Military Institute of Science & Technology (MIST),

Dhaka
Department of Aeronautical Engineering

AEAS-208
Basic Thermodynamic Sessional
LEVEL-2, TERM-I
Contact Hr: 3/2 Credit: 0.75

Name of the Experiments:

1. (a) Determination of Flash Point of Liquid Fuel.

(b) Study of Sling Psychrometer.

2. Performance test of a high speed diesel engine.

3. (a) Viscosity Test of Liquid Substance.

(b) Study of Different Speed Measuring Devices.

4. Study of a Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Unit.

5. Determination of the Calorific Value of Fuel.

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 EXPERIMENT NO: 1 (a)

Name of the Experiment: DETERMINATION OF FLASH POINT OF LIQUID

FUEL.

1. Objectives: Observe the flash point of various types of liquid fuel.

2. Introduction: The flash point is considered as a determinant parameter to classify the

flammable liquids, regarding the European CLP regulation, as well as the transport of dangerous
goods regulation.

The flash point is defined as the lowest temperature at which a liquid generates flammable vapours
which can be ignited in air by a flame above its surface. The flash point may sometimes be confused
with the auto ignition temperature, which is the temperature at which the vapor ignites spontaneously
without an ignition source. The fire point is the lowest temperature at which vapors of the material
will keep burning after being ignited and the ignition source removed. The fire point is higher than
the flash point, because at the flash point more vapor may not be produced rapidly enough to sustain
combustion. Neither flash point nor fire point depends directly on the ignition source temperature,
but it may be understood that ignition source temperature will be considerably higher than either the
flash or fire point.

The flash point is determined experimentally by heating a vessel containing the tested liquid. A
flame is presented at regular intervals to the liquid surface. If a flash occurs in the vessel, it indicates
that the temperature of the tested liquid has reached (or exceeded) the flash point. The test vessel can
be open or close. The flash point is then measured respectively in "open-cup" or in "closed-cup".
However, it should be noted that the flash point is not sufficient to assess the risk associated to the
use or the storage of a flammable liquid in conditions of liquid-vapour equilibrium. Indeed, in a
closed container, liquid-vapour equilibrium can be established. In this case, the atmosphere in the
container consists of a homogeneous mixture of vapour and air and, if the vapour concentration is
included in the flammability range, comprised between the lower flammability limit (LFL) and the
upper flammability limit (UFL), an explosive atmosphere is present in the closed container. The
lower point of explosion (LPE) of a liquid is defined as the temperature at which the concentration of
vapours emitted by this liquid, in thermodynamic liquid-vapour equilibrium conditions and when
mixing with air at atmospheric pressure, is equal to the lower flammability limit (LFL).

2. Specimen: Various types of liquid fuel.

3. Procedure:

a) Power Supply: Connect the seta flash tester with the electric power supply line and
switch on the tester by the power switch available at the back portion of the tester.

b) Setting of the time interval:

i) Press and hold the set timer button until the display board show “SET TEST TIME AUTO”.
Then release the set timer button.

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ii) Turn the control knob to the timer in minute intervals up to 30 minutes or to the auto mode. If
the control knob will not move for more than four seconds, the setting shows that the display
will be stored.

iii) The time set is the interval between the cup reaching the set temperature and the audible
prompt for the flash test sounding.

iv) The auto setting automatically selects the time interval depending on the temperature setting
as follows

Flash point up to100C 1 minute

Flash point above 100C 2 minute

c) Setting the test Temperature:

i) Press and hold down the set temperature button until the display changes to show.
(xx.x = cup temperature)

ii) Turn the control knob to set the test temperature. The selected temperature will be shown on
the bottom line of the display board.

iii) After a short delay, the top line of the display board will change to show the sample cup
temperature as it heats up.

d) Inject the sample:

i) Wait until the audible warning (beep) is heard and the bottom line of the display board shows
„READY‟. It indicates that the seta flash tester has reached and stabilized at the set
temperature.

ii) Close and lock lid and make sure that the shutter is closed

iii) Load the syringe with the correct amount of sample.

e) Start the timer:

i) Press the set timer button and the display will count down the time set.

ii) Open the on/off gas valve by pushing it up. Lightering the pilot jet and test jet by using ignite.
If necessary, adjust the pilot test jets.

f) Test the sample:

i) When the timer reaches to zero, an audible warning (beep) will be heard. Apply the test jet to
the sample by slowly opening and closing the shutter over a period of approximately 2.5
seconds.

ii) If a flash is detected, the bottom line of the display board will show “FLASH”

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ii) Record the result as „flash‟ or „no flash‟ and the test temperature.

g) Complete the test:

i) Result the flash detector probe by pressing the reset (set temperature) button.

ii) Extinguish the pilot and test jet flame by pushing the on/off gas valve on the canister down
to the off position.

iii) Unlock and open the lid.

iv) When the sample cup cools down, clean the sample cup, lid and shutter and visually inspect
the sample well „O‟ Ring seal for damage.

v) If necessary, set a different test temperature and repeat the test sequence with a new portion
of the sample.

4. Result:
Table-1: (Experimental data and calculation)

No of Sample Name Sample Amount Flash Temperature Flash Time Remark

Obs (in ml) (in C) (in sec)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

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 EXPERIMENT NO-1(b)

Name of the Experiment: STUDY OF PSYCHROMETER.

Introduction: Psychrometrics, psychrometry, and hygrometry are names for the field of
engineering concerned with the physical and thermodynamic properties of gas-vapor mixtures. The
term comes from the Greek psuchron (ψυχρόν) meaning "cold"[1] and metron (μέτρον) meaning
"means of measurement"

Although the principles of psychrometry apply to any physical system consisting of gas-vapor
mixtures, the most common system of interest is the mixture of water vapor and air, because of its
application in heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning and meteorology. In human terms, our
thermal comfort is in large part a consequence of not just the temperature of the surrounding air, but
(because we cool ourselves via perspiration) the extent to which that air is saturated with water
vapor.

Many substances are hygroscopic, meaning they attract water, usually in proportion to the relative
humidity or above a critical relative humidity. Such substances include cotton, paper, cellulose, other
wood products, sugar, calcium oxide (burned lime) and many chemicals and fertilizers. Industries
that use these materials are concerned with relative humidity control in production and storage of
such materials.

In industrial drying applications, such as drying paper, manufacturers usually try to achieve an
optimum between low relative humidity, which increases the drying rate, and energy usage, which
decreases as exhaust relative humidity increases. In many industrial applications it is important to
avoid condensation that would ruin product or cause corrosion.

Molds and fungi can be controlled by keeping relative humidity low. Wood destroying fungi
generally do not grow at relative humidities below 75%.

1) Objectives:
I) To find relative humidity, Absolute humidity.

ii) Dew point and enthalpy of air using psychometric and psychometrics chart.

2) PROCEDURE:
The sling psychrometer is used to determine the humidity of air this instrument has two similar
thermometer mounted on a frame, one to read dry bulb temperature and the other wet-bulb
temperature. The bulb of the wet bulb temperature is covered with wick distilled water. The
thermometer and wetted wick is whirled in the air, the water evaporate into the surrounding
unsaturated air, causing the general conditions around the wet thermometer bulb to be similar to, and
closely approximate to, and those of adiabatic saturation. After sufficient whirling the thermometer
reach equilibrium conditions. The both temperature should be read quickly in order to get
dependable readings.

The sling psychrometer should be rotated at a speed of 180 to 240 rpm. It is important that clean
water should be used, since the slightest trace of oil on the wick cause errors. The wick should be
kept fully wet when readings are being made.

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DEFINITION OF DIFFERENT TERMS:

Absolute Humidity:
This is the ratio of the mass of water vapor to the mass of dry air in a given volume of the mixture. It
is usually expressed in grains of water vapor/lb of dry air or, lb of water vapor/lb of dry air.

1 lb=700grains.

Relative Humidity:
This is the ratio of the actual partial pressure of the vapor to the partial pressure of the vapor when
the air is saturated at the same temperature.

Dew Point
This is the temperature to which unsaturated air mast be cooled at constant pressure for it to become
saturated.

PROCEDURE:
i) Open the instrument. The frame and tubes are sat at right angles to the case, which will act as
the handle.

ii) Thoroughly wet the wick covering the Wet Bulb and the „wick‟ in the container by lifting off
the container lid and holding the wick container under the cold tap. Hot water must not be
used as it may damage the thermometers. Replace the lid on the wick container and
remove any surplus water from the Dry Bulb area before use. The wick will remain moist for
several hours. Always check the wick is wetted before taking any readings.

iii) To take a reading set the psychrometer at right angles and, holding the case, rotate the frame
frame for 15 to 20 seconds at between 2 and 4 revolutions per second.

iv) Stop revolving the instrument and note the Wet and Dry Bulb temperatures.

v) Subtract the Wet bulb Temperature from the Dry Bulb temperature to determine the
Depression.

vi) Use the tables provided to compare the Dry bulb Temperature with the Depression and read
off the %RH.

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 EXPERIMENT NO-2
Name of the Experiment: PERFORMANCE TEST OF A HIGH SPEED DIESEL
ENGINE.

Theory and Description:

In diesel engine the diesel is used as the fuel. The diesel engine may be either two
stroke engine or four stroke engine. In two strokes engine there is a one power stroke
for each revolution of the crank shaft. In four stroke engine there is a one power stroke
for every two revolution of the crank shaft, Most of the heavy duty engines are four
stroke engines. The engine is provided with suitable loading arrangement to apple and
measure the load. The provisions are also available to measure the fuel consumption
and speed.
Characteristics of IC Engines:
1. Brake Thermal Efficiency
2. Indicated Thermal Efficiency
3. Specific Fuel Consumption
4. Mechanical Efficiency
5. Volumetric Efficiency
6. Air Fuel Ratio
7. Mean Effective Pressure

Brake thermal efficiency is defined as break power of a heat engine as a function of

the thermal input from the fuel. It is used to evaluate how well an engine converts the
heat from a fuel to mechanical energy.
The thermal efficiency is a dimensionless performance measure of a device that uses
thermal energy, for example engine, a steam turbine, a steam engine, a boiler, a
furnace, etc,. Thermal efficiency indicates the extent to which the energy added by
work is converted to net heat output.
Mechanical efficiency Mechanical efficiency is the measure of effectiveness of a
machine's energy and power that is input into the device into an output that makes
force and movement.
Mechanical advantage by comparing the input and output force you can find the
advantage of a machine.
Specific fuel consumption Thrust specific fuel consumption (TSFC) or sometimes
simply specific fuel consumption, SFC, is an engineering term that is used to describe
the fuel efficiency of an engine design with respect to thrust output.
Volumetric efficiency in internal combustion engine is defined as the ratio of the mass
density of the air-fuel mixture drawn into the cylinder at atmospheric pressure (during
the intake stroke) to the mass density of the same volume of air in the intake manifold.
Air–fuel ratio (AFR) is the mass ratio of air to fuel present in a combustion process
such as in an internal combustion engine Mean Effective Pressure

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Mean effective pressure is a quantity relating to the operation of a reciprocating engine
and is a valuable measure of an engine's capacity to do work that is independent of
engine displacement.

OBJECTIVES:
a) Study the engine specification and performance parameter.
b) Do the performance test and measure Bhp, Bsfc and BMEP

ENGINE SPECIFICATION & AMBIENT DATA:

ENGINE PERFORMANCE TEST:

Calorific value of fuel, CL= 43.8 MJ/Kg
Co-efficient of discharge of the orifice, Cd=O.6
Orifice diameter, d=0.0185 m
Gas constant for air, R= 287 Jkg-1K-1
Specific heat of air at constant pressure, CP=1004.5 J/Kg
Fuel Density= 840 kg/m3
Engine capacity= 232cc
Ambient pressure, P= mbar= N/m2

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- 12 -
EQUATIONS USED:

ASSIGNINMENT:
a) Plot engine speed (rpm) vs Exhaust temp, torque, power, Bsfc, Thermal efficiency.

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 EXPERIMENT NO-3 (a)
Name of the Experiment: VISCOSITY TEST OF LIQUID SUBSTANCE.

Introduction: The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to gradual deformation by

shear stress or tensile stress. For liquids, it corresponds to the informal concept of "thickness"; for
example, honey has a much higher viscosity than water.

Viscosity is a property of the fluid which opposes the relative motion between the two surfaces of the
fluid in a fluid that are moving at different velocities. When the fluid is forced through a tube, the
particles which compose the fluid generally move more quickly near the tube's axis and more slowly
near its walls; therefore some stress (such as a pressure difference between the two ends of the tube)
is needed to overcome the friction between particle layers to keep the fluid moving. For a given
velocity pattern, the stress required is proportional to the fluid's viscosity.

A fluid that has no resistance to shear stress is known as an ideal or inviscid fluid. Zero viscosity is
observed only at very low temperatures in superfluids. Otherwise, all fluids have positive viscosity,
and are technically said to be viscous or viscid. In common parlance, however, a liquid is said to be
viscous if its viscosity is substantially greater than that of water, and may be described as mobile if
the viscosity is noticeably less than water.[according to whom?][not verified in body] A fluid with a
relatively high viscosity, such as pitch, may appear to be a solid.

1. Objective: Determination of the kinematic viscosity & SAE of liquid substance.

2. Specimen: Different types of liquid substance.

3. Procedure:
i) Switch on the power supply.

ii) Set temperature by using „seta Temperature Controller‟ device.

iii) Keep the sample to the „Sample Cup‟ after setting the pin with ball-valve.

iv) Wait a few minutes until the temperature is same between „Seta Temp Controller‟ and
„silicon Oil‟.

v) Now record the temperature of sample from the Sample Cup.

vi) Place a receiving flask under the „Say bolt Cup Jet‟ of „Sample Cup‟.

vii) Remove the pin with ball-valve. Watch, count and record the sample (60ml) dropping time
until the cup is empty by using a stop watch.

180
4. Equation: Kinematic Viscosity, r = 0.22t- mm2/sec, where r is the kinematic
t
viscosity and t is the time in sec.

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5. Result:
Table-1 :( Experiment data and calculated result)

No of Sample Temperature of the Recorded Time Results Remarks

Obs Name Sample (in °C) (in sec)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

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 EXPERIMENT NO – 3 (b)
Name of the Experiment: STUDY OF SPEED MEASURING INSTRUMENT.

The flowing speed measuring instrument will be study

i) Optical & Contact Tachometer

ii) Stroboscope

Introduction: Revolutions per minute (RPM) measurement is crucial when controlling or

monitoring the speed of motors, conveyors, turbines, etc. RPM is a measure of the frequency of a
rotation. It annotates the number of full rotations completed in one minute around a fixed axis. It is
used as a measure of rotational speed of a mechanical component.

For rotating motion, power is the product of torque and angular velocity P = M ⋅ω = M ⋅ 2π ⋅ N.
Thus, to determine the power of any rotating machine/device the torque (M) and the revolution
number (N) must be measured.

From the point of view of the measuring concept the instruments measuring the revolution number
can be divided into three groups:

a. Speed indicators measuring the average revolution number,

1) Measurement of small revolution number can be performed simply with stopwatch and by
counting revolutions with naked eye. When the mark on the rotating machine part gets to the
marked position, we start the stopwatch and begin counting (with 0). Having measured the
time (T) and the number of revolutions (N) the revolution number is simply n=N/T.

2) For higher speed of rotation a special counting device must be used. One of the simplest of
these is the so-called jumping-figure speed counter. The rotating shaft of this device turns
gears. One of them completes one revolution while the other rotates only 1/10, and so on.
Reading the numbers uniformly painted from 0-9 on the cylinder jacket we get the number of
revolutions. Such a device is used in kilowatt-hour meters, water consumption, tape
recorders, speedometers of cars etc.

b. Tachometers measuring the momentary revolution number and

1) Mechanical tachometers count the revolutions only for a fixed time, generally for 6 seconds.
The time measuring device of the instrument connects its pointer for 6 seconds with that shaft of
the instrument which joints the rotating machine part. After these six seconds there is no more
connection which means at the same time the end of the measurement. A widely used example of
this device is the Jacquet indicator. With pressing the starting button the instrument is zeroed and
after releasing it the counting and the clockwork starts.

2) Electric tachometers operate with the same principle (counting the number of revolutions
during some period of time), but the number of revolutions is measured in an optical way.

c. Stroboscopes working on the principle of comparison. Stroboscope, also known as a strobe, is an

instrument used to make a cyclically moving object appear to be slow-moving, or stationary. In
its simplest form, a marker is placed to the rotating shaft and a lamp capable of emitting brief and
rapid flashes of light is used. The frequency of the flash is adjusted so that it equals to the shaft‟s

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 cyclic speed, at which point the object is seen to be either stationary or moving backward or
forward, depending on the flash frequency.

Experimental Devices:

1. Optical & Contact Tachometer

A tachometer is an instrument designed to measure the speed of moving body or substance. The
word is formed from Greek roots. Taco meaning speed and meter meaning. The traditional
tachometer is laid out as dial with a middle indicating the current reading and marking safe and
dangerous level. Recently digital tachometer is giving a direct numeric output have become more
common.

The traditional tachometer requires physical contact between the instrument and the device being
measured. In applications where this is not feasible for technical or safely reason. It maybe possible a
laser tachometer to take measurement from distance. A laser tachometer work by pulsing a light
beam or light against the rotating element. The orating elements have a reflecting spot. And the
tachometers measure the rate at which the light beam is reflected back. A laser tachometer can be
permanent part of the system; it can be handling for occasional spot measurement.

2. STROBOSCOPES
In its general makeup it contain of an ac power supply. An oscillator for controlling the rate at which
a lamp is flashed and a flashing light is mounted in a parabolic reflector. By adjusting a dial
calibrator and there for the rate at which the lamp is flashes can be adjusted with in the range of the
instrument. In rpm the frequency of the oscillator and there for the rate at whish the lamp flashes can
be adjusted within the range of the instrument in using it to measure rpm the instrument should be
held in such a way so that the light from the lamp falls on the rotating shaft. By adjusting the dial the
frequency of oscillation will eventually reach a point where the lamp flashing point will be the same
as the shaft rotation rate. Under this condition the shaft will appear to be standing steel and the rpm
can be read directly from the calibrated dial. The observed image may appear to be stationary at
several setting of the instrument. The correct speed is the highest instrument setting at which only
one image appears

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 PEREXIMENT NO-4

Name of the Experiment: STUDY OF THE REFRIGERATION AND AIR-

CONDITIONING UNIT
Introduction:
Refrigeration is a process of removing heat from a low-temperature reservoir and transferring it to a
high-temperature reservoir. The work of heat transfer is traditionally driven by mechanical means,
but can also be driven by heat, magnetism, electricity, laser, or other means. Refrigeration has many
applications, including, but not limited to: household refrigerators, industrial freezers, cryogenics,
and air conditioning. Heat pumps may use the heat output of the refrigeration process, and also may
be designed to be reversible, but are otherwise similar to air conditioning units.

Refrigeration has had a large impact on industry, lifestyle, agriculture, and settlement patterns. The
idea of preserving food dates back to at least the ancient Roman and Chinese empires. However,
mechanical refrigeration technology has rapidly evolved in the last century, from ice harvesting to
temperature-controlled rail cars.
Air conditioning (often referred to as AC, A.C., or A/C) is the process of removing heat from the
interior of an occupied space, to improve the comfort of occupants. Thus both air conditioning and
refrigeration are provided through the removal of heat. Air conditioning can be used in both domestic
and commercial environments. This process is most commonly used to achieve a more comfortable
interior environment, typically for humans or animals; however, air conditioning is also used to
cool/dehumidify rooms filled with heat-producing electronic devices, such as computer servers,
power amplifiers, and even to display and store artwork.
The most common types of refrigeration systems use the reverse-Rankine vapor-compression
refrigeration cycle, although absorption heat pumps are used in a minority of applications.
Cyclic refrigeration can be classified as: Vapor cycle, and Gas cycle. Vapor cycle refrigeration can
further be classified as:
1. Vapor-compression refrigeration
2. Vapor-absorption refrigeration
Vapor-compression cycle
The vapor-compression cycle is used in most household refrigerators as well as in many large
commercial and industrial refrigeration systems. Figure 1 provides a schematic diagram of the
components of a typical vapor-compression refrigeration system.

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Figure 1: Vapor compression refrigeration Figure 2: Temperature–Entropy diagram

The thermodynamics of the cycle can be analyzed on a diagram as shown in Figure 2. In this cycle, a
circulating refrigerant such as Freon enters the compressor as a vapor. From point 1 to point 2, the
vapor is compressed at constant entropy and exits the compressor as a vapor at a higher temperature,
but still below the vapor pressure at that temperature. From point 2 to point 3 and on to point 4, the
vapor travels through the condenser which cools the vapor until it starts condensing, and then
condenses the vapor into a liquid by removing additional heat at constant pressure and temperature.
Between points 4 and 5, the liquid refrigerant goes through the expansion valve (also called a throttle
valve) where its pressure abruptly decreases, causing flash evaporation and auto-refrigeration of,
typically, less than half of the liquid.

That results in a mixture of liquid and vapor at a lower temperature and pressure as shown at point 5.
The cold liquid-vapor mixture then travels through the evaporator coil or tubes and is completely
vaporized by cooling the warm air (from the space being refrigerated) being blown by a fan across
the evaporator coil or tubes. The resulting refrigerant vapor returns to the compressor inlet at point 1
to complete the thermodynamic cycle.

Vapor absorption cycle

In the early years of the twentieth century, the vapor absorption cycle using water-ammonia systems
was popular and widely used. The absorption cycle is similar to the compression cycle, except for the
method of raising the pressure of the refrigerant vapor. In the absorption system, the compressor is
replaced by an absorber which dissolves the refrigerant in a suitable liquid, a liquid pump which
raises the pressure and a generator which, on heat addition, drives off the refrigerant vapor from the
high-pressure liquid. Some work is needed by the liquid pump but, for a given quantity of
refrigerant, it is much smaller than needed by the compressor in the vapor compression cycle. In an
absorption refrigerator, a suitable combination of refrigerant and absorbent is used. The most
common combinations are ammonia (refrigerant) with water (absorbent), and water (refrigerant) with
lithium bromide (absorbent).

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Ammonia vapour from evaporator is absorbed by water in absorber. Heat of Ammonia vapour is
absorbed by cooling water. Ammonia water solution is pumped to generator. In Generator heat is
supplied which gives ammonia vapour (Ammonia gets separated from water). Weak solution sent
back to absorber. High pressure Ammonia vapour is condensed to high pressure liquid ammonia in
condenser. Liquid ammonia is throttled by expansion valve to reduce pressure, and then it evaporates
absorbing heat from evaporator

1. Objective:
i) To study a refrigeration unit

ii) To calculate the COP of a vapor Compression Refrigeration cycle.

iii) To study cooling and dehumidification Process by the help of the Psychometric chart.

iv) Performance of cooling dehumidification process by the help of the refrigeration unit.

2. Apparatus:

Name - Air Conditioning Laboratory Unit

Model - A660/05026
Country of origin - England

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3. Equation used:

Qevp h1  h4
a. COP = 
Wcomp h2  h1
h
b. ma  0.504
va
c. mw = ma(W1-W2)
d. hw = mcpwtw
e. ma (ha1-ha2) = mr(hr1-hr4)
f. ma (ha1-ha2) = mr(hr1-hr4)+mwhw
g. ma (ha1-ha2) – ma(W1-W2)hw = mr(hr1-hr4)

Figure 1: Schematic Diagram of Standard Vapor Compression Cycle.

Figure2: P-h Diagram for Standard Vapor Compression Cycle.

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5. Major Component:
The major components of vapor compression refrigeration cycle are

i) Compressor
ii) Condenser
iii) Expansion device
iv) Evaporator

6. Cooling and Dehumidification:

It occurs when air passes over a surface having surface temperature lower than the Dew point
temperature of air or when water having surface temperature lower than the Dew point temperature
of air is sprayed. In this psychometric process.

DBT → Decrease
WBT → Decrease
RH → Decrease/Increase/Constant
HR → Decrease
Enthalpy → Decrease

Figure 3: Cooling and Dehumidification process in Psychometric Chart .

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The refrigeration cycle, and the cooling dehumidification process are shown in the figure below.

Figure 4: Schematic Diagram of Experimental Set up.

Figure 5: P-h Diagram for Experimental Process.

The energy balance for the control volume can be written as (assuming an adiabatic system)
maha1 + mrhr4 = maha2 + mrhr1 + mwhw
Or, ma (ha1-ha2) = mr(hr1-hr4) + mwhw ………………………4(a)

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Also, water vapor balance gives
mw = ma (W1-W2) …………...………….4(b)

From eq (1) and (2), ma (ha1-ha2) – ma(W1-W2)hw = mr(hr1-hr4)…….4(c)

Note: For condensate, hw = mcpwtw …………………...….4(d)

Where tw is condensate temperature

The air flow rate ma is measured by an orifice meter installed at the end of the air duct.
Ma is given by
h
ma  0.504 ………………………4(e)
va
Where h= manometer reading, mm of water and va = sp
Volume of air at orifice meter upstream, m3/kg
The refrigeration flow rate mr is directly read from the flow meter (Rota meter)

7. Procedure
i) Study carefully all the different components

ii) Open the water valve fully so allow water to flow through the condenser.

iii) Switch on the fan. Set the flow rate at a suitable value.

iv) Switch on the refrigeration compressor.

v) After steady condition has reached, record, record pc,tr1,tr2,tr3 and mr of the refrigeration cycle.
Also record dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures of air at inlet and outlet of the evaporator
coil.

vi) Record the manometer reading, mm of water. Also collect the condensed over a period of
about 3 minutes and note its temperature. (If there is no condensate formed, you may
humidify the air by injecting steam to the air before entering the evaporator coil)

vii) After all the readings are taken, switch off the compressor. After two minutes, switch off the
fan, and close the condenser cooling water valve.

8. Data:
i) Refrigeration Cycle:

Table-1:
Ser pc pe tr1 (T13) tr2 (T14) tr3 (T15) mr
No (kPa) (kPa) (kg/min)
1.
2.
3.
4.

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ii) Air cycle:
Table-1:
Ser Air entering Evap. Air leaving Eavp. Manometer reading
No. tdb1 (°C) twb1 (°C) tdb2 (°C) twb2 (°C) (mm of Water)
1.
2.
3.

iii) Using the above readings, check that the left hand side of equation (3)is equal to its right
hand side. Also, check L.H.S of equation (2) with its R.H.S.

iv) If there is no condensate formed, mw = 0, i.e. W1 = W1 then

ma (ha1-ha2) = mr(hr1-hr4) ……………………………….4(f)

v) Also calculate the COP of the refrigeration system.

Qevp h  h4
COP =  1 ……………………………….4(g)
Wcomp h2  h1

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 EXPERIMENT NO-05
Name of the Experiment: DETERMINATION OF CALORIFIC VALUE OF
FUEL.

1. Introduction:

Calorific Value: The value or heat value of a solid or liquid fuel may be defined as the amount of
heat given out by the complete combustion of one Kg of fuel. It is expressed in terms of KJ/kg of
fuel. The calorific value of gaseous fuel is however expressed in terms of KJ/m3 at a specified
temperature and pressure.

There are two types of calorific value of fuel.

i) Gross or higher calorific value.
ii) Net or lower calorific value.

Gross or higher calorific value: The amount of heat obtained by the complete combustion of
one kg of a fuel. When the products of its combustion are cooled down to the temperature of
supplied air is called the gross or higher calorific value of fuel.

Net or lower calorific value: When the heat absorbed or carried away by the products of
combustion is not recovered and the steam formed during combustion. Then the amount of heat
obtained per Kg of the fuel is known as net or lower calorific value.

By custom the basic calorific value for solid and liquid fuels is the gross calorific value at constant
volume and for gaseous fuels it is the gross calorific value at constant pressure. The word „gross‟
here signifies that the water formed and liberated during combustion is in the liquid phase. The
values given are approximate because many of the substances listed are not well defined.

Calorific values of solid, liquid and gaseous fuels

Solid and liquid fuels Gross calorific value/ MJ kg−1

Alcohols
Ethanol 30
Methanol 23

Coal and coal products

Anthracite (4% water) 36
Coal tar fuels 36–41
General purpose coal (5–10% water) 32–42
High-volatile coking coals (4% water) 35
Low temperature coke (15% water) 26
Medium-volatile coking coal (1% water) 37
Steam coal (1% water) 36

Peat
Peat (20% water) 16

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Petroleum and petroleum products
Diesel fuel 46
Gas oil 46
Heavy fuel oil 43
Kerosine 47
Light distillate 48
Light fuel oil 44
Medium fuel oil 43
Petrol 44.8–46.9

Wood
Wood (15% water) 16

Gaseous fuels at 15 °C, 101.325 kPa, dry Gross calorific value/MJ m− 3

Coal gas coke oven (debenzolized) 20
Coal gas continuous vertical retort (steaming) 18
Coal gas low temperature 34
Commercial butane 118
Commercial propane 94
North Sea gas natural 39
Producer gas coal 6
Producer gas coke 5
Water gas carburetted 19
Water gas blue 11

2. Objective: To find the calorific value fuel.

3. Apparatus:

i) Bomb Calorimeter.
ii) Sample Fuel
iii) Water
iv) Distilled water
vi) Measuring scale
vii) Stop watch.

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4. Experimental Setup:

5. Procedure:
i) Open the bombe and take weight of crucible.

ii) Pour sample fuel in the crucible and again take weight. Then weight of fuel will be found
(take about 0.6 to 0.9 gm).

iii) Carefully put the crucible with fuel in the stand of bomb.

iv) Make a half-loop by the fuse wire and attach this wire with the crucible stand so that half
loop will only touch the fuel.

v) Close the bomb carefully with hand so that no fuel will spill the crucible.

vi) Connect the inlet valve of the bomb with oxygen cylinder and fill the bomb with oxygen up
to 450 Ib/inch2.

vii) Fill the jacket with feed water.

viii) Fill the calorimeter with about 1.70 kg distilled water.

ix) Put the bomb into the calorimeter carefully so that the bomb should be vertical and it should
be placed in correct position into calorimeter.

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x) Put the green plug into the socket.

xi) Close the calorimeter with its cover and attach the stirrer drive with cover.

xii) Turn on the stirrer motor and submerge the Beckman thermometer depth of 7 inch‟s from the
top surface.

xiii) Look the Beckman thermometer reading and the should be between 0ºC to 1ºC other wise
using hot and cold water, make it in correct scale.

xiv) Start stop watch and take thermometer reading in one minute internal.

xv) When the time is 4 minute, press the ignition button for about 4 second.

xvi) If the sample fuel is ignited, there will be rise in temperature of calorimeter water and take
temperature reading in each minute.

xvii) Note down the maximum temperature and take more 5-6 readings.

6. Data:

Fuel Tested
Weight of crucible and fuel sample, W1 =....... gm
Weight of crucible, W2 = ....... gm
Weight of fuel oil, Wf = (W1-W2) gm
Weight of water in calorimeter Ww = ....... gm
Water value of apparatus W=412 gm
Total equivalent weight of water, W = (Ww+412) gm

7. Table:
Time(Minute) Thermometer Reading (0C)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15

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8. Calculation:

The radiation correction Tr= n  V  

 V  V 
2
Where, n= number of minutes between the ignition and the attainment of the maximum
Temperature.

V´= rate of temperature fall in degrees per minute at the end of the test.

V = rate of temperature rise in degrees per minute at the beginning of the test

Rise in temperature during test, T1= tm-ti

Where, tm =maximum temperature, ti =sample ignited temperature

Corrected temperature rise, T´ = Tr + T1

Heat absorbed by water, Hw = (W×1000×T) cal

Calorific value of test fuel = (Hw/Wf) cal/gm

Determination of water value of the apparatus:

The water value of apparatus is usually determined by burning a weight sample of a fuel of known
calorific value. Such a fuel must be pure. And the use of resublimed naphthalene is recommended.
The calorific value of this Substance is 9630 cal/gm.

About .9 gm of naphthalene is weight out in a crucible after being briquette and rapidly transferred to
the bomb to prevent any loss of sublimation. A test is carried out in the usual way and the corrected
temperature rise obtained. Then if

W =Water value of apparatus in gm

T´ = corrected temperature rise.
Ww=Weight of water in calorimeter vessel.
Wf = weight of naphthalene sample in gm.

So, W= (9630×Wf) T´-Ww

In the same procedure calculate the corrected temperature rise (T´) to find out the water value of
apparatus.

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Name of the Experiment: CALORIFIC VALUE OF GASEOUS FUEL BY GAS
CALORIFIC.
1. Objectives:
TO find out the calorific value of natural gas using gas calorimeter.
2. APPARATUS:
Gas calorimeter, wet-gas meter, Gas controller, Gas burner, Thermometers, water container, lighter
3. IDENTIFICATION OF COMPONENTS

Figure 1: Sectioned view of a typical boys calorimeter.

SUMMARY OF OPERATION PRODUCER

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i) Connect a tube from the cooling water source to the inlet to calorimeter; the inlet is the
connection at the perimeter of the top plate of the unit.
Connect a tube from the Calorimeter water outlet (at center of the top plate) to the drain
source.
ii) Connect a tube from the gas supply to the wet test meter (Hyde meter) gas supply inlet
located at top of near side.
Connect a tube from Hyde meter outlet of the gas control value inlet. Connect a gas control
value outlet with the burner inlet located at the bottom plate of Calorimeter.
iii) Set the water flow rate: 1500-200 ml/min
iv) Check the water level at the definite level in the sight box of Hyde meter.
v) Pull out the inner casing first and then outer casing from the calorimeter main body. Set the
gas flow rate 1.5-2.5 liter/min by regulating the quadrant valve and ignite flame by gas
lighter.
vi) After ignition check all gas connecting points by soap-bubble to ensure to zero leakage.
vii) Put the outer casing on the calorimeter base plate and then place the inner casing around the
flame very very slowly.
viii) Observe the water outlet temperature .outlet temperature. Outlet temperature must rise up If
not, flame may be extinguished and need to ignite again.
ix) After ignition the flame set the minimum required position in quadrant valve.
x) Allow the gas to burn and the water to flow through the calorimeter for a least 30 mines. To
allow the operating condition in steady state.
xi) During experiment observe gas flow and cooling water flow to ensure the flow is perfectly
OK.
xii) After stabilization, take your required (i.e. Inlet gas flow temp., inlet water temp., outlet
water temp., volume of collected water, volume of collected condensate, volume of gas and
time ) for calculation.
xiii) For2nd and 3rd observation gas flow should be increased.
xiv) After completion the analysis, stop the gas flow first by the main gas flow valve and then
after 10-12 minutes. Stop the cooling water flow.
xv) After 20-25 no. of analysis or when calorimeter will be idle position for long time,
Calorimeter inner casing and outer casing should be cleaned with the Alkali (soda) solution
then with fresh water and dried with Tissue paper.

WARNING

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i) Never stop cooling water flow while fuel gas is burning.
ii) When gas flow or cooling water flow discontinue in any time on analysis condition, stop the
gas flow main valve.
iii) When water outlet temperature goes down it mean flame is out. Try again to ignite the flame
as early possible.
iv) When water outlet temperature is abnormally high (above 60ºC), stop the gas flow main
valve. Other wise calorimeter will be seriously damaged.
v) Never connect Hyde meter with supply gas pressure above 48mbr (20ins of water).

FORMULA AND TABLE

mw
Q gross   tCw  GVf
VG
Where,
Qgross=Gross calorific value, KJ/m3
Ms=Quantity of water in Kg
VG= Gas volume in m3
 t =Temperature difference in o C

Cw = Specific heat of water (4.187 KJ/KgºC)

GVf= Gas volume factor

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 Table: observed data for determining calorific value.

Obs Gas Inlet Water water condensate Gas Barometric Corresponding Time
No Temp(ºC) collected collected flow pressure GVf sec
Inlet Outlet Kg Kg (1 rev) mmHg

Temp (ºC) Temp (ºC) M3

1
2
3

Calculation:

Gross (Higher) heating value (HHV):

Calorimeter value in MJ/m3 & BTU/ft3

Water inlet temperature:
Water outlet temperature:
Temperature difference (  t ):
Gas inlet temperature:
Water collected (mw):
Number of revolution:
Gas volume (VG):
Barometric pressure: 760 mmHg
Corresponding GVf:
Specific heat of water (Cw):4.187 KJ/KgºC

mw
Q gross   tCw  GVf
VG

In BTU/ft3 =Qgross ×26.8413=............. BTU/ft3

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Net (Lower) heating value(LHV):
Qnet = Qgross - QHE

QHE = r × cw
Where
Qnet = Net (Lower) heating value
QHE = Heat of Evaporation
r = Heat of condensation of water
= 2.454 KJ/gm at 20ºC
=2.454MJ/Kg
Cw = condensate in kg/m3
During ……….sec gas volume =2.36×10-3 m3
And during …….. Sec condensate = …….gm = …..Kg
cw = (condensate kg)/(2.36×10-3)= ………kg/ m3
QHE = r × cw

Qgross = Qnet + QHE

Qnet = Qgross - QHE
Qnet =

In BTU/ft3 = Qnet ×26.8413 =..........BTU/ft3

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