Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1
Question:
What was ‘musical modernism’ in the early 20th century? Illustrate your answer with
reference to the work of at least three prominent composers.
The twentieth century can be marked by extreme violence and progress at the
same time. In the first half there were two World Wars (1914-‐1918 and 1939-‐1945)
which unleashed a lot of new weapons of unparalleled possibility of destruction such as
tanks, machine guns, hydrophones, planes, torpedo’s, aircraft carriers, etc. which the
world had never seen before. The wars caused a global depression and massive
deprivation each time. The second half of the twentieth century saw the breaking up of
colonial empires, and then the Cold War between the United States and Soviet Union.
But at the same time there was a lot of growth in the economy, and the principle of
equal human rights, mainly in Central and Western Europe. Developments in science
and technology led to transformation in the way of living. In arts there was a greater
emphasis on pluralism and diversity such as Isadora Duncan’s (1878-‐1927) ‘modern’
dance form which clashed with the conventional classical ballet; Pablo Picasso’s (1881-‐
1973) paintings of distorted figures and objects which portrayed different angles at the
same time and Wassily Kandinsky’s (1866-‐1944) abstract paintings which no longer
represented the visual world. Many artists also expressed aspects like dehumanization,
alienation and nihilism in their forms of art, which was partly in reaction to the wars
and massacres that were taking place, and the antihero became a popular and
The kind of music that took place in the twentieth century appears to
be so fundamentally different from the music that was in the past and diverse in itself.
1
Roger
Kamien,
Music
An
Appreciation,
6th
Brief
Edition
(McGraw-‐Hill
Companies,
2008),
Page
289.
2
As
composers
of
earlier
times
such
as
Ludwig
Van
Beethoven
(1770
-‐
1827)
and
Richard Wagner (1813 -‐ 1883) continued to remain decisive in the formation of the
conceptions of the role of the composers in the society, similarly the music of these two
composers suggest the evolution of thoughts and techniques which evolved into the
characteristic twentieth century modes of musical thought. In the beginning of
nineteenth century itself, several aspects emerged such as dissolution of tonality:
use of modal and non-‐diatonic scales avoidance of functional progressions, increased
importance of motives as determinants of melody and harmony. The freedom of
modulation in Beethoven’s music can be seen reflected in the chromatic freedom and
atonality of Tristan und Isolde (composed between 1857-‐1859) of Richard Wagner (Ex.
contrapuntal and orchestral techniques can easily be traced to the works of composers
like Richard Strauss (11th June 1864 – 8th September 1949), Gustav Mahler (7th July
1860 – 18th May 1911), César Frank (1882 – 1890), Gabriel Fauré (1845 -‐ 1924) and
Claude Debussy (1862 – 1918). As Eric Salzman argues “The history of music in the
twentieth century can be understood in terms of two great cycles: first, the
abandonment of functional tonality after 1900, the explorations of vast new materials
before and after World War I, and the new tonal and twelve-‐tone system syntheses that
followed; and second, the very different but parallel set of rejections, new beginnings,
explorations, analyses, and syntheses following World War II. The bond that connects
all of twentieth-‐century music grows out of the fact that each composer -‐-‐-‐-‐ and each
2
http://javanese.imslp.info/files/imglnks/usimg/0/0d/IMSLP21459-‐PMLP03546-‐Wagner-‐
TristanPSit.pdf
3
piece
-‐-‐-‐-‐
has
had
to
establish
new
and
unique
forms
of
expressive
and
intellectual
communication”3.
Example
1.1
Example
1.2
Prelude,
Page
1,
System
3,
Bar
4-‐5.
Prelude,
Page
1,
System
4,
Bar
1 .
Example
1.3
Prelude,
Page
6,
System
3,
Bar
1-‐2.
Example
1.4
Scene
II,
Page
21,
System
2,
Bar
1.
Similar to Gustav Mahler, Richard Strauss was of seminal significance
in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. Strauss had established himself well
enough
in
the
1880’s
and
1890’s
as
a
leading
composer
of
symphonic
poems
after
Franz
3
Eric
Salzman,
Twentieth
Century
Music,
An
Introduction,
3rd
Edition
(Simon
&
Schuster,
1988),
Page
6.
4
Liszt.
He
moved
to
composing
operas
by
seeking
to
inherit
Richard
Wagner’s
mantle.
The first opera he composed, Guntram (1893), turned out to be a failure, and then he
composed Feuersnot (The Fire Famine, 1901), for which he gained moderate success
and finally he gained a massive success in his opera Salome (1905).
Some of the characteristics of twentieth-‐century music that can be
taken into consideration for understanding ‘musical modernism’ and its growth are:
1. Melody-‐ The most notable development in terms of the way the
melody was used in the early twentieth century was that the melody was no longer
necessary to be part of the chords being used nor to the major or minor key. Like the
rhythm, it had the freedom to freely move using the twelve tones which did not have a
tonal center. Due to the irregularity and constant change in the meter of the rhythm, the
melodies were also unpredictable which made them rich and varied in early twentieth
century music.
Gustav Mahler (7th July 1860 – 18th May 1911) had his greatest success
in life in the early twentieth century and the last decade of his life. Two of his most
comprehensive creations in the early twentieth century which were vast compositions
were, the Symphony No. 8, in Eb Major (“Symphony of a Thousand,” 1906)4 and a six-‐
movement symphony with voices, Das Lied Von Der Erde (The Song of the Earth, 1908)5.
Mahler himself mentions about his Symphony No. 8 in one of the letters to his friend
Williem Mengelberg saying: “It is the biggest thing I have done so far. And so individual
in content and form that I cannot describe it in words. Imagine that the whole universe
4
Score
Link:
http://imslp.org/wiki/Symphony_No.8_(Mahler,_Gustav)
Video
Link:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NSYEOLwVfU8
5
Score
Link:
http://imslp.org/wiki/Das_Lied_von_der_Erde_(Mahler,_Gustav)
Video
Link:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r3kxLh7pph0
5
begins
to
vibrate
and
resound.
These
are
no
longer
human
voices,
but
planets
and
suns
revolving”6. He became such an inspiration and a mentor for many in the next
generations, which included Arnold Schoenberg and his students, which made Mahler
not only as an important composer of the nineteenth century, but also as a modernist
The use of diatonic harmonies was a vital characteristic of Mahler’s
style of music, which cannot be rated as his primary principle, but as the consequence of
his inclination towards folk-‐lore – for simple, unaffected but vigorous music. This
inclination can be seen expressed distinctly in his themes and motives and “pervades
even all the details of his composition”7; which has its origin from the place where he
was born, Kalischt, near Iglau, Moravia. At a very early age he became familiar to
country, folk and soldier songs as he was exposed to his surroundings. Rudolf Felber
mentions: “he (Mahler) could recite and sing about two hundred (songs) when only four
years old!”8 . And in his early years, he wrote several songs such as Des Knaben
Wunderhorn – Lieder (1888), Rückert Lieder (June 1901 – August 1902), etc.
point was Richard Wagner, specifically the “Wagner of Tristan and Parsifal”9. His works
like Verklärte Nacht (1899), Gurrelieder (1900 -‐ 1903) (The vocal line is not actually
sung, but declaimed according to Sprechstimme {“speech song”}. Schoenberg was the
first one to ever use this technique), etc. can be seen as the works which lied in the
Wagnerian orbit. Between 1902 – 1906 his works like Pelleas und Melisande (1903),
6
Edward
Downes,
Everyman’s
Guide
To
Orchestral
Music,
(London,
UK:
The
Philharmonic-‐Symphony
Society
of
New
York,
1976),
Page
555.
7
Rudolf
Felber,
‘The
Musical
Times’,
Gustav
Mahler,
The
Musical
Times,
Vol.
64,
No.
963
(May
1,
1923)
Page
312.
8
Rudolf
Felber,
‘The
Musical
Times’,
Gustav
Mahler,
The
Musical
Times,
Vol.
64,
No.
963
(May
1,
1923)
Page
312.
9
Eric
Salzman,
Twentieth
Century
Music,
An
Introduction,
3rd
Edition
(Simon
&
Schuster,
1988),
Page
34.
6
String
Quartet
in
D
minor
(1905)
and
Kammersymphonie
(1906)
were
the
ones
which
showed a steady growth of contrapuntal and chromatic techniques which have the
effect of intentionally delaying the resolution to the tonic over longer and longer period.
In 1908, Schoenberg composed the Second String Quartet in F sharp minor (Op. 10)10, in
which the beginning of the composition lies in the bounds of the contrapuntal,
chromatic techniques and being thematically organized. Then it develops by
introduction of linear chromaticism in the motives and intervals which are bound by the
tonal expectation and function (Ex. 2.1 {shows how the music lies in the boundary of the
contrapuntal and chromatic techniques.} and Ex. 2.2 {shows how Schoenberg
abandoning the tonal expectations.}). By using of the Viennese tune “Ach, du lieber
Augustin”, he frees the tonality, as an unexpected human voice comes in the last two
movements which unleashes a completely new wave, and as Stefan Georg says: “I feel a
breath of air from other planets”11. Schoenberg wrote this piece by avoiding all the
traditional chord progressions and used all the twelve tones without considering their
relationship to major or minor scales. It was the first time ever in the history of music,
that each and every sound, interval and event was completely independent and had a
unique value. It was completely free from all the bounds it had with tonal discourse and
with all other meanings it was formally invested with. The next year, 1909, he
composed the Three Piano Pieces, Op. 1112 which was completely dominated by the use
of non-‐tonal motivic chromaticism. Then over the next few years he composed the song
cycle of Stefan George “Book of the Hanging Gardens”(Op. 15, 1908), Five Orchestral
Pieces (Op. 16, 1909), Erwartung (1909), Die Glúckliche Hand (1913), Six Little Piano
Pieces
(Op.
19,
1911),
Herzgewächse
(Op.
20,
1911),
Pierrot
Lunaire
(Op.
21,
1912)
and
10
Score
Link:
http://imslp.org/wiki/String_Quartet_No.2,_Op.10_(Schoenberg,_Arnold)
Video
Link:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FzgFd0eDaMQ
11
Eric
Salzman,
Twentieth
Century
Music,
An
Introduction,
3rd
Edition
(Simon
&
Schuster,
1988),
Page
35.
12
Score
Link:
http://imslp.org/wiki/3_Pieces,_Op.11_(Schoenberg,_Arnold)
Video
Link:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vsqk5o-‐hXCM
7
the
Four
Orchestral
Songs
(Op.
22,
1913
–
1916)
which
comprised
of
freedom
from
tonality. All these works consist of moving in the direction of creating highest chromatic
density, which leads into having the tendency of repeating all the twelve pitches.
Example
2.1
Example 2.2
8
2.
Tone
Color-‐
The
importance
of
tone
color
increased
immensely
during the twentieth century, more than ever before. Composers experimented by using
the voices and the traditional instruments to create unorthodox sounds. This was
achieved by playing the instruments in their registral extremes, mastering a high level
of technical complications and uncommon playing techniques. For example, the brass
and woodwind players were asked to produce fluttering sounds by rapidly rolling their
tongue which playing, the strings players were often asked to do rapid glissando,
playing battuta (striking the strings with the bow) and col legno (using the wooden part
of the bow to bow the strings, instead if the hair). Percussion instruments also became
prominent during this time as unusual and complex rhythms were used with different
tone colors of the instruments, which can be seen in Anton Von Webern’s Orchestral
Piece, Op. 10, No.3 (1913)13; Igor Stravinsky’s Les Noces (The Wedding, 1914-‐1923)14
and L’Histoire du soldat (The Soldier’s Tale, 1918)15 and Béla Bartók’s Music for Strings,
In addition to this, Arnold Schoenberg wrote about the role of tone
color in music of the future in his Theory of Harmony (1911) as follows: “It must also be
possible to make [melodic] progressions out of tone colors . . . progressions whose
relations with one another work with a kind of logic entirely equivalent to that logic
which satisfies us in the melody of pitches. That has the appearance of the futuristic
fantasy and is probably just that. But it is one which, I firmly believe, will be realized. I
firmly believe it is capable of heightening in an unprecedented manner the sensory,
intellectual and spiritual pleasures offered by art . . . Tone-‐ color melodies
13
Score
Link:
http://imslp.org/wiki/6_Pieces_for_Large_Orchestra,_Op.6_(Webern,_Anton)
14
Score
Link:
http://imslp.org/wiki/Les_noces_(Stravinsky,_Igor)
15
Score
Link:
http://imslp.org/wiki/L'histoire_du_soldat_(Stravinsky,_Igor)
16
Score
Link:
http://imslp.org/wiki/Music_for_Strings,_Percussion_and_Celesta,_Sz.106_(Bartók,_Béla)
9
[Klangfarbenmelodien]!
How
acute
the
senses
that
would
be
able
to
perceive
them!
How
high the development of spirit that could find pleasure in such subtle things!”17.
Arnold Schoenberg himself, which proposes that the melodic elements can be created
by creating a combination of different colors as well as with different pitches. This
particular concept, can be seen in Schoenberg’s composition Five Pieces for Orchestra
Op. 16 (1909); which he later renamed as “Chord Colors”,” Colors”,” Summer Morning by
Each of Schoenberg’s work done from 1908 -‐ 1916 (mentioned earlier)
represents one or the other way of exploring new aspects of musical experience.
Timbral developments were done by expanding the instrumental and orchestral
techniques (compared to Anton Webern {1883 -‐ 1945} and Alban Berg {1885 -‐ 1935}),
instrumental colors were added by using/ playing mutes, sul ponticello, harmonics,
flutter tongue, etc. as these techniques became much more common than ever before,
using instruments in their unusual register and dynamic levels along with creating
different variety of sounds with combination of instruments. Some of these examples
could be seen in one of the movements of Schoenberg’s Five Orchestral Pieces18 entitled
“Farben” as subtle harmonic and timbral changes are done in chordal structure. Even in
the opera Erwartung19 the thematic-‐ motivic structure is completely abandoned in
order to create psychological dramatic form. Like Anton Webern, in 1910, Arnold
Schoenberg used the orchestral in order to interweave the solo sounds of the
instruments to project miniature form. Most of the techniques from Schoenberg’s early
17
Bryan
R.
Simms,
Music
of
the
Twentieth
Century
-‐
Style
and
Structure,
2nd
Edition
(Wadsworth
Group/
Thomson
Learning,
1996),
Page
110.
18
Score
Link:
http://imslp.org/wiki/5_Pieces_for_Orchestra,_Op.16_(Schoenberg,_Arnold)
Video
Link:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wPtcUmxmgC0
19
Score
Link:
http://imslp.org/wiki/Erwartung,_Op.17_(Schoenberg,_Arnold)
Video
Link:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sJSvA8oP7rw
10
period
are
incorporated
in
his
latter
composition,
such
as-‐
Pierrot
Lunaire,
which
consists of 21 poems by Albert Giraud in German translation.
which there was a gravitation pull towards the central tonality. By the end of nineteenth
century, tonality was weakened due to rapid, frequent changes in the key and increased
role of dissonance. But after 1900 there were still a few composers who continued to
compose music using the traditional systems. Some of them modified it greatly, and
some discarded the system completely. There were fundamental changes which were
brought to the way the chords were used in the twentieth century. Prominent
composers recognized that the treatment of dissonance was the fulcrum by which the
old method would fall apart. A consonant chord was considered stable, as it always
functioned as a point of rest or arrival. On the other hand, the dissonance was always
treated as unstable which created a lot of tension as it demanded immediate resolution
to a consonance. But in the early twentieth century, this distinguishing between the
consonance and the dissonance was being abandoned. This meant that combinations of
tones which were considered unstable were now treated as stable chords20.
Igor Stravinsky (1882 – 1971) mentioned in one of his Norton Lectures
at Harvard University (1939-‐40), “For over a century music has provided repeated
examples of a style in which dissonance has emancipated itself. It is no longer tied down
to its former function. Having become an entity in itself, it frequently happens that
dissonance neither prepares nor anticipates anything. Dissonance is thus no more an
agent of disorder than consonance is a guarantee of security. The music of yesterday
and of today unhesitatingly unites parallel dissonant chords that thereby lose their
20
Roger
Kamien,
Music
An
Appreciation,
6th
Brief
Edition
(McGraw-‐Hill
Companies,
2008),
Page
296.
11
functional
value,
and
our
ear
quite
naturally
accepts
their
juxtaposition21.
And
this
can
be seen in his music such as Rite of Spring, Firebird, Les Noces, etc. (Ex. 3.1, 3.2, 3.3
respectively).
Example
3.1
A
short
extract
from
Rite
of
Spring,
“Procession
of
Oldest
and
the
W isest
One”,
Bars
1 1-‐
14.
Example3.2
Extract
from
Firebird,
“Appearance
of
a
Firebird,
Pursued
by
Prince
Ivan”,
Bars
23
–
29.
21
Bryan
R.
Simms,
Music
of
the
Twentieth
Century
-‐
Style
and
Structure,
2nd
Edition
(Wadsworth
Group/
Thomson
Learning,
1996),
Page
21.
12
Example
3.3
Extract
from
Les
Noces
“Premier
Tableau”,
Bars
34
–
38.
Until the 1900’s there were certain principles which governed the
construction of a chord, where only a certain combination of tones were considered as a
chord. Then in the early twentieth century, composers started to create new harmonies
which were a combination of two traditional chords, known as polychords. Another
factor that evolved in the harmony was that the chord structures were no more based
on triads. Composers such as Aaron Copland (Appalachian Spring, premiered on 30th
October 1944, Ex. 4) and Charles Ives (The Cage, published in 1922, Ex. 5) used chords
where the intervals between the pitches were a fourth apart from each other, instead of
thirds. There were chords which were also made up of tone clusters which consisted of
13
Example
4
Example
5
meant that two or more pitches were used at the same time in the harmony. One of the
prominent examples of this technique can be seen in Stravinsky’s ballet Petrushka
(1910-‐11) (Ex. 6). Overall this meant that, greater the contrast between the tone color,
rhythm and register between the layers of different sounds, the more we could hear the
different keys. Further ahead of polytonality came atonality, in which the tonality itself
was absent. An augur of atonality was seen in the work of Richard Wagner-‐ Tristan und
Isolde, where the pull towards the central key was weakened by frequent modulations
and by liberally using all the twelve tones of the chromatic scale. During the early
1920’s Schoenberg developed the twelve-‐tone system, which was a new technique to
organize the pitches. Unlike the tonal system, the twelve-‐ tone system gave equal
notability to all the twelve chromatic tones than singling out each one of them. After the
invention of the twelve-‐tone system, for nearly two decades, only Schoenberg and his
disciples used this system. The use of this system is reflected in some of Schoenberg’s
works, such as: Wind Quintet, Op. 26 (shows how the distribution of pitches in the row
of the vocals and balance between the hexachords, Ex. 7.1), The Violin Concerto, Op. 36
(1933; shows the use of hexachords, Ex. 7.2), Von heute aug morgen, Op. 32 (1928) and
his first composition using the twelve tone system, Five Piano Pieces, Op. 23 (1923).
14
Example
6
Clarinet
1
playing
in
C
major
and
Clarinet
2
in
F
sharp
major.
Example
7.1
Example
7.2
Looking at the works of Gustav Mahler, the presence of diatonic
character in his harmony makes it much more recognizable, and is divulged in his
instrumentation with the constant use of Eb clarinet – which is a popular instrument
15
from
Mahler’s
country
–
frequent
use
of
the
guitar
(7th
Symphony)
and
mandolin
(7th
Hans F. Redlich states: “ Mahler flouts the Wagnerian concept of
harmony, conceiving harmony in turn mainly as the result contrapuntal movement.
Harmonic clashes and even bitonality result from the rigorous simultaneity of
contrapuntal structures (Ex. 8) . . . Mahler even anticipates serial technique in the
strictly pentatonic structure of the Lied von der Erde (Ex. 9) . . . On the other hand, he
discovers the interval of the Fourth in the fourth song before Schoenberg’s chords of the
Fourth in his Pelleas and Chamber Symphony, Op. 9 had been written. The interval of
the Fourth become the determinant interval of Symphony No. 1 (Ex. 10) . . . Mahler
further anticipates atonality in the free two-‐ part counterpoint of passages (Ex. 11) . . .
taken from the first movement of the Ninth Symphony. On the other hand he could
never completely rid himself of the romantic models and melodic concepts. Even in so
late a work as Symphony No. 8, he writes a melody for the Mater Gloriosa whose
derivation from a piano piece by Schumann becomes painfully obvious (Ex. 12)”22.
Example 8
22
Hans
F.
Redlich,
‘The
Creative
Achievement
of
Gustav
Mahler’,
The
Musical
Times,
Vol.
101,
No.
1409
(July
1960)
Page
419.
16
Example
9
Example
10
Example
11
17
Example
12
Therefore regarding Mahler it can be said that his acceptance of the
fragmented character in music comes from the fact that his symphonies posses extreme
contrasts which posses the possibility of breaking the traditional unified structures and
acknowledging the potential of tonal continuity for synthesis and integrating challenges
this.
4. Rhythm-‐ Along with the emancipation of dissonance in the late
nineteenth and early twentieth century, there was also freeing of regular beats and
unsettling of stable metric organization of music. Since the early twentieth century, the
among composers. Rhythmic inspiration of syncopation and complexity was taken from
jazz, folk music, etc. from across the globe and European art music from the Middle Ages
through the nineteenth century, which inspired composers like Igor Stravinsky, Aaron
Copland (1900 -‐ 1990), Béla Bartók (1881 -‐ 1945), Arnold Schoenberg, etc. (Ex: 13.1,
18
13.2,
13.3).
The
influence
of
East
European
peasant
music
can
be
seen
when
Béla
Bartók
uses the free and varied rhythmic structures in the Romanian folk Dances (1915). The
presence of irregular phrase structures in Brahms’s music inspired rhythmic
innovations in Schoenberg’s works suggesting that from nineteenth century to
twentieth century there was a continuity which gradually overpowered in the early
twentieth century. This metric fluctuation and rhythmic intricacies can be seen in
Stravinsky’s “Ritual of Abduction” from The Rite of Spring (premiered on 29th May
1913); one of Béla Bartók’s, Six Dances in Bulgarian Rhythm (1915). Another example is
Maurice Ravel’s (1875 -‐ 1937), Daphnis et Chloé (composed between 1909-‐1912), in
which he avoids having a clear beat by placing the entrances of different parts at
irregular intervals of time and syncopated note values. Though polyrhythm is seen in
the classical and romantic period, it became much more often in the twentieth century.
Example
13.1
Béla
Bartók’s
one
of
the
Six
Dances
in
Bulgarian
Rhythm
uses
the
quick
eight
beats
in
a
measure,
which
is
common
in
European
folk
music.
19
Example
13.2
Igor
Stravinsky’s
Ritual
of
Abduction
from
The
Rite
of
Spring
Consists
of
rapid
meter
changing,
leading
to
irregular
accenting
of
beats.
Example
13.3
Igor
Stravinsky’s
“Sacrificial
Dance”
from
The
Rite
of
Spring
Similarly
has
rapid
meter
changing
with
rhythm
complexity.
In Mahler’s music, rhythmically on one hand, his liking for forcible,
concise and march-‐like movements and on the other hand, the regularity in the
structure and periods of the piece, and the irregularity in the rhythm with continuous
succession of different rhythm can be seen in Lieder eines fahrenden Gesellen (composed
20
between
1883
-‐
1885)
(Ex.
5.1)
and
in
the
“Urlicht”
solo
of
the
2nd
Symphony
(composed
Hans F. Redlich argues: “The symbiosis of Lied and Symphony becomes
unique feature of Mahler’s creative development which only finds an antecedent in
certain works of Schubert’s written around a lyrical cell, such as the ‘Trout’ Quintet, the
‘Death and the Maiden’ String Quartet, and the ‘Wanderer’ Fantasia. In his Symphonies,
Mahler transposes Wagner’s idea of the Gesamtkunstwerk to the symphonic medium in
utilizing the full resources of opera, symphony, oratorio and Lied”23.
By just taking a few characteristics into consideration such as the tone
color, melody, rhythm and harmony the essay explains how the inventions, changes and
from late nineteenth century until the early twentieth century helped music to progress.
Therefore composers like Gustav Mahler, Richard Strauss, Arnold Schoenberg, Claude
Debussy, Anton Webern, Alban Berg, Béla Bartók; Igor Stravinsky etc. are a crucial part
of the shaping the musical modernism in the early twentieth century, as they are the
ones who invented/ developed various techniques and methods in order to take the
Therefore the use and explanation of these characteristics in the essay
suggest that musical modernism in the early twentieth century was the period of
development and change in the language of music and reinterpretation of the
understanding of music. The works of these composers show us how these
characteristics have been implemented in their music, which could be considered as
musically modern during the early twentieth century as these characteristics were
23
Hans
F.
Redlich,
‘The
Creative
Achievement
of
Gustav
Mahler’,
The
Musical
Times,
Vol.
101,
No.
1409
(July
1960)
Page
418.