotrophic bacteria assimilate CO2 which is reduced to glucose from
which organic cellular matter is synthesized. The energy for this biosynthetic
process is derived from the oxidation of inorganic compounds.
2. Phototrophic metabolism
amounts for the cycle to keep going. Phototrophic cell growth requires a source
of electrons that replaces the electrons that are consumed during biosynthetic
reactions.
3. Heterotrophic metabolism
acid which is one-carbon atom shorter than the original amino acid. For
example, alanine (amino acid) with a 3-carbon chain is converted to acetate
(organic acid) with two carbons. The electron acceptor amino acid is reduced to
a volatile carboxylic acid with the same length as the original amino acid. For
example, glycine with two carbons is converted to acetate. In this way, amino
acid fermenting microbes can avoid using hydrogen ions as electron acceptors
to produce hydrogen gas. Amino acids can be Stickland acceptors, Stickland
donors or act as both donor and acceptor.
Electron transport
The term redox state is often used to describe the balance of Glucose/
Sugars/Hydrogen/GSSG, NAD+/NADH and NADP+/NADPH in a biological
system such as a cell or organ. The redox state is reflected in the balance of
several sets of metabolites (e.g. lactate and pyruvate, beta-hydroxybutyrate
Bacterial cells can change patterns of enzymes in order for them to adapt
to their specific environment. The concentration of an enzyme in a bacterial cell
often depends on the presence of the substrate for the enzyme. Enzymes for
metabolic functions come in 2 different forms and these are the 1) constitutive
and the 2) inducible or adaptive.
nature and these are present at more or less the same concentration in cells at
all times.
Bacteria exert control over metabolism at every possible stage at the level
of the gene that encodes for a protein and ending with alteration or
modifications in the protein after it is produced. For example, variation in gene
structure can change the activity or production of a protein, in the same way
that a protein can be modified after it is produced to alter or change its activity.
Respiratory enzymes
Types of dehydrogenases
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Evaluation
References
http://textbookofbacteriology.net/regulation.html#.
https://www.biologydiscussion.com/metabolism/microbial-metabolism/5-
major-metabolic-pathways-in-organisms-microbiology/65509.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stickland_fermentation#.
https://www.britannica.com/science/bacteria/Autotrophic-metabolism