Direct Energy Conversion System

RADIOISOTOPE THERMOELECTRIC GENERATOR

Direct Energy Conversion is a process where different types of energy converted directly into
electrical energy.
A direct energy conversion device converts one form of energy to another through a single
process. For example, a solar cell is a direct energy conversion device that converts optical
electromagnetic radiation to electricity. While some of the sunlight that falls on a solar cell
may heat it up instead, that effect is not fundamental to the solar cell operation.
Types of Direct Energy Conversion System

• Thermoelectric Power Generation

• Thermionic Power Generation
• Magnetohydrodynamic Systems
• PV Systems
• Fuel Cells
• Thermo Nuclear Power Fusion Generation etc…….
Thermoelectric Power Generation
A Thermoelectric Generator (TEG), also called a Seebeck generator, is a solid state device that
converts heat flux (temperature differences) directly into electrical energy through a
phenomenon called the Seebeck effect (a form of thermoelectric effect). Thermoelectric
generators function like heat engines, but are less bulky and have no moving parts. However,
TEGs are typically more expensive and less efficient.

Thermoelectric power generators consist of three major components: thermoelectric

materials, thermoelectric modules and thermoelectric systems that interface with the heat
source.

Thermoelectric materials generate power directly from the heat by converting temperature
differences into electric voltage. These materials must have both high electrical
conductivity (σ) and low thermal conductivity (κ) to be good thermoelectric materials. Having
low thermal conductivity ensures that when one side is made hot, the other side stays cold,
which helps to generate a large voltage while in a temperature gradient. The measure of the
magnitude of electrons flow in response to a temperature difference across that material is
given by the Seebeck coefficient (α). The efficiency of a given material to produce a
thermoelectric power is governed by its “Figure Of Merit(Z)”
Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator
A radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG, RITEG) is an electrical generator that uses an
array of thermo couples to convert the heat released by the decay of a suitable radioactive
material into electricity by the Seebeck effect. The design of an RTG is simple by the standards
of nuclear technology: the main component is a sturdy container of a radioactive material
(the fuel). Thermocouples are placed in the walls of the container, with the outer end of each
thermocouple connected to a heat sink. Radioactive decay of the fuel produces heat. It is the
temperature difference between the fuel and the heat sink that allows the thermocouples to
generate electricity.
RTGs have been used as a power sources in satellites and space probes. RTGs are usually the
most desirable power source for unmaintained situations that need a few hundred watts (or
less) of power for durations too long for fuel cells, batteries, or generators to provide
economically and in places where solar cells are not practical. Safe use of RTGs have no
moving parts and are very simple, fundamentally, they consist of a fuel cell, thermocouples
and shielding. These compact, reliable systems provide basic mission fuel and keep critical
spacecraft components warm enough to function in the cold, dark reaches of deep space.
Radioactive Fuel (Isotopes)
A "fuel" for a radioisotope thermoelectric generator is a kind of unstable element. As that
unstable element decays, it produces heat, which the RTG can use to make electricity.
Radioactive isotope, also called radioisotope, radionuclide, or radioactive nuclide, any of
several species of the same chemical element with different masses whose nuclei are
unstable and dissipate excess energy by spontaneously emitting radiation in the form
of alpha, beta, and gamma rays.
Some of the Radioactive Isotopes are
▪ Plutonium-238
▪ Strontium-90
▪ Polonium-210
▪ Americium-241
▪ Cesium-144
▪ Curium-242
▪ Promethium-147
▪ Ruthenium-106
▪ Cobalt-60

In a conventional nuclear reactor, one kilogram of Pu-239 can produce sufficient heat to
generate nearly 8 million kilowatt-hours of electricity. The radioactive material has been
chosen to be Pu-238, a standard RTG fuel type as it is a powerful alpha emitter. It has a half-
life of 88 years, meaning it takes that long for its heat output to be reduced by half hence it
works well as a space power source. It emits relatively low levels of radiation that is easily
shielded, so mission –critical appliances and equipment are not affected. It can generate
substantial heat in small amounts as it is stable at high temperature.
The isotope which has been most used in such power systems is 238Pu. However other
isotopes were used in the past, for example polonium210Po was used by the United Soviet
Socialist Republic (USSR) in 1961 and 1971. Their aim at that time was to generate 800W heat
in Orion-1 and Orion-2 radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs) respectively.
Researchers have been investigating a potential replacement isotope for 238Pu. In spite of
these efforts, it has been concluded that the most acceptable isotope for space missions is
238Pu. There are a number of reasons for this, namely, a long half-life of around 87 years,
high power density (heat/ volume), high specific power (heat/ mass) and pure alpha emission
(100 % alpha decays). The fuel is formed in a ceramic oxide (238PuO2) to be used within the
GPHS (general purpose heat source) modules because this form has a very high melting point
and very low solubility.

The 238Pu is created when neptunium targets are irradiated by neutrons in a laboratory or
by other means.
Firstly, targets are placed in a nuclear reactor, which utilizes enriched uranium such as light
water reactors. During this process sometimes isotope 236Pu is produced as well, which
creates difficulties because it emits gamma rays that require significant shielding. Another
method that can be used is to reprocess the spent fuels of a nuclear reactor. It can be said
that in the United States of America (U.S.A.) production 237Np targets are limited as they
occur either naturally in uranium ores in very low (trace) amounts, or they can be created
artificially. While the RTGs are reliable and generate enough power for space application
missions by NASA, there is an issue concerning the shortage of the 238Pu in the U.S.A. warned
that “the isotope 238Pu is no longer available for use as a power source for NASA space
probes, and an alternative must be found.”

Efficiency
A thermionic converter, an energy conversion device which relies on the principle
of thermionic emission, can achieve efficiencies between 10–20%, but requires higher
temperatures than those at which standard RTGs run. Some prototype 210Po RTGs have used
thermionics, and potentially other extremely radioactive isotopes could also provide power
by this means, but short half-lives make these unfeasible. Several space-bound nuclear
reactors have used thermionics, but nuclear reactors are usually too heavy to use on most
space probes.
Thermophotovoltaic cells work by the same principles as a photovoltaic cell, except that they
convert infrared light emitted by a hot surface rather than visible light into electricity.
Thermophotovoltaic cells have an efficiency slightly higher than thermoelectric modules
(TEMs) and can be overlaid on top of themselves, potentially doubling efficiency. Systems
with radioisotope generators simulated by electric heaters have demonstrated efficiencies of
20%, but have not yet been tested with radioisotopes. Some theoretical thermophotovoltaic
cell designs have efficiencies up to 30%, but these have yet to be built or confirmed.
Thermophotovoltaic cells and silicon TEMs degrade faster than metal TEMs, especially in the
presence of ionizing radiation.
Dynamic generators can provide power at more than four times the conversion efficiency of
RTGs. NASA and DOE have been developing a next-generation radioisotope-fuelled power
source called the Stirling Radioisotope Generator (SRG) that uses free-piston Stirling
engines coupled to linear alternators to convert heat to electricity. SRG prototypes
demonstrated an average efficiency of 23%. Greater efficiency can be achieved by increasing
the temperature ratio between the hot and cold ends of the generator. The use of non-
contacting moving parts, non-degrading flexural bearings, and a lubrication-free and
hermetically sealed environment have, in test units, demonstrated no appreciable
degradation over years of operation. Experimental results demonstrate that an SRG could
continue running for decades without maintenance. Vibration can be eliminated as a concern
by implementation of dynamic balancing or use of dual-opposed piston movement. Potential
applications of a Stirling radioisotope power system include exploration and science missions
to deep-space, Mars, and the Moon.
The increased efficiency of the SRG may be demonstrated by a theoretical comparison of
thermodynamic properties, as follows. These calculations are simplified and do not account
for the decay of thermal power input due to the long half-life of the radioisotopes used in
these generators. The assumptions for this analysis include that both systems are operating
at steady state under the conditions observed in experimental. Both generators can be
simplified to heat engines to be able to compare their current efficiencies to their
corresponding Carnot efficiencies. The system is assumed to be the components, apart from
the heat source and heat sink

Safety
RTGs pose a risk of radioactive contamination: if the container holding the fuel leaks, the
radioactive material may contaminate the environment.
For spacecraft, the main concern is that if an accident were to occur during launch or a
subsequent passage of a spacecraft close to Earth, harmful material could be released into
the atmosphere; therefore, their use in spacecraft and elsewhere has attracted controversy.
However, this event is not considered likely with current RTG cask designs. For instance, the
environmental impact study for the Cassini–Huygens probe launched in 1997 estimated the
probability of contamination accidents at various stages in the mission. The probability of an
accident occurring which caused radioactive release from one or more of its 3 RTGs (or from
its 129 radioisotope heater units) during the first 3.5 minutes following launch was estimated
at 1 in 1,400; the chances of a release later in the ascent into orbit were 1 in 476; after that
the likelihood of an accidental release fell off sharply to less than 1 in a million. If an accident
which had the potential to cause contamination occurred during the launch phases (such as
the spacecraft failing to reach orbit), the probability of contamination actually being caused
by the RTGs was estimated at about 1 in 10. The launch was successful and Cassini–
Huygens reached Saturn.
To minimize the risk of the radioactive material being released, the fuel is stored in individual
modular units with their own heat shielding. They are surrounded by a layer of iridium metal
and encased in high-strength graphite blocks. These two materials are corrosion- and heat-
resistant. Surrounding the graphite blocks is an aeroshell, designed to protect the entire
assembly against the heat of re-entering the Earth's atmosphere. The plutonium fuel is also
stored in a ceramic form that is heat-resistant, minimising the risk of vaporization and
aerosolization. The ceramic is also highly insoluble.
The plutonium-238 used in these RTGs has a half-life of 87.74 years, in contrast to the 24,110
year half-life of plutonium-239 used in nuclear weapons and reactors. A consequence of the
shorter half-life is that plutonium-238 is about 275 times more radioactive than plutonium-
239 (i.e. 17.3 curies (640 GBq)/g compared to 0.063 curies (2.3 GBq)/g[35]). For instance,
3.6 kg of plutonium-238 undergoes the same number of radioactive decays per second as 1
tonne of plutonium-239. Since the morbidity of the two isotopes in terms of absorbed
radioactivity is almost exactly the same, plutonium-238 is around 275 times more toxic by
weight than plutonium-239.
The alpha radiation emitted by either isotope will not penetrate the skin, but it can irradiate
internal organs if plutonium is inhaled or ingested. Particularly at risk is the skeleton, the
surface of which is likely to absorb the isotope, and the liver, where the isotope will collect
and become concentrated.

The safety criteria, long-life, high specific power and power density and high melting of 238Pu
were the main reasons behind choosing it for the past, present and future thermal
radioisotope power generators. The efficiency of radioisotope thermoelectric generators
(GPHS-RTG and MM-RTG) depends on the thermal and electrical conductivity of
thermocouples, and the temperature difference between the hot and cold sides, but it may
limit improvements to very high efficiencies. Because the melting point of the generator
components would not be able to withstand this high temperature. Therefore, an idea
emerged to include a thermodynamic cycle in such generators such as Stirling engine cycle.
Significant success, in terms of efficiency and the amount of used 238Pu have been achieved
with these new systems.
REFERENCES:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271498506_Improving_the_Overall_Efficiency_
of_Radioisotope_Thermoelectric_Generators
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_energy_conversion
http://www.iraj.in/journal/journal_file/journal_pdf/1-345-149450628491-95.pdf
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator