Chapter 4 Solution to Problems

Question #1.
A C-band earth station has an antenna with a transmit gain of 54 dB. The transmitter output
power is set to 100 W at a frequency of 6.100 GHz. The signal is received by a satellite at a
distance of 37,500 km by an antenna with a gain of 26 dB. The signal is then routed to a
transponder with a noise temperature of 500 K, a bandwidth of 36 MHz, and a gain of 110 dB.

a. Calculate the path loss at 6.1 GHz. Wavelength is 0.04918 m.

Answer: Path loss = 20 log ( 4 π R / λ) = 20 log ( 4 π × 37,500 × 103 / 0.04918) dB
Lp = 199.6 dB

b. Calculate the power at the output port (sometimes called the output waveguide flange) of the
satellite antenna, in dBW.
Answer: Uplink power budget gives
Pr = Pt + Gt + Gr - Lp dBW
= 20 + 54 + 26 – 199.6 = -99.6 dBW

c. Calculate the noise power at the transponder input, in dBW, in a bandwidth of 36 MHz.
Answer: N = k Ts BN = -228.6 + 27 + 75.6 = -126.0 dBW

d. Calculate the C/N ratio, in dB, in the transponder.

Answer: C/N = Pr – N = -99.6 + 126.0 = 26.4 dB

e. Calculate the carrier power, in dBW and in watts, at the transponder output.
Answer: The gain of the transponder is 110 dB. Output power is
Pt = Pr + G = -99.6 + 110 = 10.4 dBW or 101.04 = 11.0 W.

2. The satellite in Question #1 above serves the 48 contiguous states of the US. The antenna
on the satellite transmits at a frequency of 3875 MHz to an earth station at a distance of 39,000
km. The antenna has a 6o E-W beamwidth and a 3o N-S beamwidth. The receiving earth station
has an antenna with a gain of 53 dB and a system noise temperature of 100 K and is located at

4-1
the edge of the coverage zone of the satellite antenna. (Assume antenna gain is 3 dB lower than
in the center of the beam)
Ignore your result for transponder output power in Question 1 above. Assume the
transponder carrier power is 10 W at the input port of the transmit antenna on the satellite.

a. Calculate the gain of the satellite antenna in the direction of the receiving earth station.
[Use the approximate formula G = 33,000/(product of beamwidths).]
Answer: G = 33,000 / ( 6 x 3) = 1833 or 32.6 dB on axis.
Hence satellite antenna gain towards earth station is 32.6 – 3 = 29.6 dB.

b. Calculate the carrier power received by the earth station, in dBW.

Answer: Calculate the path loss at 3.875GHz. Wavelength is 0.07742 m.
Path loss = 20 log ( 4 π R / λ) = 20 log ( 4 π × 39,000 × 103 / 0.07742) dB
Lp = 196.0 dB
Downlink power budget gives
Pr = Pt + Gt + Gr - Lp dBW
= 10 + 29.6 + 53 – 196.0 = -103.4 dBW

c. Calculate the noise power of the earth station in 36 MHz bandwidth.

Answer: N = k Ts BN = -228.6 + 20 + 75.6 = -133.0 dBW

d. Hence find the C/N in dB for the earth station.

Answer: C/N = Pr – N = -103.4 + 133.0 = 29.6 dB

3. A 14/11 GHz satellite communication link has a transponder with a bandwidth of 52 MHz
which is operated at an output power level of 20W. The satellite transmit antenna gain at
11 GHz is 30 dB towards a particular earth station. Path loss to this station is 206 dB , including
clear air atmospheric loss.
The transponder is used in FDMA mode to send 500 BPSK voice channels with half rate
FEC coding. Each coded BPSK signal has a symbol rate of 50 kbps and requires a receiver with
a noise bandwidth of 50 kHz per channel. The earth stations used to receive the voice signals

4-2
have antennas with a gain of 40 dB (1m diameter) and a receiver with Tsystem = 150K in clear
air, and IF noise bandwidth 50 kHz.

a. Calculate the power transmitted by the satellite in one voice channel.

Answer: In FDMA, the output power of the transmitter is divided equally between the
channels. For Pt = 20 W and 500 channels, power per channels is 20 / 500 = 40 mW/ch.

b. Calculate the C/N in clear air for an earth station receiving one BPSK voice signal.
Answer: Each channel receiver has a noise bandwidth of 50 kHz or 47 dBHz.
Path loss at 11GHz is 206.0 dB, including atmospheric loss..
Downlink power budget for one FDMA channel gives
Pr = Pt + Gt + Gr - Lp dBW
= -14.0 + 30.0 + 40.0 – 206.0 = -150.0 dBW
The noise power at the input to the receiver is
N = k Ts BN = -228.6 + 21.8 + 47.0 = -159.8 dBW
Hence C/N = Pr – N = -150.0 + 159.8 = 9.8 dB.

c. What is the margin over a coded BPSK threshold of 6 dB?

Answer: Margin is receiver C/N – minimum permitted C/N, in dB
Margin = 9.8 – 6.0 = 3.8 dB.

4. Geostationary satellites use L, C, Ku and Ka bands. The path length from an earth station to
the GEO satellite is 38,500 km. For this range, calculate the path loss in decibels for the
following frequencies:
Note: Round all results to nearest 0.1 dB.
a. 1.6 GHz, 1.5 GHz
Wavelengths are: 1.6 GHz, λ = 0.1875 m; 1.5 GHz, λ = 0.200 m.
Answer: Path loss = 20 log ( 4 π R / λ)
For 1.6 GHz, Lp = 20 log ( 4 π × 38,500 × 103 / 0.1875) = 188.2 dB
For 1.5 GHz, Lp = 20 log ( 4 π × 38,500 × 103 / 0.200) = 187.7 dB

4-3
Path loss at frequency f2 can be found from path loss at frequency f1 by scaling:
Lp (f2 ) = Lp (f1 ) + 20 log (f2 / f1 ). Using the result for 1.6 GHz, Lp = 188.2 dB:

b. 6.2 GHz, 4.0 GHz

Answer: At 6.2 GHz, Lp = 188.2 dB + 20 log (6.2 / 1.6) = 200.0 dB
At 4.0 GHz, Lp = 188.2 dB + 20 log (4.0 / 1.6) = 196.2 dB

c. 14.2 GHz, 12.0 GHz

Answer: At 146.2 GHz, Lp = 188.2 dB + 20 log (14.2 / 1.6) = 207.2 dB
At 12.0 GHz, Lp = 188.2 dB + 20 log (12.0 / 1.6) = 205.7 dB

d. 30.0 GHz 20.0 GHz

Answer: At 30.0 GHz, Lp = 188.2 dB + 20 log (30 / 1.6) = 213.7 dB
At 20.0 GHz, Lp = 188.2 dB + 20 log (20 / 1.6) = 210.1 dB
Note: All commercial satellite systems have path losses that fall within the above range,
excepting any in the vhf and uhf bands, and above 40 GHz.

5. Low earth orbit satellites use mainly L band, with ranges varying from 1000 km to 2,500 km.
Calculate the maximum and minimum path loss from earth to a satellite, in dB, for the uplink
frequency of 1.6 GHz, and the downlink frequency of 1.5 GHz.

Answer: Wavelengths are: 1.6 GHz, λ = 0.1875 m; 1.5 GHz, λ = 0.200 m.

Path loss = 20 log ( 4 π R / λ)
For 1.6 GHz, Maximum Lp = 20 log ( 4 π × 2,500 × 103 / 0.1875) = 64.5 dB
For 1.5 GHz, Lp = 20 log ( 4 π × 38,500 × 103 / 0.200) = 187.7 dB

6. A geostationary satellite carries a transponder with a 20 watt transmitter at 4 GHz. The

transmitter is operated at an output power of 10 watts and drives an antenna with a gain of 30 dB.
An earth station is at the center of the coverage zone of the satellite, at a range of 38,500 km.
Using decibels for all calculations, find:

4-4
a. The flux density at the earth station in dBW/m2
Answer: Flux density is given by F = 20 log [ Pt Gt / (4 π R2 ) ] dBW/m2
Hence for R = 38,500 km, f = 4 GHz, λ = 0.075 m
F = 10 log Pt + Gt - 10 log (4 π) - 20 log (38,500 × 103 ) dBW / m2
= 10.0 +30.0 - 11.0 - 151.7 = -122.7 dBW / m2

b. The power received by an antenna with a gain of 39 dB, in dBW.

Answer: Received power can be calculated from the effective area of the antenna aperture and
the incident flux density, but since the antenna gain is given in dB, it is better to use path loss and
the link budget.
Path loss Lp = 20 log (4 π R / λ) = 10 log (4 π × 38,500 × 103 / 0.075) = 196.2 dB
Downlink power budget gives
Pr = Pt + Gt + Gr - Lp dBW
= 10.0 + 30.0 + 39.0 – 196.2 = -117.2 dBW
Alternatively, the received power can be found from
Pr = F × Aeff where Aeff is the effective aperture area of the antenna.
Given G = 4 π Aeff / λ2 = 39 dB, we can find Aeff from
Aeff = G + 20 log λ - 11.0 dB = 39.0 – 22.5 –11.0 = 5.5 dB m2
Pr = -122.7 + 5.5 = - 117.2 dBW / m2

c. The EIRP of the transponder in dBW.

Answer: Transponder EIRP = Pt + Gt = 10 + 30 = 40 dBW

7. A LEO satellite has a multi-beam antenna with a gain of 18 dB in each beam. A

transponder with transmitter output power of 0.5 watts at 2.5 GHz is connected to one antenna
beam. An earth station is located at the edge of the coverage zone of this beam, where the
received power is 3 dB below that at the center of the beam, and at a range of 2,000 km from the
satellite. Using decibels for all calculations, find:

a. The power received by an antenna with a gain of +1 dB, in dBW.

Answer: Find the path loss, Lp , first, for a wavelength of λ = 0.120 m:

4-5
Path loss Lp = 20 log (4 π R / λ) = 10 log (4 π × 2000 × 103 / 0.120) = 166.4 dB
Downlink power budget gives
Pr = Pt + Gt + Gr - Lp - losses dBW
= -3.0 + 18.0 + 1.0 – 166.4 – 3.0 = -153.4 dBW
b. The noise power of the earth station receiver for a noise temperature of 260K and an RF
channel bandwidth of 20 kHz.
Answer: The noise power at the input to the receiver is
N = k Ts BN = -228.6 + 24.1 + 43.0 = -161.5 dBW

c. The C/N ratio in dB for the LEO signal at the receiver output.
Answer: C/N = Pr – N = -153.4 + 161.5 = 8.1 dB.

8. A satellite in GEO orbit is a distance of 39,000 km from an earth station. The required flux
density at the satellite to saturate one transponder at a frequency of 14.3 GHz is -90.0 dBW/m2 .
The earth station has a transmitting antenna with a gain of 52 dB at 14.3 GHz.
Find:
a. The EIRP of the earth station
Answer: EIRP = Pt + Gt = Pt + 52 dBW
Flux density is given by F = 20 log [ EIRP / (4 π R2 ) ] dBW/m2
Hence for R = 39,000 km, f = 14.3 GHz, λ = 0.02010 m
F = -90.0 = EIRP - 10 log (4 π) - 20 log (39,000 × 103 ) dBW / m2
-90.0 = EIRP - 11.0 - 151.8 dBW / m2
EIRP = -90.0 + 162.8 = 72.8 dBW

b. The output power of the earth station transmitter.

Answer: EIRP = Pt + Gt = 72.8 dBW. Hence Pt = 72.8 – 52.0 = 20.8 dBW.

4-6
9. A 12 GHz earth station receiving system has an antenna with a noise temperature of 50K, a
LNA with a noise temperature of 100 K and a gain of 40 dB, and a mixer with a noise
temperature of 1000 K. Find the system noise temperature.
Answer: System noise temperature is calculated from
Ts = Tantenna + TLNA + Tmixer / GLNA + ….
Hence for GLNA = 40 dB = 10,000 as a ratio
Ts = 50 + 100 + 1000 / 10,000 = 150.1 K

10. A geostationary satellite carries a C-band transponder which transmits 20 watts into an
antenna with an on-axis gain of 30 dB. An earth station is in the center of the antenna beam
from the satellite, at a distance of 38,000 km. For a frequency of 4.0 GHz:

a. Calculate the incident flux density at the earth station in watts per square meter and in

dBW/m2.
Answer: Flux density is given by F = 20 log [ EIRP / (4 π R2 ) ] dBW/m2
Hence for R = 38,000 km, f = 4.0 GHz, λ = 0.0750 m, EIRP = 13.0 + 30.0 = 43.0 dBW
F = 43.0 - 10 log (4 π) - 20 log (38,000 × 103 ) dBW / m2
= 43.0 - 11.0 - 151.6 = -119.6 dBW / m2

b. The earth station has an antenna with a circular aperture 2 m in diameter and an aperture
efficiency of 65%. Calculate the received power level in watts and in dBW at the antenna
output port.
Answer: The effective area of the antenna is
Aeff = ηA π r2 = 0.65 × π × 1 = 2.042 m or 3.1 dBm2
For an incident flux density of -119.6 dBW / m2 or 1.10 × 10-12 W/m2
Pr = 2.042 × 1.10 × 10-12 = 2.24 × 10-12 W or –116.5 dBW
or Pr = -119.6 + 3.1 = -116.5 dBW

4-7
c. Calculate the on-axis gain of the antenna in dB.
Answer: Antenna gain for a circular aperture is given by G = ηA (π D / λ)2
G = 10 log ( 0.65 × (π × 2 / 0.0750)2 ) = 36.6 dB

d. Calculate the free space path loss between the satellite and the earth station.
Calculate the power received, Pr, at the earth station using the link equation:
Pr = Pt Gt Gr / Lp
where Pt Gt is the EIRP of the satellite transponder and Lp is the path loss.
Make your calculation in dB units and give your answer in dBW.
Answer: At a frequency of 4.0 GHz, λ = 0.075 m.
Path loss = 20 log ( 4 π R / λ) = 20 log ( 4 π × 38,000 × 103 / 0.075) dB
Lp = 196.1 dB
Downlink power budget gives
Pr = Pt + Gt + Gr - Lp dBW
= 13 + 30.0 + 36.6 – 196.1 = -116.5 dBW

11. Repeat parts (a) through (d) of Question #10 for a Ka band transponder transmitting at a
frequency of 20.0 GHz.
a. Calculate the incident flux density at the earth station in watts per square meter and in

dBW/m2.
Answer: Flux density is independent of frequency, so the result is the same as in Problem 10
above.
F = -119.6 dBW / m2

b. The earth station has an antenna with a circular aperture 2 m in diameter and an aperture
efficiency of 65%. Calculate the received power level in watts and in dBW at the antenna
output port.
Answer: Given a flux density at the earth’s surface, an antenna of area Aeff m2 collects the
same power at any frequency. Hence the result is the same as in question 10 above.
Pr = 2.042 × 1.10 × 10-12 = 2.24 × 10-12 W or –116.5 dBW

4-8
c. Calculate the on-axis gain of the antenna in dB.
Answer: At f = 20 GHz, λ = 0.0150 m:
Antenna gain for a circular aperture is given by G = ηA (π D / λ)2
G = 10 log ( 0.65 × (π × 2 / 0.0150)2 ) = 50.6 dB

d. Calculate the free space path loss between the satellite and the earth station.
and the power received, Pr, at the earth station using the link equation:
Answer: At a frequency of 20.0 GHz, λ = 0.015 m.
Path loss = 20 log ( 4 π R / λ) = 20 log ( 4 π × 38,000 × 103 / 0.015) dB
Lp = 210.1 dB
Downlink power budget gives
Pr = Pt + Gt + Gr - Lp dBW
= 13 + 30.0 + 50.6 – 210.1 = -116.5 dBW
The answer is the same as in Question 10 for the 4 GHz satellite because the incident flux
density on the earth’s surface is the same, and the antenna effective area is the same.

Note to instructor: Questions 12, 13 and 14 are based on problems from Take Home exams.
A significant length of time is needed to complete the solutions.

12. This sequence of questions requires you to design a communication link through a
geostationary satellite to meet a C/N and link margin specification.
Use these constants:
Boltzmann's constant k = -228.6 dBW/K/Hz
Path length to satellite = 38,500 km
Satellite : Geostationary at 73o W longitude.
24 C band transponders, 28 Ku band transponders
3.2 kW RF power output
Antenna gain, on axis, C-band and Ku-band (transmit and receive) = 31 dB
Receive system noise temperature (C-band and Ku-band) = 500 K
Transponder saturated output power: C-band = 40 W
Transponder bandwidth: C-band = 36 MHz

4-9
 Transponder saturated output power: Ku-band = 80 W
Transponder bandwidth: Ku-band = 54 MHz

Signals: FM-TV analog signal to be received in a bandwidth of 27 MHz

Multiplexed digital TV signals transmitted as QPSK with symbol rate 27 Msps using
half rate FEC with coding gain 5.5 dB
Minimum permitted C/N overall = 9.5 dB

Question #12.1
Design a transmitting earth station to provide a clear air C/N of 26 dB in a C-band
transponder at a frequency of 6.285 GHz. Use an uplink antenna with a diameter of 9 m and an
aperture efficiency of 68%, and find the uplink transmitter power required to achieve the
required C/N. The uplink station is located on the 2 dB contour of the satellite footprint. Allow
0.5 dB for clear air atmospheric attenuation and other losses.
Answer: An uplink power budget and noise budget are required to find C/N at the satellite
transponder input. Calculate the transmitting earth station antenna gain and path loss at
6.285 GHz first.
Gt = ηA (π D / λ)2 = 10 log ( 0.68 × (π × 9 / 0.04773)2 ) = 53.8 dB
Lp = 20 log ( 4 π R / λ) = 20 log ( 4 π × 38,500 × 103 / 0.04773) = 200.1 dB
Uplink power budget
Pt TBD
Gt 53.9 dB
Gr 31 dB – 2 dB off axis loss 29.0 dB
Lp -200.1 dB
Atmospheric loss and other losses -0.5 dB
Receiver power Pr Pt – 117.7 dBW
Transponder input noise power budget
k Boltzmann’s constant -228.6 dBW/K/Hz
Ts 500 K 27.0 dBK
BN 27 MHz (FM-TV) 74.3 dBHz
N -127.3 dBW

4-10
The C/N ratio at the transponder input is
C/N = C – N = Pt – 117.7 + 127.3 dB
For C/N = 26 dB we require Pt = C/N – 9.6 = 16.4 dBW or 43.7 W

Question #12.2
Design a C-band receiving earth station to provide an overall clear air C/N of 13 dB in a
27 MHz IF noise bandwidth at a carrier frequency of 4.06 GHz. The antenna noise temperature
is 20 K and the LNA noise temperature is 55 K. You may assume a high gain LNA and ignore
the noise generated in other parts of the receiver. The C-band satellite transponder is operated
with 1 dB output backoff. Clear air atmospheric attenuation on the downlink and other losses
total 0.5 dB. Determine the diameter of the receiving antenna, assuming an aperture efficiency
of 65%. The receiving terminal is located on the 3 dB contour of the satellite footprint.
Reminder: Overall C/N includes the effect of noise radiated by the satellite transponder.
Answer: Set the receiving earth station antenna gain as Gr dB.
Path loss at the downlink frequency of 4.06 GHz is
Lp = 200.1 + 20 log (4.06/6.285) = 196.3 dB
Transponder output power is Pt saturated – 1 dB = 16 – 1 = 15.0 dBW
Downlink power budget
Pt 15.0 dBW
Gt 31 dB – 3 dB off axis loss 28.0 dB
Gr TBD
Lp -196.3 dB
Atmospheric loss and other losses -0.5 dB
Receiver power Pr Gr – 153.8 dBW
Earth station receiver input noise power budget
k Boltzmann’s constant -228.6 dBW/K/Hz
Ts 20 K + 55 K = 75 K 18.8 dBK
BN 27 MHz (FM-TV) 74.3 dBHz
N -135.5 dBW
The downlink C/N ratio at the receiver input is
(C/N)dn = C – N = Gr – 153.8 + 135.5 = Gr - 18.3 dB

4-11
We require overall (C/N)o = 13 dB.
From the reciprocal formula for combining C/N ratios
1 / (C/N)o = 1 / (C/N)up + 1 / (C/N)dn
(C/N)o = 13 dB = ratio 20.0. (C/N)up = 26.0 = ratio 400. Hence
(C/N)dn = 1 / ( 1/20 – 1/400) = 21.05 or 13.2 dB
Then (C/N)dn = 13.2 dB = Gr - 18.3 dB
Gr = 31.5 dB or 1413 as a ratio
The diameter of the receiving antenna is Dr meters where
Gr = 1413 = ηA (π D / λ)2 = 0.65 × (π × Dr / 0.07389)2
Dr = (1413 / 0.65)0.5 × 0.07389 / π = 1.096 m

Question #12.3.
a. Under conditions of heavy rain, the C-band path from the transmitting station suffers an
attenuation of 2dB. Calculate the overall C/N at the earth station in a bandwidth of 27 MHz
under these conditions, and find the uplink link margin.
Reminder: The uplink margin is the number of dB of attenuation that can occur on the uplink
before the receiver overall C/N reaches the limit of 9.5 dB.
Answer: The earth station overall C/N ratio will be reduced when the uplink is attenuated by
rain. If we assume linear transponder operation, (C/N)up is reduced by 2 dB and Pt from the
satellite is reduced by 2 dB leading to a similar reduction of 2 dB in (C/N)dn . When both
(C/N)up and (C/N)dn fall by the same amount, the reduction in overall C/N is equal to the uplink
attenuation. Hence (C/N)o = 13.0 – 2.0 = 11.0 dB.
The minimum permitted overall C/N ratio is 9.5 dB. We must find the lowest value of
(C/N)up which results in (C/N)o = 9.5 dB to determine the uplink margin.
Uplink margin = (C/N)o in clear air - (C/N)o minimum = 13.0 – 9.5 = 3.5 dB.
Check: When the uplink is attenuated by 3.5 dB
(C/N)up = 26.0 – 3.5 = 22.5 dB or 178 as a ratio.
(C/N)dn = 13.2 – 3.5 dB = 9.7 dB or 9.33 as a ratio
Using the reciprocal formula 1 / (C/N)o = 1 / (C/N)up + 1 / (C/N)dn
1 / (C/N)o = 1 / 178 + 1 / 9.33 = 0.1128
(C/N)o = 1 / 0.11288.86 or 9.5 dB

4-12
b. Under conditions of heavy rain, the C-band path to the receive station suffers an
attenuation of 1.5 dB. Assuming 100% coupling of sky noise into antenna noise, and 0.3 dB
clear air gaseous attenuation, calculate the overall C/N under these conditions, and find the
downlink margin.
Hint: You need to find the sky noise temperature that results from a total excess path
attenuation of 1.8 dB (clear air attenuation plus rain attenuation); this is the antenna temperature.
Then compute the new C/N in rain, using the new Tsystem and received power values.
Answer: Under clear air conditions, the gaseous attenuation of 0.3 dB gives a sky noise
temperature of approximately 0.3 × 6.7 = 20.1 K, which is why sky noise temperature is given
as 20 K in Problem 12.2. When rain affects the downlink and rain attenuation is 1.5 dB and
there is still 0.3 dB of atmospheric gaseous attenuation, giving a total attenuation on the
downlink of 1.8 dB. The sky noise temperature increases because the downlink attenuation has
increased . For a path attenuation of 1.8 dB, a gain with a ratio of 0.661, the sky noise
temperature can be found from equation 4.19, since the rain is treated as a lossy medium. With
an assumed medium temperature of 290 K, sky noise temperature in rain is
Tsky rain = 290 ( 1 - 0.661) = 98.4 K
Hence the new system noise temperature in rain is
Ts = 98.4 + 55 = 153.4 K
The increase in system noise power is proportional to the increase in system noise temperature.
The system noise temperature in clear air conditions was 75 K. Hence
∆N = 10 log (153.4 / 75) = 3.1 dB.
The carrier power has fallen by 1.5 dB because of the rain attenuation, so the total effect of C/N
is a reduction of 1.5 + 3.1 = 4.6 dB.
Hence the downlink C/N ratio with 1.5 dB of rain attenuation in the downlink path is
(C/N) dn rain = 13.2 – 4.6 = 8.6 dB
The overall C/N ratio is found from the reciprocal formula with the uplink clear air C/N value of
26 dB.
(C/N)o rain = 1 / ( 1 / 7.24 + 1 / 400) = 7.11 or 8.5 dB
The signal is below the permitted overall C/N ratio, so the downlink margin is negative.
The lowest permitted C/N down for (C/N)o = 9.5 dB is found from
(C/N)o min = 1 / ( 1 / 8.91 - 1 / 400) = 9.11 or 9.6 dB

4-13
The downlink margin under the stated rain conditions is –1.1 dB.
Note that the increase in sky noise temperature has a contributes a larger effect on the overall
C/N than the attenuation. This is because sky noise temperature is low under clear air conditions
and the LNA has a low noise temperature. The increase of 78.4 K in sky noise temperature
doubles the noise power at the receiver input, whereas the rain attenuation on the downlink
reduces the received power by only 1.5 dB. The combined effect is disastrous to the link, which
goes into outage. A larger receiving antenna, with 1.1 dB additional gain, would be needed to
combat the stated downlink rain attenuation. Fortunately, rain attenuation of 1.5 dB at 4 GHz is
rare on a GEO satellite link.

Question #12.4. Design a transmitting earth station to provide a clear air C/N of 30 dB in a Ku-
band transponder at a frequency of 14.15 GHz. Use an uplink antenna with a diameter of 5m
and an aperture efficiency of 68%, and find the uplink transmitter power required to achieve the
required C/N. The uplink station is located on the 2 dB contour of the satellite footprint.
Allow 1.0 dB on the uplink for miscellaneous and clear air losses.
Answer: An uplink power budget and noise budget are required to find C/N at the satellite
transponder input. Calculate the transmitting earth station antenna gain and path loss at
14.15 GHz first.
Gt = ηA (π D / λ)2 = 10 log ( 0.68 × (π × 5 / 0.0212)2 ) = 53.8 dB
Lp = 20 log ( 4 π R / λ) = 20 log ( 4 π × 38,500 × 103 / 0.02120) = 207.2 dB
Uplink power budget
Pt TBD
Gt 55.7 dB
Gr 31 dB – 2 dB off axis loss 29.0 dB
Lp -207.2 dB
Atmospheric loss and other losses -1.0 dB
Receiver power Pr Pt – 123.5 dBW
The noise bandwidth of a 27 Msps digital signal is 27 MHz.

4-14
Uplink noise power budget:
k Boltzmann’s constant -228.6 dBW/K/Hz
Ts 500 K 27.0 dBK
BN 27 MHz (27 Msps QPSK) 74.3 dBHz
N -127.3 dBW
The C/N ratio at the transponder input is
C/N = C – N = Pt – 123.5 + 127.3 dB
For C/N = 30 dB we require Pt = C/N – 3.8 = 26.2 dBW or 417 W

Question #12.5
Design a Ku-band receiving earth station to provide an overall clear air C/N of 17 dB in a
27 MHz IF noise bandwidth at a carrier frequency of 11.45 GHz. The antenna noise temperature
is 30 K and the LNA noise temperature is 110 K. You may assume a high gain LNA and ignore
the noise generated in other parts of the receiver. Determine the diameter of the receiving
antenna. The receiving terminal is located on the 3 dB contour of the satellite footprint, and
clear air attenuation on the path and other losses total 0.8 dB.
Answer: Set the receiving earth station antenna gain as Gr dB.
Path loss at the downlink frequency of 11.45 GHz is
Lp = 207.2 + 20 log (11.45/14.15) = 205.4 dB
Transponder output power is Pt saturated = 80 W or 19.0 dBW
No back off is quoted.
Downlink power budget
Pt 19.0 dBW
Gt 31 dB – 3 dB off axis loss 28.0 dB
Gr TBD
Lp -205.4 dB
Atmospheric loss and other losses -0.8 dB
Receiver power Pr Gr – 159.2 dBW
Earth station receiver input noise power budget

4-15
Earth station receiver input noise power budget
k Boltzmann’s constant -228.6 dBW/K/Hz
Ts 30 K + 110 K = 140 K 21.5 dBK
BN 27 MHz (27 Msps QPSK) 74.3 dBHz
N -132.8 dBW
The downlink C/N ratio at the receiver input is
(C/N)dn = C – N = Gr – 159.2 + 132.8 = Gr - 26.4 dB
We require overall (C/N)o = 17 dB.
From the reciprocal formula for combining C/N ratios
1 / (C/N)o = 1 / (C/N)up + 1 / (C/N)dn
(C/N)o = 17 dB = ratio 50.0. (C/N)up = 30.0 = ratio 1000. Hence
(C/N)dn = 1 / ( 1/50 – 1/1000) = 47.6 or 16.8 dB
Then (C/N)dn = 16.8 dB = Gr - 26.4 dB
Gr = 43.2 dB or a ratio of 20,892
The diameter of the receiving antenna is Dr meters where, for an aperture efficiency of 65%
Gr = 20,892 = ηA (π D / λ)2 = 0.65 × (π × Dr / 0.02620)2
Dr = (20,892 / 0.65)0.5 × 0.02620 / π = 1.495 m

Question #12.6
a. Under conditions of heavy rain, the Ku-band path to the satellite station suffers an
attenuation of 6 dB. Calculate the overall C/N at the earth station in a bandwidth of 27 MHz
under these conditions, and find the uplink link margin.
Answer: Overall C/N is 17 .0 dB in clear air. Using the same analysis as in Problem 12.3, the
overall C/N ratio with 6 dB uplink rain attenuation is
(C/N)o uplink rain = 17.0 – 6.9 = 11.0 dB.
b. Under conditions of heavy rain, the Ku-band path to the receive station suffers an
attenuation of 5 dB. Assuming 100% coupling of sky noise into antenna noise, and 0.3 dB clear
air attenuation, calculate the overall C/N under these conditions, and find the downlink margin.
Answer: The analysis must follow the method used in Problem 12.3, first finding the increase in
system noise temperature and receiver noise power, then finding overall C/N in the downlink
rain event.

4-16
 Total path attenuation in the downlink in rain is 5.3 dB.
The sky noise temperature is then 290 ( 1 – 0.295) = 204 K.
System noise temperature is 204 + 110 = 304 K.
The increase in receiver noise power is
∆N = 10 log (304 / 140) = 3.4 dB
Hence the change in downlink C/N ratio is
∆ (C/N)dn = 5.0 + 3.4 = 8.4 dB.
In clear air, the downlink C.N ratio was 17.0 dB, so with 5.0 dB rain attenuation it is
(C/N)dn = 17.0 - 8.4 = 8.6 dB or a ratio of 7.24
Overall C/N with uplink C/N = 30.0 dB is
(C/N)o rain = 1 / ( 1 / 1000 + 1 / 7.24) = 7.19 or 8.57 dB
The overall C/N ratio is dominated by the low downlink C/N.
The downlink margin is again negative, at - 0.9 dB. However, with a FEC coding gain of
5.5 dB, the effective overall C/N ratio for the QPSK signal is 8.6 + 5.5 = 14.1 dB, which will
provide a BER around 10-6 assuming a 0.5 dB receiver implementation margin.

13. A Direct Broadcast Television (DBS-TV) satellite is in geostationary orbit at 100 degrees
west longitude. It carries 16 transponders, each with a saturated output power of 200 W and a
bandwidth of 25 MHz. The antenna on the satellite has a gain (on axis) of 34 dB. The receiving
terminals all use antennas with a circular aperture with a diameter of 18 inches and an aperture
efficiency of 65%. The noise bandwidth of the digital TV receiver is 20 MHz.
Use a distance to the GEO satellite of 38,500 km in your calculations.

a. Calculate the free space path loss and the receiving terminal antenna gain at 12.2 GHz.
Answer: Lp = 20 log ( 4 π R / λ) = 20 log ( 4 π × 38,500 × 103 / 0.02459) = 205.9 dB
Gt = ηA (π D / λ)2 = 10 log ( 0.65 × (π × 0.5 / 0.02459)2 ) = 34.2 dB

b. Draw up a link budget for the downlink from the satellite to an earth station on the
3 dB contour of the satellite antenna beam. Assume that the satellite transmits at a
power level of 180 W. Include a clear air atmospheric loss of 0.5 dB and
miscellaneous losses of 0.2 dB in your downlink power budget.

4-17
Answer: Downlink power budget
Pt 180 W 22.6 dBW
Gt 34 dB – 3 dB off axis loss 31.0 dB
Gr 34.2 dB
Lp -205.9 dB
Atmospheric loss and other losses -0.7 dB
Receiver power Pr -118.8 dBW

c. The receiving terminal has a system noise temperature of 110 K in clear air.
Draw up a noise power budget for the receiver using the receiver’s noise bandwidth.
Answer: Earth station receiver input noise power budget
k Boltzmann’s constant -228.6 dBW/K/Hz
Ts 110 K 20.4 dBK
BN 20 MHz 73.0 dBHz
N -135.2 dBW

d. Calc ulate the clear air C/N ratio for the receiver with a noise bandwidth of 20 MHz.
The minimum permissible C/N ratio is 10.0 dB. What is the clear air link margin?
Answer: Pr = -118.8 dBW, N = -135.2 dBW.
Hence C/N for the downlink is –118.8 + 135.2 = 16.4 dB

e. For 0.3% of the time at the receiving location, heavy rain causes 2 dB excess path attenuation
and the system noise temperature of the receiver increases to 210 K. Calculate the C/N under
these rain conditions, and the link margin above the C/N threshold of 10.0 dB.
Answer: The increase in system noise temperature is from 110 K to 210 K.
The corresponding increase in receiver noise power is
∆N = 10 log (210 / 110) = 2.8 dB.
The carrier power falls by 2 dB, so the loss in C/N on the downlink is 2 + 2.8 = 4.8 dB.
The C/N ratio in the satellite transponder is assumed to be much greater than 16 dB, and can be
ignored. Hence (C/N)rain = 16.4 – 4.8 = 11.6 dB.

4-18
f. Many of the DBS TV system customers live inside the 2 dB contour of the satellite beam.
Calculate the clear air link margin and 0.3% time link margin for a receiver located on the
2 dB contour of the satellite footprint.
Answer: The previous results were for a receiving earth station located on the – 3 dB contour of
the satellite antenna footprint. Customers on the 2 dB contour have a signal that is 1 dB greater.
Hence C/N in clear air = 16.4 + 1 = 17.4 dB
C/N in rain = 11.6 + 1 = 12.6 dB.

g. An uplink station for the DBS-TV satellite described in Question #1 is located in Utah, and
transmits digital TV signals to 16 transponders on the satellite using QPSK with ¾rate forward
error correction. The transmit earth station has a circular aperture antenna with diameter of 6 m
and an aperture efficiency of 65%. Each transponder operates at a different carrier frequency in
the 17 GHz band, and the RF channel noise bandwidth is 20 MHz. The noise temperature of the
satellite receiver is 500 K (the satellite always looks toward the "hot" earth).
Use these values in the remaining parts of this question.
Calculate the uplink path loss and the uplink antenna gain at 17.5 GHz.
Answer: Lp = 20 log ( 4 π R / λ) = 20 log ( 4 π × 38,500 × 103 / 0.01765 ) = 209.1 dB
Gt = ηA (π D / λ)2 = 10 log ( 0.65 × (π × 0.5 / 0.01765)2 ) = 58.7 dB

h. The gain of the receiving antenna on the satellite in the direction of Utah is 31 dB.
Draw up a clear air uplink budget for the link from the earth station to a single transponder
on the satellite using a transmit power of Pt watts, and atmospheric and other losses of

1.0 dB.
Answer: Uplink power budget:
Pt TBD
Gt 58.7 dB
Gr 31.0 dB
Lp -209.1 dB
Atmospheric loss and othe r losses -1.0 dB
Receiver power Pr Pt – 120.4 dBW

4-19
i. Calculate the noise power at the input to the satellite receiver in a noise bandwidth of
20 MHz. Hence find the uplink transmitter power required to achieve a C/N of 28 dB in the
satellite transponder.
Answer: Transponder input noise power budget
k Boltzmann’s constant -228.6 dBW/K/Hz
Ts 500 K 27.0 dBK
BN 20 MHz 73.0 dBHz
N -128.6 dBW
The uplink C/N ratio is required to be 28.0 dB. Hence the earth station transmitter power is
given by Pt where
Pt – 120.4 dBW = -128.6 + 28 dB
Pt = 120.4 -128.6 + 28 dBW = 19.8 dBW or 95.5 W.

j. The gain of the satellite transponder must be set to amplify the received signal at the
transponder input to an output level of 180 watts. Calculate the gain of the transponder in
decibels. (Ignore the change in frequency in the transponder.)
When designing RF equipment, a common rule to avoid oscillation is to make the
amplification at any given frequency no higher than 60 dB. How would you design a
bent-pipe DBS-TV transponder to provide the end to end gain that you calculated?
Answer: The power at the input to the transponder is Pt – 120.4 dBW = 19.8 – 120.4 dBW
Pr = -100.6 dBW, Pt = 22.6 dBW
Gxp = Pt – Pr = 22.6 + 100.6 = 123.2 dB.
[Gain is Pout / Pin for any device, giving G = Pout dBW – Pin dBW]
RF and IF amplifiers should not be specified with G > 60 dB because of the risk of oscillation.
In this transponder we need a gain of 123.2 dB. This should be distributed through the amplifer,.
Typically, transponders are built with excess gain and include an RF or IF attenuater.
So a typical arrangement would set these gains:
RF input (17 GHz) 30 dB
IF amplifier (~ 1 GHz) 60 dB
RF amplifier (12 GHz) (LPA + HPA) 60 dB
Attenuator (controlled from earth) -6.8 dB

4-20
k. The minimum permissible C/N in the transponder is 16.0 dB.
Calculate the clear air link margin for the uplink.
Answer: The received power at the transponder input is Pr = -100.6 dBW.
The noise power at the transponder input is N = -128.6 dBW
Hence (C/N)up = 28.0 dB. This gives a margin over 16.0 dB of 12.0 dB.

l. Ignore the result you calculated for the downlink C/N in Question #1, and use a value
of 15 dB in this question. Convert the clear air uplink and downlink C/N values to power
ratios, and then find the overall C/N, in dB, in the earth station receiving terminal.
Use the following formula (where C/N values are ratios, not in dB) and give your answer in
decibels:
1/(C/N) overall = 1/(C/N)up + 1/(C/N)down
1 / (C/N)o = 1 / 631 + 1 / 31.6 = 0.03323
(C/N)o = 1 / 0.03323 = 30.09 or 14.8 dB.

Question #14 This is a multipart question.

All the questions are about the satellite communications system described below.
Description of System
A satellite communication system consists of 50 LEO satellites in 750 km orbits, several
hubs stations operating in Ka-band, and many handheld transceivers operating in L-band. The
handheld units transmit to transponders at 1600 MHz and receive from transponders at
2500 MHz. The system uses digital speech compressed into a transmission channel (RF)
bandwidth of 16 kHz. Channels are spaced 20 kHz apart to allow a guard band between
channels.
The Parameters of the system are given below: (You may not need all of these.)
System Values
Uplink frequency for handheld transceiver 1600 MHz
Downlink frequency for handheld transceiver 2500 MHz
Uplink frequency for hub station 29 GHz
Downlink frequency for hub station 19 GHz
Maximum range to edge of coverage zone 2000 km

4-21
Satellite Transponder
Maximum output power Pt 20 W
Transponder bandwidth 2 MHz
Transponder input noise temperature Ts 500 K

Handheld Transceiver Parameters

Transmitter output power 1.0 W
Antenna gain (transmit and receive) G 0 dB
Receiver system noise temperature Ts 300 K
Receiver system noise bandwidth Bn 10 kHz

Hub Station Parameters

Maximum transmit power Pt 100 W
Receiver system noise temperature (clear air) Ts 250 K
Antenna gain at 29 GHz (transmit) Gt 54 dB
Antenna gain at 19 GHz (receive) Gr 52 dB
Constants: Boltzmann’s constant k = 1.38 x 10-23 J/K = -228.6 dBW/K/Hz

Question #14.1 Preliminary calculations

a. Calculate the path loss, in dB, for a 2000 km path at 1.6, 2.5, 19, and 29 GHz.
Answer: Path loss is calculated from Lp = 20 log ( 4 π R / λ) . For a worst case analysis, we
must take the longest path length of 2000 km.
At 1.6 GHz, λ = 0.1875 m, Lp = 20 log ( 4 π × 2000 × 103 / 0.1875 ) = 162.5 dB
At 2.5 GHz, λ = 0.120 m, Lp = 20 log ( 4 π × 2000 × 103 / 0.120 ) = 166.4 dB
At 19 GHz, λ = 0.01579 m, Lp = 20 log ( 4 π × 2000 × 103 / 0.01579 ) = 184.0 dB
At 29 GHz, λ = 0.01344 m, Lp = 20 log ( 4 π × 2000 × 103 / 0.010344 ) = 187.7 dB

b. Calculate the noise power, in dBW, for the receiver in the transponder and for the
receivers at the hub station and the handheld unit, in a single voice channel
bandwidth of 10 kHz. (Note: use the bandwidth of one speech channel, 10 kHz for all

4-22
 the calculations, not 2 MHz.)
Answer: For the transponder, Ts = 500 K
Nxp = k Ts BN = -228.6 + 27.0 + 40.0 = -161.6 dBW
For the hub station, Ts = 250 K
NH = k Ts BN = -228.6 + 24.0 + 40.0 = -164.6 dBW
For the handheld satellite phone, Ts = 300 K
NH = k Ts BN = -228.6 + 24.8 + 40.0 = -163.8 dBW

c. The satellite has broad coverage antennas at L-band and Ka-band with half-power
beamwidths of 120 degrees. Estimate the gain, in dB, of the antennas at each
frequency.
Answer: The gain of an antenna with a beamwidth of θ3 dB is G = 33,000 / θ3 dB2
This result is independent of frequency, so all antennas have the same gain:
G = 33,000 / 1202 = 2.29 or 3.6 dB.

Question #14.2 C/N ratios

Use the values you obtained in Q#1 above, for path loss, antenna gain, and noise power
in this question. Calculate C/N values for stations located at the edge of the coverage zone of the
satellite, where the satellite antenna gain is 3 dB below its maximum value, and the range to the
satellite is 2000 km. Take care to use the correct path loss and receiver noise power values for
each frequency. Give your answers in decibels.

a. Calculate the C/N in the satellite transponder for the signal transmitted by one
handheld transceiver located at the edge of the coverage zone (satellite antenna
gain 3 dB below maximum) and at maximum range from the satellite (2000 km).
Answer: The EIRP of the satellite phone is 0 dBW (1 W transmitter, 0dB antenna gain)
Pr = EIRP + Gr – Lp = 0 + 3.6- 3.0 – 162.5 = -161.9 dBW
The noise power at the input to the transponder is Nxp = -161.6 dBW
Hence (C/N)up = -0.3 dB

4-23
b. Calculate the C/N in the satellite transponder for the signal transmitted by a hub
station, using its full output power.
Answer: This calculation is to establish a reference case for a single 10 kbps channel uplink.
Hub station EIRP = 20 dBW + 54 dB = 74 dBW
At the – 3dB contour of the satellite antenna footprint Gr = 3.6 – 3.0 = +0.6 dB
Uplink power budget:
EIRP 74.0 dBW
Path loss at 29 GHz -187.7 dB
Receive antenna gain 0.6 dB
Pr -113.1 dBW
Noise power at satellite transponder input -161.6 dBW
C/N at transponder input 48.5 dB

c. Calculate the C/N in the hub station receiver for the signal transmitted by a satellite
transponder using its full output power.
This calculation is to establish a reference case for a single 10 kbps channel downlink.
Satellite saturated EIRP = 13 dBW + 0.6 dB = 13.6 dBW at –3 dB contour.
Downlink power budget:
EIRP 13.6 dBW
Path loss at 19 GHz -184.0 dB
Receive antenna gain 52.0 dB
Pr -118.4 dBW
Noise power at hub receiver input -164.6 dBW
C/N at hub receiver 46.0 dB

d. Calculate the C/N in the receiver of the handheld unit for the signal transmitted by a
satellite transponder using its full output power.
The handheld phone has an antenna gain of 0 dB. With 20 W output from the satellite:

4-24
Downlink power budget:
EIRP 13.6 dBW
Path loss at 2.5 GHz -166.4 dB
Receive antenna gain 0 dB
Pr -152.8 dBW
Noise power at hub receiver input -163.8 dBW
C/N at satellite phone receiver 11.0 dB

e. Calculate the overall C/N ratios at the hub station and at the handheld receiver.
Overall C/N values are calculated from the reciprocal formula; however, if the two C/N values
differ by more than 25 dB, (C/N)o = lowest C/N ratio
For the hub station, (C/N)up = -0.3 dB, (C/N)dn = 46.0 dB
(C/N)o = -0.3 dB
For the handheld satellite telephone, (C/N)up = 48.5 dB, (C/N)dn = 18.0 dB
(C/N)o = 18.0 dB

Question #14.3 Trade -off studies

The link between the hub station and the satellite operating at Ka-band uses a high gain
antenna at the hub station and achieves a high C/N. The transceiver operating in L-band uses a
low gain, omni-directional antenna with low gain, which results in low C/N. For satisfactory
operation under all weather conditions, the Ka-band links should have a minimum C/N of 20 dB
in clear air, and the L-band links should have a minimum C/N of 10 dB.
The C/N of the handheld transceivers can be improved by using a multiple beam
L-band antenna on the satellite, with higher gain and narrower beamwidth per beam. The high
C/N of the hub station links can be traded for increased capacity. The hub station and
transponder transmitter power can be shared among a group of voice channels.
a. Determine the minimum gain required by the L-band antennas on the spacecraft to
achieve a C/N of 10 dB at each L-band frequency. Using the higher of the two values,
find the 3 dB beamwidth of one of the multiple beams. Estimate the number of
beams that will be needed to serve the coverage zone of a single 120o beamwidth
antenna.

4-25
Answer: The link from the handheld satellite phone to the satellite has C/N = -0.3 dB. This
C/N ratio is much too low for the demodulator at the earth station to recover the signal, so
additional antenna gain must be included in the link. The minimum required C/N is 10 dB, so
we must increase antenna gain at the satellite by 10.3 dB. We cannot increase the gain of the
satellite telephone because it needs an omni-directional antenna, which has a gain of 0 dB y
definition. The satellite antenna that services the whole coverage zone has G = 3.6 dB on axis,
so we must provide an antenna with G = 13.9 dB ( = 24.4 as a ratio) to meet the uplink C/N
objective of 10 dB. The beamwidth of an antenna with G = 13.9 dB is given by
G = 33,000 / θ3 dB2 with the beamwidth in degrees.
Hence θ3 dB = [33,000 / 24.4] 0.5 = 36.8 degrees.
We must now try to fit a number of these beams inside the coverage zone of 120o at the satellite.
We can fit approximately three beams of 36.8o
width across the coverage zone.
(120 / 36.8 = 3.26 so cross-over will be below –3 dB.)
The example at the right shows a 9 beam arrangement.
The center beam could be expanded to provide a more
even coverage. When a terminal is in the central part of the
coverage area the path length to the satellite is much shorter
allowing the use of a broader center beam with a lower gain. 9 beam pattern
We could increase the number of beams inside the coverage area by allowing more overlap.
For example, three beams could be used in the central area instead of one giving
a total of eleven beams.

b. Find the excess C/N available on the Ka-band links

between the hub station and the satellite. By trading carrier power
find the number of channels that the Ka-band links can
carry with C/N = 20 dB. If the channel spacing is 20 kHz, can all
of these channels fit into a 2 MHz bandwidth transponder? 11 beam pattern
Answer: The 29/19 GHz links have high C/N ratios, when operating with one channel:
(C/N)up = 48.5 dB, giving a margin of 28.5 dB over (C/N)min = 20 dB.
(C/N)dn = 46.0 dB, giving a margin of 26.0 dB over (C/N)min = 20 dB.

4-26
We can trade power per channel for additional bandwidth and increase the number of channels
by a factor of 26 dB = × 400 before C/N = 20 dB in the downlink.
Since the available transponder bandwidth is 2.0 MHz and channels are to be spaced by 20 kHz,
we can accommodate no more than 100 channels, and the 29/19 GHz links are bandwidth
limited.
The 1.6/2.4 GHz links have relatively low C/N ratios. The uplink from the satellite phone
was designed to achieve (C/N)up = 10.0 dB at the edge of one of the multiple beams. Any
number of these channels can be added to the transponder until the bandwidth is fully occupied,
since each uplink channel operates in SCPC mode. In the 2.4 GHz downlink to the handheld
satellite telephone, (C/N)dn = 11.0 dB at the edge of the coverage zone with the single wide-
angle antenna with G = 3.6 dB. The multiple beam antenna provides an additional 10.3 dB gain,
so (C/N)dn = 21.3 dB with a single channel transmitted. We can reduce the power per channel
until (C/N)dn = 10 dB, allowing 11.3 dB or 13 times as many channels.

c. Determine whether the transponders are power limited or bandwidth limited.

Give reasons for your answer.
Answer: As can be seen from the answers above in part (b), three of the links are bandwidth
limited and could carry 100 channels each. The fourth link, from the satellite to the handheld
satellite phone, is power limited. Additional antenna gain of 8.7 dB is needed at the satellite to
allow 100 channels to be carried on the downlink, which implies narrower multiple beams and
more of them. The antenna gain must be increased to 22.6 dB, giving a beamwidth of 13.5o and
a large number of beams – perhaps as many as 48.
The illustration shows and example with 35 beams.

d. The communication system described needs two transponders

to permit two way voice communication between the hub station
and the many transceivers. Based on your answers in Question #3,
find the gain of each transponder from input port to output port.
Note: the transponder gain does not include antenna gain.) 35 beam pattern

4-27
Answer: Transponder Gain in dB is Gxp = Pout in dBW – Pin in dBW.
Let’s assume that the satellite is redesigned with a different multiple beam antenna such that
each transponder carries 100 channels.
For the inbound link from the telephone to the Hub station, Pin = -161.9 dBW, Pout = 20 W.
The transponder output of 20 W is divided between 100 channels, giving 0.2 W = -7.0 dBW per
channel. Hence Gxp inbound = 161.9 – 7.0 = 154.9 dB.
For the outbound link from the Hub station to the telephone, Pin = -113.1 dBW, Pout = 20 W.
Power per downlink channel is again –7.0 dBW for 100 channels.
Hence Gxp inbound = 113.1 dBW –7.0 = 106.1 dB.
The situation in which the inbound link can carry 100 channels and the outbound link carries
only 13 channels is impractical, because a pair of channels, one inbound and one outbound, is
needed to make a telephone link.

Question #14.4 Costs

For any satellite system to be viable, the communication capacity must be sold at a price
that is attractive to customers. This question looks at the cost of the system over its lifetime and
calculates a minimum cost per voice circuit.

a. Each LEO satellite carries 20 transponders. What is the total number of speech
channels that the satellite can support when fully loaded? How many telephone
circuits – it takes two channels to make a telephone circuit?
Answer: We will assume that each transponder can carry 100 telephone channels, so the
capacity of one satellite is 2000 one way channels, or 1000 two way telephone conversations,
when fully loaded.

b. Each LEO satellite costs $40 M in orbit and the LEO system costs $100 M per
year to run. The expected lifetime of the satellites is 10 years, and the system
requires a total of 10 spare satellites to be launched over the 10 year period.
Calculate the cost of operating the system for a ten year period. Add a 27% factor to
cover interest payments and dividends, and calculate the 10 year cost of the entire
system.

4-28
Answer: There are 60 satellites in the system at a cost of $40 M each, so the in-orbit part of the
system has a capital cost of $2,400 M. Operating costs are $100 M per year, total $1000 M over
ten years. Total cost over ten years is $3,400 M. This cost, plus a return on investment of 27%,
or $918 M, for a grand total of $4,318 M, is required to make the system viable.

c. Calculate the cost per minute per voice circuit assuming that each satellite can be
loaded to an average of 20% of its capacity over its lifetime.
Answer: The total cost of $4,318 M over 10 years must be recovered by selling satellite
channels. With a 20% load factor (typical for GEO satellites), there are the equivalent of 200
telephone circuits available for 365 days per year on each of 50 satellites. There are 525,600
minutes in a year, so we can sell 50 ×200 × 10 × 565,600 circuit minutes in the 10 year period.
Hence cost per minute = $ 4,318,000,000 / 50 × 1.0512 × 109 = $0.082.

d. Write two paragraphs discussing the cost of the system and the cost of a voice circuit.
What price per minute would you set for a satellite voice circuit?
Would you expect customers to be willing to pay this amount for a satellite telephone
connection?
How does the cost compare to terrestrial cellular telephone charges?
Answer: The cost per channel to use the satellite looks attractive, compared to a terrestrial
cellular call costing $0.20 per minute (typical year 2000 charge). It should be possible to charge
a customer more than $0.082 for the call via satellite and make additional profit.
However, there are a number of difficulties with the LEO satellite system that are not obvious in
the above analysis.
If the satellites are in polar orbits, most of them are over the poles or the oceans and cannot be
used. For example, if this system used polar orbits, only two satellites would be visible from the
United States at any time, giving the entire population of the US a capacity of only 2000
telephone circuits. To reach a utilization factor of 20%, customers must be found in countries
other than the United States. If each US customer were to use the two visible satellites with a
50% load factor for 10 minutes each day, during the hours 6 am – 10 pm, the available circuit
minutes = 960,000, so there could be a maximum of 96,000 US customers. To recover the
system cost of $431,800,000 per year, each customer must spend $4,497 on satellite telephone

4-29
calls each year. Put this way, it is clear that a large number of overseas customers must be
recruited to make the system pay.
One further factor that makes satellite telephones less attractive than cellular phones is that
the weak signals will not penetrate buildings. You have to go outside to make and receive calls,
- not pleasant in the middle of winter.
The difficulty for the satellite system owner is that the above calculation is misleading.
Customers cannot be signed up until the system is operational, and then the customer base will
grow only slowly. The owner of the system must pay interest on money borrowed to build the
system ($2,400 M in this example) while revenue is low. This has crippled several of the LEO
satellite telephone systems built in the late 1990s.

4-30