CHAPTER 4 Generator main connections 1 introduction 11 Evolution 2. Principles of isolated phase busbar operation and forces oncountored 2.1 Principles 22 Forces 23 Votage rise 1 1PB syst 3. Designi 4 Forced cooling 4.1 Forced air coating 42 Liquid cooting 43, Weter cooling 5 System description 5.1 Line end 52. Neutral end 53. Tewotls 54. Deke connections 55. Excitanon busbars 56 Eanh ber 5 Setting out the specifi 7 Component parts of en IPB system 7.1. Conductor and enclosures 12 Equipment enclosures 73 Insulators 73.1, Post mnsulators 73.2. Foot insulators tincluding enclosure supports) 733. Disc bushings 734 Wat eeale 735. Beliows 7.4 Conductor and enclosure expansion joints 7. Floxble comectors 75. Floble laminae connectors 75.2 Biaed lenbie connectors 78. Painting 27 Conditioned aie 18 Voltage tranormers 2.9 Curent transformers 7.10 Environmental conditions 7.11. Ponable earth access covers 7.12 Viewing ports 7.13 Connection of the conductor to plent 7.14 Joints in the conductor 7.15. Onoad temperature measurement 718 VF cubicles 7.17 Access platforms 7.18. Structural stestnors 719 Nevtal earthing equipment Site instalation Quality assurance 8 Testing 8.1. Tests on component pars 8.1.1. Insulators and bushings 81.2 Busbar materiel 8.1.3. Transformers 8.1.4 Leading resistors 8.15 Capacitors 8.1.6 Switchgear and earthing switches 8.1.7 Compressed air sysiem 82 Tests on representative sections of IPB 83 Test levels Ba Tests at site 8 Experience of testing 10 Gonerator voltage switchgear 11 Earthing 12 Esrthing for meintenance purposes 12.1 Primary son 122 Portable drain earns 12 Protection 14 Interlocking 15 Future trends 16 References 1 Introduction The principal Function of the Main Connections Busbar System is to connect the generator to its associated generator transformer and, incidentally, to provide a convenient means of connecting the Unit electrical system to the Unit transformer, via a tee-off. It is resent day practice, for reasons explained later, to use an aluminium tube for each phase conductor (or busbar), which is surrounded by a concentric enclosure of the same material and similar conducting cross- sectional area; each is effectively isolated from its neighbour, hence the term isolated phase busbar (IPB). British practice (1988) uses dry conditioned air at a pressure slightly above atmospheric as the insulating medium between the conductor and enclosure. ‘The conductor is supported at the centre of the en- closure by insulators: these are equispaced and rigidly 287Generator main connections Chapter 4 fixed around the circumference of the enclosure but allow limited radial movement of the conductor. The rating of the main connections installation is es- tablished on the basis of temperature rise above a specified ambient at maximum commercial load and iis ability to withstand both three-phase short-circuit and earth fault conditions anywhere on the generator voltage system without damage. These requirements introduce some complication in the system design in order to achieve high integrity. Isolated phase busbars have evolved over a number of years, having originally been pioneered in the USA and further developed in France before their introduction in the UK in the mid-1960s. They represent 34% of the total cost of the connected generator and transformers. A typical installation is shown in Fig 4.1, 1.1. Evolution There has been extensive development of generator connection designs since their introduction because of larger generating sets and the consequential increase in load and fault currents. Clearly a cable connection to the machine is simplest, but both current and temperature limit their use to about 120 MW (assuming. a generator terminal voltage of approximately 23 kV). Consequently, for larger machines, three bare copper conductors (one/phase) were introduced, supported by single insulators at regular intervals and enclosed within a common duct or enclosure (Fig 4.2 (a) Aluminium gradually replaced copper for the conduc- ws cam SRE ty tuen excren cORMECTIONS gan Pea / \ | SS ANT INSE sein canes “MDOLE Fig. 4.1 Generator main connections — 288, tor, primarily on economic grounds, once aluminium welding techniques had improved. The duct or en- closure only excluded gross pollution and prevented physical contact, giving no protection against phase- to-phase faults or the electromagnetic forces between conductors. Strong magnetic fields from this arrange- ment could cause overheating of external steelwork adjacent to the busbars, increasing system losses. As currents increased, phase barriers made of either a metallic or insulating material were introduced 0 limit the consequences of phase-to-phase Mashover (Fig 4.2 (b)). Further improvement was achieved by the use of phase segregation, using a continuous me- tallic fabricated-aluminium enclosure and barrier, the barrier being integral with the enclosure (Fig 4.2 (0). Whilst phase segregation offered an improved design compared with the original common enclosure, it still had a number of weaknesses. Phase-to-phase faults were still possible because adjacent phase conductors share a common barrier. Complicated circulating cur- rents in the enclosure produced forces between conduc- tor and enclosure because no attempt had been made to isolate the busbars magnetically, and the assembly generally became large and exacting to construct. Such designs were used for generators up to S00 MW before new designs were introduced to deal with the short- comings of phase segregation. These are insulated by enclosing each phase in its own conducting metal tube separate from its neighbours; hence the name ‘isolated phase busbars'. In an installation of this type, eddy currents are induced in the enclosure, or sheath, due TaanSeORNER sagTuns vt TRANSFORMER rile cusica | commétthion 7 cenenaton ENCLESUMES vg ase TRANSEORER chencrioa ‘conte general arrangement of a typical installationPrinciples of isolated phase busbar operation and forces encountered - [ree eaten Zz Hopedale Fic, 4.2 Segregated and non-segregated busbars to the conductor current, and this to some extent shields the forces between the conductors by modifying the ficld around the conductor. There are, however, still substantial magnetic fields outside the enclosure, which produce forces between phases. These are reduced con- siderably if the extreme ends of each phase enclosure are bonded together, thereby allowing a balanced cur- sent flow in the enclosures of all three phases, This system is known as an ‘electrically-continuous IPB with short-circuit’ (see Fig 4.3). Each phase enclosure is made electrically continuous throughout its length and all theee are connected together at both ends of the run This distinguishes it from other systems, namely the insulated type (where the enclosure is not continuous but includes non-conducting sections) of the continuous ype with saturable impedance, where the continuous Phase enclosures are connected together at the ends of ‘ie run through small saturable reactors which limit ‘he induced longitudinal currents to a design value. The last-named appears attractive because the reactor limits the enclosure circulating currents during normal opera- ‘ion, thereby reducing the enclosure losses, and during ————_ fault conditions the reactor saturates, reducing its im. pedance to circulating currents and allowing greater enclosure current to flow. As will be explained later, this enclosure current reduces the forces between con- ductors during fault conditions. However, in practice, the reactors tended to burn out, so now only the elec- trically-continuous IPB with short-circuit is considered in the UK and elsewhere. These, by virtue of the en- closure circulating currents, limit forces between phase ‘conductors to approximately 10% of those that would exist without the enclosure, : The enclosure system is earthed at one point only and is insulated from earth along its length by sup- porting it on insulated foot mountings, thereby giving control over the path followed by any fault current in the enclosure. Clearly the main connections have now become a system in their own right and to control the circulating currents, as described, the enclosures must bbe isolated from all iterns of plant to which the conduc- tors are connected. Enclosures are therefore connected to auxiliary plant via rubber bellows which maintain the physical protection of the conductor but isolate the enclosures electrically from the plant, The bonding or short-circuiting of the enclosures is done as close to the end of their run as possible. The external mag: netic fields produced by the conductor currents can link with conducting loops in the adjacent steelwork, pro- ducing circulating currents and heat. This is a problem to be considered by the designer since excessive heat, in addition to being an unnecessary system loss, can ‘cause unacceptable expansion and can be a hazard to personnel if the steelwork is touched. Machines of 660 MW are now used extensively in the UK and an IPB installation of the type described provides an adequate main connections design which can be naturally cooled and is of manageable size. This probably represents the limit of naturally cooled de- signs and any significant inctease in machine rating will mean that forced-cooled designs will have to be considered. The components of one phase of such a system are shown diagrammatically in Fig 4.4 2. Principles of isolated phase busbar operation and forces encountered 2.1. Principles Consider, using simple analysis, how the magnetic fields may be reduced, When a conductor carries an alternating current, it produces an external concentric alternating magnetic field, the direction of which is determined by application of the ‘corkscrew’ rule. If another conductor runs parallel to it, then an EMF is induced in it, given by © = ~(d/dt), where @ is that proportion of the flux linking the two conductors. ‘The negative sign indicates that it tries to oppose the force which created it. 289Generator main connections Chapter 4 ono Ean Fic. 4.3 Phase isolated busbar — continuous sheath For a length of isolated phase busbar, the voltage be induced in an elemental section of non-continuous sheath (say, 5A and 6B in Fig 4,5 (a)) due to the cur- rent flowing in its associated conductor will be the same magnitude for all elements on the circumference of the sheath at any point along its length. It follows, therefore, that one phase in isolation can have no current flow in the sheath, since the voltages at all points are equal. If next, the condition in Fig 4.5 (b) is considered, the voltage ¢ induced in an elemental section of non- continuous sheath due to the current flowing in an ad- javent conductor will be of different magnitude for ‘cach position around the periphery (say, 5C and 6D), since each element cuts a different proportion of flux from that conductor. Therefore, unequal voltages are available to cause current to flow in the sheath as shown, in Fig 4,6 (a). This sheath current, which for the ele- ‘mental circuit shown in Fig 4.6 (a) can be considered as a simple ‘go’ and ‘return’ circuit, will set up an electro- magnetic field whose direction can be determined by application of the corkscrew rule. This will give rise 10 a reduction of field within the enclosure but a reinforce- ment of the field outside as shown in Fig 4.6 (b). Thus there is a reduction of forces between the conductors and an increase in forces exerted on the enclosure. The enclosure will therefore need substantial supports. ‘The currents circulating in each sheath caused by the proximity effects of adjacent conductor systems are termed ‘eddy currents’. Formulae for determining these currents and their associated losses have been proposed by H. B. Dwight in 1923 and F, W. Carter 290 in 1927. In the paper by Carter [1], the eddy current was determined by considering the fixed distribution of conductor currents but taking into account the magnetic field set up by the induced eddy current in the sheath itself, This first order eddy current was then determined for neighbouring sheaths and these were used as a fixed distribution to obtain second and further subsidiary eddy currents in the original sheath The process may be repeated to any degree of approxi- mation to obtain a total eddy current. In Dr Carter's day, the problem did not merit meticulous calculation and the treatment was therefore simplified by consider- ing only the first order eddy current to produce results in a convenient form for hand calculation. Working independently, Dr Dwight tackled a number of proxi- mity effect problems and in 1923 published a first order eddy current solution [2] for sheath eddy loss which is identical to the Carter solution. Later, in 1964, the analysis was extended to determine the subsidiary eddy currents for the particular case of a single-phase circuit and also a three-phase flat grouping. Since the non-continuous type of IPB is not used by the CEGB, the theory is not developed here, but the reader may deduce the necessary formulae from papers [1 and 2]. Now consider the continuous type of IPB. If the sheaths of all three phases are electrically connected at each end of the IPB run, an external path is pro. vided which allows the sheath currents to flow in the manner shown in Fig 4.3. The phase conductors and the enclosures are comparable to the primary and secondary turns of a short-circuited transformer. ThePrinciples of isolated phase busbar operation and forces encountered ontisna aMOsSNMEL, — 420 1808) swva wn UOLONONOD 21¥95 OL NYE ON ‘DNS 510 muomaais Snrodghs 4004 — | = wargame | nna a Vs | avis woxonando anna Nien wOLWeaNgo = ] fi} AMor NOSSNVeRS L wOranoNS NWA | I YOLVINSM —-3UNSOTONS —_gmMOTIBE Son Na worveata9 ona wanuossnves 291Generator main connections Chapter 4 {a) tna.ced votages an enciosure cue tos own congue . e e . . ° . ® . . -———_:—4 (0) aac voltages in an enclosure ve foram agjaceat conduct Fic, 4.5 Induced voltages in an enclosure [at Enon tay cents a pase ses busbar magnetic field produced by the primary conductor induces a current of opposite direction in the secondary turn, The magnitude of the circulating sheath current is almost equal to the conductor current, depending con the resistance and reactance of the enclosure cir cuit, and is in antiphase to the conductor current. The sheath current usually amounts to about 90% of the conductor current. The circulating sheath current creates its own surrounding magnetic field which must be in antiphase to that produced by the conductor, thus the magnetic field still exists within the enclosure but is cancelled outside it (see Fig 4.6 (0). Since the enclosure has resistance, the resultant external magnetic field around each conductor is about 10% of that which would occur if there was no metallic sheath Since the external magnetic field has been reduced, it follows that the forces between conductors are also reduced by a similar proportion, as will be the forces ‘between enclosures that exist due to the current flowing in them, However, end effects occur where the conductor is connected to its associated piece of plant and is, for practical reasons, unshielded. Therefore magnetic fields at these points are much stronger and forces grcater. For further analysis, the reader is referred to a paper by Skeats and Swerdlow [3]. 2.2 Forces The forces caused by short-circuit and earth fault currents are very complex. Neglecting decrements, a totally-offset short-circuit current can be represented Fic, 4.6 Radial current flows due to current in an adjacent conductor 292Principles of isolated phase busbar operation and forces encountered SPE !} (ty Patton nus encase fora apy anata’ cru (Fa cacotatonacomiyous ano arangrent Fig. 4.6 (cond) Radial current flows due to current in an adjacent conductor by the expression = I (1 ~ cos at). Consider a parallel adjacent conductor returning the same cur rent, The magnetic field emitted therefrom would be B= By (I~ cos ut) From Ampere’s Law, the electromagnetic force between them is = BI, where fis the length of conductor, therefore, F = Bolo (1 — cos wt)? Expansion of the expression (1 — cos ut)? gives = 2cos wt + Zcos 2ut}, i.e., the force is composed oF steady, power frequency and second-harmonic com- ponents. These three components of force are each reduced by a different shielding factor. For a detailed explanation of these shielding factors, the reader is referred to the paper by Wilson and Mankoff [4]; however, the theoretical treatment of these effects is far from conclusive. Taking into account current decrement, there is a reduction with time of each of the electromagnetic force components, each component having a different decrement rate. The forces produced differ greatly, depending on whether the fault is three-phase or single- phase, the three-phase fault being more onerous, In principle, the short-cireuit electromagnetic forces arise from the combined action of the various forces both between the phases and between the conductor and sheath of the same phase. However, as previously explained, for a continuous IPB the external magnetic fields and the resulting forces between conductors are 293Generator main connections Chapter 4 substantially reduced, compared with an unbonded system, Additionally, for a continuous 1PB, the forces between phases are much smaller than those which occur between each conductor and its own sheath, The magnetic field which exists inside the sheath ‘on a continuous IPB system (as shown in Fig 4.6 (€)), produces a force between the conductor and the en- closure. The force on the enclosure results in the vonductor being centralised along a magnetic neutral ine. In a suitably designed IPB system, the neutral line is coincident with the axis of the enclosure, thereby Virtually eliminating bending stresses caused by short- circuit currents. The conductor supports are designed {0 allow for this slight movement as the conductor takes up its position on the neutral line. The force on the sheath is a repulsion or bursting force which can be represented as internal pressure on the sheath. The resultant mechanical stresses developed within the installation also depend upon the mechanical frequency response of the structure and will be exacer- bated by any resonance that may exist The foregoing text has attempted to show that the presence of the sheath in fact reduces forces and to sive an awareness of the factors involved: it has not attempted a mathematical prediction of the forces which occur during a short-circuit. Whilst such force calculations may be attempted for siraight sections of busbar, they are much more difficult for bends and tee-offs, At these positions the sheath currents vary around the periphery and there is not the benefit of complete mutual compensation of magnetic fields irom the conductor and enclosure. Thus, immediately adjacent to bends, very high short-circuit forces exist which tend to straighten out the conductor. There are also higher stray fields which may heat up adjacent sicelwork. The IPB structural support system must therefore be strengthened at bends and other places where the configuration changes. Mathematical analysis of currents, fields and forces within an IPB system have been attempted, but a main connections design by calculation is not deemed ac- ceptable by the CEGB, for no mathematical method is available that can be used with total confidence. i should be recognised that whilst during normal ‘operating conditions the magnetic field outside the enclosure is practically nil; during fault conditions the field is the difference between the components on the conductor and enclosure which, since there are different time elements involved, is very difficult to determine Consequently, the adequacy of the design is ultimately demonstrated by testing, a5 discussed further in Section 8 of this chapter 2.3 Voltage rise Consider the voltage rise of an electrically-discontinuous IPB enclosure under fault conditions. Since there is no current flow along the whole length of the sheath 298 installation, large voltages build up across the breaks, tis, therefore, generally necessary to limit the distance between the breaks to a less than desirable length in order to keep these voltages to an acceptable level. With electrically-continuous enclosures, however, the voltage is dissipated in IR drop along the enclosure length as it is generated. Enclosure voltages are consequently held at completely harmless values, even during maxi- mum fault conditions. A typical voltage induced per metre length of continuous enclosure is 3 mV per 1000 A of conductor current. 3 Designing an IPB system In designing an installation, the factors to be consi: dered include materials, conductor and enclosure di mensions required for specified maximum temperature rises, mechanical strength and structural. steelwork requirements. Up until now only naturally cooled s tems have been assumed and the predominating factor determining the cross-sectional area and configuration of the conductor for the main connections of a nat urally air-cooled busbar is the permissible temperature rise, A tubular conductor has a low skin effect ratio, described later in this section, which helps keep down the AC resistance and hence losses. An adequate cross- sectional area must be provided so as to remain within temperature confines proven by experience and not exceeding the temperature limits specified in BS159, i.e., @ maximum conductor temperature of 90°C. The largest full-load current in the CEGB at the time of writing is 20.1 kA, but this will obviously increase as larger machines are developed. The higher ambient temperatures overseas give rise to lower temperature margins for export designs. Selection of the most suitable material for IPB construction is generally straightforward, the choice being between copper and aluminium. At present an unusual situation exists, whereby cop per and aluminium are similar in price (usually copper is much more expensive), but aluminium is still the cheaper overall. Copper has approximately three times the weight, but 60% of the resistivity of aluminium, Since aluminium is the poorer conductor, more ma- terial is required but, because of skin effect, there is a practical limit to the advantage gained by increas- ing material thickness. Consequently it is necessary to increase the diameter which has the advantage of increasing the surface area and improving heat dis- sipation. Aluminium, being much lighter in weight, is easier to handle than copper: this, together with the development of modern aluminium-welding techniques, makes fabrication in aluminium much cheaper than in copper. The starting point for the designer is therefore to determine the dimensions of the conductor and enclosure appropriate to the specified operating con- ditions. For the purpose of this exercise, assume the‘normal cylindrical conductor and enclosure configura- sen Erom experience, an initial conductor diameter sed thickness is selected. [tis then necessary to check dhe resultant heat generated in the conductor, which s given by Wo = ER. an “where Wy = heat generated per unit length, W/m |= rated RMS conductor current, A Re = AC resistance of the conductor appro- priate 10 the temperature of the con- ductor and the supply frequency, 2/m i. has to take account of skin effect. When AC cur- rent is passed down @ conductor, the current tends fo concentrate on the outer surface, The higher the applied frequency, the thinner is the effective conduc- ting band. The AC resistance Rac is higher than the DC resistance Rae? Rae/Rae is termed the skin effect ratio, a full study of which was made by Dwight [5]. ‘An extract of one of the curves produced by Dwight for a circular tube is shown in Fig 4.7. It is suitable for aluminum or copper conductors and may be used for all temperatures found in the operational range of the main connections. The DC resistance is relatively straightforward to waleulate. ‘At 20°C, for a large diameter conductor with a thin wall section, it may be closely approximated using the expression Ra = o/m 7D 42) where @ = resistivity of the material at 20°C, Om D = conductor mean diameter, m 1 = conductor wall thickness, m For a conductor operating at a temperature other than 20°C, the resistance becomes: Rasa = Racy (1 + a2 @-20) (4.3) where a2 = temperature resistance coefficient at 20°C 6 = temperature, °C Having calculated the DC resistance and knowing the ratio 1/D, the corresponding effective AC resistance van be determined from Fig 4.7 for the conductor dimension selected. From this, the loss per unit length 'y calculated, using Equation (4.1), Next, consider the heat generated in the enclosure due to the enclosure circulating currents. The loss in cach phase per metre length is: Ww, = IER, watts 44) Designing an IPB system Where Ig is the enclosure current, Re is the effective enclosure AC resistance per metre and is calculated from the DC resistance in @ method similar to that above for the conductor Development of a formula for calculating the enclo- sure current is complicated by several factors, includ, ing the impedance of the bonding bars, the skin effect and the proximity of structural steel or other conduct and magnetic material, as shown by Niemoller [6] The reader is referred to the IEFE paper (7} for the calculation of IPB losses. Type testing has shown that it is not unreasonable to assume that the ratio of enclosure current to con- ductor current (1) to be about 0.95 for an electrically continuous IPB system, i.e., W. = 0.9PR, In establishing the working temperature, it is assumed that for a natural air-cooled system, almost all the losses (We + Wz) have to be dissipated by radiation and convection from the external surface of the enclosure. Clearly the heat that must be dissipated is that quantity which would cause the maximum per- mitted operating temperature to be exceeded. An ap- proximate expression for natural convection from the outside surfaces of a busbar enclosure, indoors but not in a compartment, at sea level and normal pres- sure, based on Dwight e¢ al {8} is: Weon = 1.360!28/D925 W/m? where Weon = loss dissipated by convection from the enclosure, W/m? © = average temperature rise of the hous- ing, °C D = diameter of enclosure, m and the energy lost by radiation is given by the Stefan. Boltzmann expression: 567 gg Wreg = —— ke[Th — Ta] Ae W/m? 108 where Wrag = loss dissipated by radiation from enclosure, W/m? e coefficient of emissivity of the enclo. sure surface Tr = average temperature of enclosure surface, K Ty. = ambient temperature, K Ac cffective radiation surface per metre of enclosure length, m? k factor depending on position of phase as described below 295Generator main connections Chapter 4 sam errecr nario Se Fic. 4.7 Skin effect ratio for rods and tubes Since the radiation from the outer phases will differ from the cenire phase, the following factors should be included [9] 360 - da For the centre phase k = ———— a, 360 360 — 2a and for the outer phase k = ———— A, 360 where @ = sin~! (R/S) R = external enclosure diameter, m S = phasing spacing, m ‘Total heat loss from the busbar system in W/m run can. then be established from (Weon + Weaa)®D. 298 Factors not included in the equations which will affect heat dissipation both by convection and radia- tion from the enclosure are physical arrangements, neighbouring structures and surface finish, It must be borne in mind that hot spots can occur, particularly at the ends of busbar runs where connections are made to auxiliary plant. This occurs because of poor current sharing in unsymmetrical current-carrying con. nections, as will be discussed later, or from the con centration of circulating currents, Experience suggests, that the conduction of heat from associated plant, namely the generator itself and the transformer bush ings into the connections, should also be considered Summarising, (a) the heat generated (W/m run) in the conductor and enclosure withForced cooling the dimensions initially selected from experience can be calculated, ie, We + We (0) allowing for specified temperature rises of conductor above enclosure and of enclosure above ambient, the quantity of heat dissipated per metre length by the selected installation can be caleulated, i.e., (Woon + Wead)rD Then ‘The values of (a) and (b) are compared and, if they are not close the dimensions are revised and the pro- cess repeated. In the CEGB, the temperatures specified at present ‘# Conductor maximum temperature 90°C. © Enclosure maximum temperature 65°C. fe internal air maximum temperature 70°C, © Ambient temperature 40°C. Having established the dimensions of the IPB system from load current thermal conditions, the designer must then consider fault conditions. Generally speaking, for 2 main run of IPB, the busbars are so large for continuous current-carrying requirements that the thermal requirements for short- cireuit conditions are more than catered for. How- exer, for a unit transformer or other tee-off, the continuous current rating is small but the fault current rating is very high indeed. Here, the fault current fied may influence the busbar dimensions that ‘equired because of its thermal effects, therefore requiring repeat calculations to determine temperature rises during fault However, the major design concern arising from fault considerations is mechanical strength. The de- sisnee must provide a suitable support arrangement for the conductor and enclosure to ensure that the final structure is of adequate strength to withstand the forces thal are exerted on the system during fault conditions. The forces have been briefly explained in Section 2 ol this chapter. For the conductor, the designer is looking 10 provide sufficient support to: spe * Prevent deflection between supports due to forces beiween conductors and between conductor and enclosures during fault + Prevent damage due to ‘straightening out’ forces hich occur at bends during fault * Prevent damage due to ‘knife switch’ forces at the tee-off positions, again due to the conductor at- fempting to straighten along the line of maximum fault current, ‘An adequate structural support is required for the ‘enclosure to withstand the resultant static and dynamic loadings that the system will experience during fault. The present view of the CEGB is that there is no mathematical approach to solving these problems that can be used with confidence. The designer may from his ‘own experience use simple force calculations as a starting point. Reference [10] is such a suitable starting point. Ultimately, however, before a design can be considered acceptable, a full set of short-circuit and carth Fault type-test evidence is required 10 substantiate the design, as identified in Section 8 of this chapter. Finally, the stray magnetic fields surrounding the main connections, as already described, can give rise to inductive heating of adjacent steelwork. For an IPB system, there is unlikely to be any problem with systems carrying less than 8000 A. However, above this, care should be exercised. It is not only structural steel- work which may cause problems, but also piping and pipe hangers, gas and air ducts as well as stairs and handrails. Heating of such components could ignite adjacent flammable material, be a danger to personnel, cause structural stresses due to restrained expansion, and of course, incur additional running costs due to the losses. ‘Analysis of this problem is most difficult and use is made of existing heat run tests. If the reader wishes to pursue the problem, an approach is described by ‘Swerdlow and Buchta [11] and there are some guidelines regarding spacing of adjacent steelwork given in Section 7.18 of this chapter. Various methods are available to reduce the temperature rise of structural members, the use of shielding plates being favoured by the CEGB, 4 Forced cooling The optimum design of an IPB installation is deter- mined by considering the capital cost, plus the cost of generating the associated losses. In order to satisfy the temperature balance requirements described in Section 3 of this chapter, naturally-cooled connection systems greater than 800 MVA, though practical, would require excessive space and consequently their cost would be high. For connections rated above 800 MVA, unless a much higher generator voltage is thought worthwhile, consideration must be given to forced cooling of the connections by some method. With reference to Fig 4.1, which shows a typical natural air cooled connection installation, it can be seen that the tee-off connectors from the main busbar carry a relatively low current, i.e., the high current flow is from the generator to the generator transformer. In considering the cross-sectional area of these compo- nents, it is clear that only the main run can justify forced cooling, the tee-off design being instead deter- ‘mined by the maximum fault current which could flow in it, Though it is unlikely that the use of forced 297Generator main connections Chapter 4 cooling below 8 kA would be economic, the limit for natural cooting, depending upon generator voltage, is reached at currents of 25-30 KA and, for currents in excess of this, the busbars are normally forced- cooled. Therefore, if forced cooling is to be considered, the heat balance approach taken in Section 3 of this chapter witl have to include a calculation of the heat removed by forced cooling. Such calculations will de- pend very much on the design of the installation. The obvious choice of cooling medium is either air or water. In considering the economic case for forced cooling, the saving of material is offset by a possible inerease in system losses, the additional cost of cool- ing equipment, routine inspection and maintenance of motors, fans, pumps, pipework, heat exchangers, etc. The value assigned to the losses/kW generated will ‘obviously influence whether to force-cool the system if, in fact, temperature rise has not itself dictated its Once reliance is placed on forced cooling, any failure which might occur on the coolant plant would neces- silate a consequential reduction in generated output, So it i§ desirable to aim for a high naturally-cooled current-carrying capacity, i.e., with the cooling plant ‘out of commission, It is also necessary 10 specify the operating time at full4oad current with the cooling plant shut down, The more common forced cooling systems are described below, though work is being carried out on the use of some of the newer insulating materials, for example, SF¢ gas. 4.1 Forced air cooling A typical forced air system would comprise fans, heat exchangers, dampers and air filters arranged such that there is one set of equipment for each machine unit. Cooled air is blown from the heat exchanger, usually 4 finned water-cooled coil, down the busbar run between the enclosure and the conductor and returned to the heat exchanger, thereby forming a closed cir- cuit. Such schemes are used extensively in the USA and, for a normal installation, air may enter the centre phase of the connection system, travel along it and return back through the outer two phases, sufficient air volume being used to ensure that the final air temperature does not exceed the maximum allowable touch-temperature of the enclosure. The cooling equip: ment may be located at any point along the con- nections system but the most economical position is midway between the generator and its transformer Since the cooling air passes through the entire system, splitting the total cooling air volume in the centre phase and forcing it in opposite directions results in less overall system resistance, therefore requiring less fan power. The air must be cleaned and dried to reduce the risk of faults and all the associated equipment Including the fans, must be duplicated to ensure availability (2 x 100% or 3 x 50%). 298 In addition, if the cooling air leaves one phase and enters another, then de-ionisation plant is required to prevent ionised gases produced by a system fault entering other phases, thereby extending its severity, Air has the obvious advantage of being cheap and plentiful but because it has a relatively low specific heat and density, large quantities are required to re- move the heat and the fan requirement is proportional to the cube of the flow rate. This disadvantage can be overcome if liquid cooling of the conductor is considered The rating for a forced air cooled installation with cooling plant shut down would probably be in the region of 1 hour and the naturally cooled rating would be approximately 60% of full Joad, 4.2. Liquid cooling It may be considered that the obvious choice is to extend the transformer cooling oil into the main con- nections conductor, as oil has low specific heat and density compared with water. However, the fire risk associated with oil within the power station buildings is unacceptable. It is also considered unacceptable 10 risk the integrity of the transformer insulation by involving any other plant in the oil circuits — even delia boxes (see Section 5.4 of this chapter), Demin- eralised water has been used as the cooling medium in the generator stator for many years and the tech- niques have been well proven. It would therefore be possible to extend this system to include the generator main connections or, alternatively, to install a separate water cooling system. 4.3 Water cooling Since water has a better thermal conductivity and specific heat than air, the temperature rise of a main connections installation of this type can be more easily controlled by adjustment of the coolant flow than in an air cooled system. The material cross-sectional area provided in these circumstances is then based on con- sideration of the capitalised cost of the conductor losses (see Chapter 3, Section 2.1.5) against the ca- pital cost of the conductor itself, together with the mechanical strength requirements for fault conditions Clearly the water in the conductor is at the same potential as the conductor itself, so some form of potential dropping device is required between the con- ductor and remainder of the hydraulic circuit, which should be at earth potential. This device is a resist- ance column consisting of a long pliable connector of non-conducting material having a small cross-sectional area, thereby providing a high-resistance path to low currents. The cooling water then flows within a closed- cycle cooling system with a heat exchanger, itself in- directly cooled by water. The cooling system may be incorporated in the stator cooling circuit, if the heatSystem description venerated in the connections system is small relative generated eed trom the ator windings. I ill ‘Ren be found most convenient to connect the hy- ‘pete cooling circuits in series. The conductor op- cring temperature should then be only slightly above She cooling water temperature “sins between sections of conductor are welded, the elds apart trom requiring the necessary mechanical Mfenath, being watertight, Where conductors are con- ‘ed to the plant, braided flexible connectors are (aed to allow for expansion and provide vibrati Jmmunity from chat plant, the terminal palms them- elves being within the connections, bridged by the ‘water cooling circuit, the bridge bcing of non-conduct- Jne material. Heat conduction to the conductor helps keep down the temperature of the flexible connections. 'A water cooled system would have no short-time full-load rating and a naturally cooled rating in the event of loss of forced cooling, of approximately 20%. “The major disadvantages of a water system, there- fore, are the substantial reduction in unit output if cooling is lost and the danger of an earth fault develop- ing if a water leak occurs. The reliability of the water ‘als is therefore very important, 5 System description A schematic drawing of a typical main connections system is given in Fig 4.8. NeviRa uve ‘The generator windings are star-connected. the star point being formed outside the generator, so there are two generator terminals for each phase. The output of the generator is taken from the line end of the phase windings, the star point being formed at the neutral end of the windings. It is desirable, for ease of making connections to the generator, to have these two ends located as far apart as possible, their relative positions being dependent on the generator manufac- turer’s frame design, The generator transformer is wound in delta/star configuration, the LV side being the delta winding. This transformer may consist of one three-phase tank or three single-phase tanks. The delta connection of the transformer can either be formed below oil or, as is now more common, can be made part of the main connections system to maintain phase isolation. An oil delta is not nowadays favoured since it allows any contaminated oil due to a fault in one phase to circulate into the other phases. Connections are taken from the main busbar to the HV terminals of unit auxiliary transformers and the system voltage three-phase earthing transformer (if fitted), discussed in Section 11 of this chapter. This connection, known as a tee-off from the main busbar, again maintains phase isolation up to the bushings, the transformers themselves generally being housed in three-phase tanks. There is a requirement to monitor voltage conditions ‘on the main connections system for various purposes, genenaron cogent Baeanen okt ‘oENERATOR PO canta swoTones. (1) oct on orprotecron cre aeangronmen Fig. 4.8 Generator main connections — simplified schematic 299Generator main connections Chapter 4 including generator synchronising, tariff metering, in- strumentation, automatic voltage regulation and protec- tion schemes. There is also the requirement to monitor current conditions, for example, for protection pur- poses. The requirement to monitor voltage is met by the connection of voltage transformers (see Section 7.8 of this chapter) onto the main connections via a fur- ther tee-off similar to the auxiliary transformer tee- Off described earlier. Up to four voltage transformers per phase may be required, mounted within cubicles which maintain the phase isolation of the system. Current transformers (see Section 7.9 of this chapter) are mounted in the main connections runs, in positions dependent upon the protection scheme adopted. Other equipment may be included in the main connections system, such as connections to generator excition plant, earthing devices and to the generator circuit-breaker, These will be discussed later, ‘The various features of the main connections system, are now described in greater detail, 5.1 Line end ‘The position on the generator of the line terminals de- pends on the generator manufacturer but the two obvious locations are either above or below the ma- chine, Both positions have advantages and disadvan- tages for the main connections system. In all eases, consideration should be given to generator rotor re moval without the necessity to dismantle any of the main connections installation. Any support given to the connections should be independent of the machine to prevent the transmission of vibration. Where the main connections leave the generator from above, the overall height of the machine is obviously increased. This may increase the height of the turbine hall crane-rails, and hence the turbine hall itself, there- by creating a cost penalty. Also, connections above the machine and their support structures ean, if incor- rectly designed, suffer fatigue due to vibration excited by the generator. If, however, the line connections are below the generator, there are obvious obstructions which require 10 be negotiated, for example, the generator founda- ‘ions, generator/turbine auxiliary equipment, access ways, ete, Clearance from such obstructions can dictate ‘whether the busbars lie side-by-side or in trefoil con figuration, Other practical issues to be resolved at the generator line-end terminals are heat dissipation due to confined space, access for stator cooling pipework, Prevention of water ingress and spacing of the line terminals, which may be arranged on the generator in an in-line or trefoil configuration. Where space is re- stricted, it may be necessary to consider the use of specially designed sections of busbar having reduced conductor and sheath dimensions, a terminal box ar- rangement with phase segregation, use of other than circular cross-section busbars or a short water-cooled 300 section (sce Fig 4.9). In the case of a segregated ter- minal box the phase barriers should be of the same material as the box (probably aluminium) and earthed to ensure that there is an earth plane between phases which reduces the risk of phase to phase faults. Phase to earth faults produce fault current which is restricted by the neutral earthing equipment. However, there always the possibility of an earth fault developing into a phase to phase fault which causes much greater damage; it is therefore preferable to use a phase iso- lated system if possible. Early design co-ordination at the interface connec tion onto the machine is necessary to solve the pro- blems associated with terminal spacing and ensure that the specified impulse-withstand level can be achieved. To allow for possible hydrogen leakage through the generator terminals, a complete bushing-type seal should bbe provided in the main connections run to limit the volume into which hydrogen could possibly enter. This volume at the generator should then be suitably ven- tilted to ensure that approximately four air changes per hour can take place within the enclosure to reduce the risk of build-up of hydrogen in air, which could form an explosive mixture. 5.2 Neutral end The method of generator stator neutral earthing is described in Section 11 of this chapter. An example of stator neutral earthing is shown in Fig 4.10. ‘Again, depending on the machine manufacturer, the generator neutrals can be situated on the top or the bottom of the generator. It is obviously more straight- forward if they are positioned below, as all the stator neutral earthing equipment described can then be housed within a single module supported on independent steel- work adjacent to the neutral terminals. If the terminals are located on the top of the machine, while the stat connection can be made easily, vibration may be ex- cessive if the stator neutral earthing transformer is mounted on the machine frame or support and there- fore it should be located away from the star bar. Vibration would certainly prevent the resistor being mounted on the machine. Either a cable connection would be required (which is undesirable as it is vul- nerable to damage) of, alternatively, a short section of IPB could be used and the transformer located away from the star bar. Equipment installed on the top of the machine can raise the height of the turbine hall with a consequential cost penalty. Due consideration should be given to preventing ingress of water into the neutral end equipment, since ventilation must be provided for the resistor to dissipate the heat produced during an earth fault. 5.3 Tee-offs Tee-off connections ate used to connect auxiliary transformers and voltage transformers to the generatorSystem description Amcoo.en wateR cooceo Fic, 4.9 Specially designed busbar sections for use in space-restricted areas voltage system. The power requirements of a voltage transformer are minimal so for these tee-offs, but not others, a reduction in current-carrying capacity is acceptable, provided that a suitable fuse is mounted immediately adjacent to the tee-off connection to deal with faults. CEGB uses a 10 A fuse at this position. Downstream of this fuse (a distance generally of the order of a few metres between the main and the VT subicle), the tee-off need only be designed to be me. chanically sound, To ensure that an adequately strong design is offered, the CEGB specify a continuous rating of 300 A for this section. Tee-off enclosures can be bonded into the main run or isolated and treated as a separate section of IPB, —_— the choice being made by the designer and fault tested as a system. 5.4 Delta connections The connection of the delta on recent stations, e.g. Littlebrook D and Heysham 2, is made by using air- insulated IPB and, since the current flow in each delta arm is less than the line current by a factor 1/~/3, the dimensions can be reduced appropriately from that of the main run, though the system highest voltage is the same. To ensure that the correct phasor grouping of the transformer is achieved, correct phase sequence 301Generator main connections Chapter 4 (1) tocknion oF prorecrion ote neurmiat caging Wout Fic. 4.10 Stator neutral earthing of the LV and HV phases for the installed trans- former winding terminals is essential (see Chapter 3, Transformers} 5.5 Excitation busbars Some generator designs use rotating excitation equip- ment, whereas others use separately-located stationary equipment. In the latter, the electrical connection be- tween the exciter equipment and the machine is an IPB system similar to that of the generator voltage system, though obviously running at the much reduced design voltage of 3.6 kV and maximum continuous current rating of 5000 A (AC or DC) (1988), with con- sequential reduction in size. Typically, the installation would comprise AC and DC connections forming 2 system as shown in Fig 4.11, with a normal operating voltage of below 650 V, connecting the main exciter, he exciter rectifier cubicle, the field suppression switch, and the generator slipring and brushgear enclosure. 5.6 Earth bar The earth bar system is quite complicated since all associated auxiliary equipment must be earthed in a manner such that no circulating-current paths can ‘occur; a typical system is shown in Fig 4.12. For the purpose of its design, it is assumed that the neutral carihing equipment (see Section 11 of this chapter) has been shorted-out due to a coincident fault and that the earth fault current is unrestricted. The earth path must be rated to carry the maximum earth fault cur- Tent from any part of the connections system where ‘an earth fault could occur back to the generator. For 302 an installation which includes generator voltage switch gear, an additional earth is incorporated on the system to provide the earth when the switch is open. The earth path must be of low resistance to prevent @ rise in potential on any part of the system (during a fault} above a level which could cause a danger to personnel With the system operating normaily, the CEGB specify this level as 55 V and, during fault conditions, 430 V is specified as the maximum rise of earth potential to comply with telecommunication directives within the UK, However, if faults can be cleared within 200 ms a voltage rise of 650 V is acceptable. If no earth path were provided, the return earth fault current would follow a random path (or paths) of low resistance back to the machine. These routes may be tortuous and not adequate to carry such large currents. The provision of a designed earthing system directs the flow of earth fault current along a pre determined route, thereby containing all earth fault currents within the main connections system. The earth path comprises an earth bar of adequate cross-sectional area connected to plant by flexible leads and held at the potential of the station earth network. Since the earth bar would provide the lowest resistance path to earth fault currents, the earth bar redirects the fault current away from the station earth system which, in any case, would not normally be rated for such large currents. The earth bar is not screened by an enclosure; when earth fault current flows, large external magnetic fields are produced, so it is usual to position the bar some distance from the main busbar installation 10 pre- vent excessive forces being produced. The earth bar has to negotiate many obstacles on its route, €.8-, civil works, auxiliary plant, etc., so that it includesSystem description ya an A coeenaron excITER Eeuaccnone||f | ac CoANEE TONS eo = excren sunbieSsion FESrTFER ‘sare | —_____ e088 Fig. 4.11 Exciter busbar arrangement Neurpas — Gengaaton TRINSEERIER | socy ‘ean reatronen Po 412 Sytem eating ‘many bends, It is essential that sound fixing is provided When testing a main connections design, it is usual 10 prevent the force produced by the fault current from to include the earth bar, thereby testing a complete Suaightening out these bends. system. 203Generator main connections Chapter 4 6 Setting out the specification Having described a typical main connections installa- tion in the previous sections, consideration is now given to the design specification of that system, as- suming natural air cooling. Section 7 of this chapter will look at the component parts ‘The first consideration is the particular application — the environment, voltage and current-carrying re- quirements. AS standerd a design as possible should be specified, so that testing need not be necessarily repeated for each application, The parameters that must be specified are: ‘© The maximum system voltage, frequency and power factor. ‘¢ The output of the generator, and hence the line current © ‘The variation allowed on the above during abnormal conditions. © The fault contribution from the generator. ‘The fault contribution from the external grid network In a tee-off busbar, there is a combined fault infeed from the generator and the external grid. This specifies the maximum fault level of the system for which the installation must be designed, including the earth bar. ‘The maximum system voltage dictates the impulse level for which the system must be designed and the consequential clearances between the conductor and the enclosure, However, it should be remembered that the impulse and switching overvoltages entering from the HV side of the generator transformer are not transferred according to the winding ratio of the trans- former but rather to the ratio of the capacitances of the HV and LV sides. Depending on the steepness of the incoming wave, the percentage overvoltage on the generator side may be higher than the HV side. This overvoltage may be reduced by the capacitance of the generator and the generator main connections, Economics and workability dictate the choice of ma- terial for the conductor and the enclosure; aluminium 's the most probable, bearing in mind that the electrical resistance should be low but the inherent mechanical strength adequate to withstand the forces produced uring fault. The phase configuration, i.e., flat in-line or trefoil, and probably the spacing, will be determined by obstructions on the proposed route, The number of bends should be kep! to a minimum and those selected should be of a tested design. The enclosure insulation level from earth must be specified. This level must be high enough to allow for degradation caused by dust during the periods between cleaning. At present the CEGB specifies 3.6 kV. The temperature rises permitted during maximum continuous current flow are then specified which, for 304 CEGB installations, are as stated in Section 3 of this chapter. 7 Component parts of an IPB system 7.1 Conductor and enclosures ‘These items have been dealt with in detail in che preceding sections. 7.2 Equipment enclosures At interfaces with plant, for example a transformer, the physical enclosure of the conductor must include access for maintenance purposes but still insulate the enclosure system from the connected plant. Non-con- ducting bellows, discussed later in this chapter, connect the enclosure to, say, the transformer, the tank of which is earthed separately. This equipment enclo- sure may have viewing ports (see Section 7.12 of this chapter) in order to inspect the flexible connections 1g up the conductor interface, and an access cover to allow the application of a portable earth if neces- sary (see Section 12.2 of this chapter). The enclosure may be a bolted assembly, removable for maintenance purposes, and using bonding strips to ensure that all parts are earthed positively and that no reliance is put on the bolted construction for earthing. To prevent cir- culation currents occurring, larger access covers should be insulated from the rest of the enclosure, except for a single earth connection on each individual cover. For the same reason, hinges should be bridged, using a flexible connector. Designs should offer the facility of taking a transformer out for maintenance, while allowing the main connections to be re-energised safe- ly. This latter requirement may be achieved by the removal of links or a short section of conductor, and the fitting of caps over the busbar ends in a manner which maintains the insulation of the system. 7.3 Insulators 7: These support the conductor within the enclosure to ‘maintain the air clearance needed for the highest sys- tem voltage. They are made either of epoxy resin or of, porcelain; if porcelain, it must be thoroughly vitrified, so that the glaze is not depended upon for insulation. The strength of the insulators should be such that when they are supporting the maximum. short-circuit loads, the factor of safety is not less than 2.5. The number of supporting insulators at each point and the spacing between them is confirmed by short-circuit testing. Typical arrangements are shown in Fig 4.13. Stresses due to expansion and contraction in any part of the insulator and its fixings must not lead to 1 Post insulatorsComponent parts of an IPB sys.em Fic. 4.13 Typical insulaior support arrangements the development of defects. The fixings, which should be non-magnetic, should be such as to allow movernent of the conductor when centralising forces occur during short-circuit. The post insilator is usually mounted on plate which bolts externally onto a flange fitted to the tnclosure, as shown in Fig 4.14, thereby permitting easy removal of the insulator. 7.32. Foot insulators (including enclosure supports) ‘These are plate-type insulators which insulate the support side of the enclosure from the structural steelwork. An insulation level of 3.6 kV is general- ly specified for this device, which allows for some dust build-up during the operation of the plant. The support structure itself should allow relative movement Yy INSULATOR BAS Pare Fo, ASA typical sulator support assembly between it and the enclosure 10 accommodate thermal expansion. Where supporting structures suffer exces- sive vibration, installations may require anti-vibration pads to be incorporated in the design, although the CEGB does not generally use them. The design of the connections mountings should be such that the natural frequency of any part of the busbar structure and its supporting metalwork does not fie between 130% of the frequency of the applied electro-magnetic force, .¢., static and dynamic loadings for the power fre- ‘quency specified should be taken into consideration. 7.3.3 Disc bushings Disc bushing seals are fitted at the end of busbar runs adjacent to plant housings to provide an airtight seal, thereby preventing hydrogen from the generator, or oil from the transformers, passing along the isolated phase-runs in the event of leakage. The isolated phase- tun is then fed with conditioned air, as discussed later A bushing seal must also be provided in the VT tee- off, allowing the on-load maintenance of the VTs without affecting the conditioning air system. Careful attention is given to the bushing profile 1o ensure that moisture, which would reduce the creepage path of the bushing, cannot be trapped in it 7.3.4 Wall seals Wall seals are provided where the enclosure passes through a wall (see Fig 4.15). The individual enclo- sures are connected to the wall seal using the bellows arrangement described in the next section. A similar seal is fitted where the installation passes through a floor Also, to prevent transformer noise causing annoy- ance in residential areas, the generator transformer may be fitted with a noise enclosure. A wall seal will then be required for the busbar to pass through that enclosure, 7.38 Bellows The bellows maintain the insulation of the main con- nection enclosures from the connected plant (see Fig 305Generator main connections Chapter 4 Fic. 4.15 An example of 2 wall seal 4.16). They allow relative movement due to expansion and vibration, and cater, 10 a limited extent, for any installation misfit due to the worst combination of allowable tolerances. When bellows are installed on a length of busbar at, for example, a conductor expansion point, they must be bridged using flexible aluminium BeLLows ASseUsLy laminae, Alternatively, aluminium bellows may be used. ‘The bellows are usually of synthetic rubber, completely weatherproof and airtight and must withstand at least twice the design working pressure of the conditioning air system within the enclosure. When bellows are located outside buildings in direct sunlight, the material must be chosen to ensure that degradation does not occur. 7.4 Conductor and enclosure expansion joints Allowance for the expansion and contraction of the conductor (Fig 4.17) and enclosure (Fig 4.18) is pro- vided on the longer busbar runs. This typically com- prises a ‘cage’ arrangement, where the expansion gap is bridged by aluminium laminae, The connection must have adequate current-carrying capacity and correct current-sharing among the laminae is ensured by using a symmetrical array of laminae. 7.5 Flexible connectors Flexible connectors can be laminae or braid, the choice depending on the type of relative movement of the parts being connected. When removed, they provide isolation of plant. The significant difference between them is that laminae only allow relative movement in two dimensions, whereas braid gives full three-dimensional ‘movement. excxosuRe Laeptinnaprene! ee eonsapeed eet Fic, 4.16 A bellows assembly 306Component parts of an IPB system Fic. 4.17 Main conductor expansion joint Lauare assevaues ra UNE ESSEC Fic. 4.18 Enclosure expansion joint — typical arrangement 7.8.1 Flexible laminae connectors These are constructed from thin strips of aluminium ‘tid one above the other, with aluminium palms welded on cach end (Fig 4.19), Suitable holes in the palm allow the connector to be bolted to the conductor palm. Their applications are limited to sections of ‘rain runs (for example, to allow the insertion of CTs) at expansion joints, connections to generator voltage switchgear, and earth connections to some items of plant. 7.5.2 Braided flexible connectors ‘These are made up of tinned-copper braid or braids (Fig 4.20) with ferrules fitted at each end which are 307Generator main connections Chapter 4 Fic. 4.19 Construction of a Nexible laminae connector imines Wa cases Une SUPRSSE SBE FE mnegest couemessen cowetessco confacr Pinnie Soneee ‘each coupfesceo Fen voces Fic. 4.20 Construction of a braided flexible connector drilled to allow a bolted connection onto the termi- nat palms of external plant. It is essential that the ferrules are crimped omto the braid, since sweated assemblies have been found to suffer from mechanical creep problems, with failure resulting after a period of time. Clearly, whilst the braids overcome the pro- biem of relative movement of component parts of the system, they introduced a dissimilar metal interface when connected to the aluminium conductor palm. 308, Ik has been found preferable to remove tinning from the ferrule at the joint interface surface. Methods of overcoming problems associated with dissimilar metals are discussed later. Careful selection of the braids is necessary to ensure that there is adequate current-carrying capacity and that they are capable of operating continuously at the maximum specified temperature. Consideration should be given to:fh of braid compared with the gap, to en- The lenst! Should be 28-35 mm free play). number, size and position of the fixing holes he Te crimped ferrule (which affects the clamping on feare on the joint and hence its current-carrying capability) ‘The ambient air temperature within the enclosure 7.6 Painting ‘The outside of the conductors and the inside of the is geures are normally painted with matt black heat- vraistant paint 0 improve heat transfer 7.7 Conditioned air Bolted inspection covers, portable earth access covers and the insulator base fixing-plates are provided with oskets, and the ends of busbar runs incorporate a ise bushing. These measures prevent the leakage of inoist or polluted air into the enclosure. It is usual to pressurise the enclosure so that leakage is outwards to atmosphere. The leakage rates are approximately 10% by volume of the busbar enclosure per hour. This airflow, though quite small, purges any ionised gases which may have accumulated inside the enclosure and prevents condensation forming, particularly during periods of shutdown. The cooling effect of this air is not taken into account in the design of the busbar and therefore failure of the associated equipment does not necessitate shutdown of the unit All the main connections within the confines of the bushing seals are fed with dry conditioned ait at 12.5 mbar(gauge). To prevent condensation, the design S based on a dewpoint of —25°C. A typical system comprises one air compressor and its associated receiver and drying equipment per unit. Alternatively, if avail- able, air supplies can be obtained from the Station Instrument Air System. Either source is acceptable, though sizing and rating problems can occur with nstrument air sources. It is usually preferable to provide an independent compressor. Some air is fed around the disc bushings to vent to atmosphere after passing through the equipment housings. 7.8 Voltage transformers Voltage transformers (VTs) are mounted within a cubicle (see Section 7.16 of this chapter) which is de- signed so that the transformer can be safely removed for maintenance without requiring access to live parts, should that be required during operation. A typical VT weighs in the region of 100 kg. It is generally 4 single-phase cast-resin transformer connected in a star arrangement with a ratio of 22 KW/110 V, the Component parts of an IPB system nearest preferred ratio to the present generator voltage with accuracy maintained for 0-100% rated output The primary sides of the VTs are earthed at one end to a common earth, which is then connected to the generator stator earth. They are fed from the voltage transformer tee-off busbar via fuses rated to discri- rminate against the fuse located at the tee-off from the main busbar. In the secondary circuits, any earth connections are made to the Station earth, as that is the earth which is used in instrumentation circuits Some manufacturers have traditionally provided ter- tiery windings on their voltage transformers connected in delta and used to prevent the occurrence of neutral inversion and voltage transformer ferro-resonance, The delta winding is closed solidly or through a loading resistor, depending on the X/R ratio needed to prevent ferro-resonance. Neutral inversion is the displacement of the neutral due to abnormal system conditions, such as open-circuits in one or more phases of systems possessing inductance and capacitance. Ferro-resonance can occur when the magnitude of the inductance of the VT compared to the capacitance of the circuit t0 which it is connected is equal and opposite. When not required, the tertiary windings are left open-circvited with one open-end earthed; this is usual with neutral earthing methods now used. The reader is referred to Chapter 3 (Transformers) and Chapter 11 (Protection), for a more detailed discussion of these issues and the problems they cause. 7.9 Current transformers Current transformers (CTs) are located in various parts of the installation, depending upon the protection scheme employed. Typically, for the scheme shown in Fig 4.1, CTs would be installed in the following lo- cations (shown in Fig 4.8) At the neutral end of the stator winding, between the terminal plate and the star-bar, for the following Purposes: © Tariff metering. Efficiency testing. © Unit instrumentation and turbine-generator automatic control input signals. © Low forward power protection. © Negative phase sequence and loss of excitation protection ‘© Generator differential protection Within the generator neutral earthing module on the secondary side of the neutral earthing transformer for stator earth fault protection (see Fig 4.10). 309Generator main connections Chapter 4 AL the unit transformer for: © Generator differential protection, © Unit transformer differential protection. On the HV bushing of the generator transformer fot generator differential protection The design of the CTs must be such that they do not reduce the electrical impulse-withstand level or the power frequency withstand level of the installation. The CTs positioned in the main connections busbar are of the ‘slipover’ type, mounted within a housing, for ease of erection. They include an earthed screen to shield the secondary winding from the electric field of the conductor, thereby allowing the secondary insulation level to be a nominal 2 kV. This assembly is held at earth potential by connecting the CT core-shield as- sembly to an independent earth cable at one point only, to prevent any circulating current paths. All secondary cabling should be glanded on an insulated glandplate, thereby maintaining the 3.6 kV insulation level of the enclosure. Adequate support and bracing of the CTs is required as a typical assembly is heavy; a neutral CT assembly may weigh 600 kg and a line CT assembly 350 kg. Sufficient ventilation must be provided to ensure that the heat produced in the windings does ot cause unacceptable temperature rises. Any forces exerted on the CTs during fault conditions will be limited to those attempting to centralise them around the neutral line of the enclosure, These are not signi- ficant if the CTs are mounted concentrically. There will be little, if any, axial force exerted on the CTs and this is easily contained by the mountings. The generator has an impulse-withstand level of 85 kV, consequently a similar figure can be allowed for the neutral-end equipment. CTs should be clearly tabelled with details of their duty and their orientation within the system must be identified to ensure the correct polarity of secondary signals. 7.10 Environmental conditions For design purposes, the relative humidity should be taken as 100% and any equipment mounted out-of- doors should be completely weatherproof and capable of withstanding inclement weather conditions, includ- ing wind and snow loading, and solar heating. Tae entire installation should be drip proof, dust proof and vermin proof, with an enclosure rating to at least IP4s of BSS490. 7.11 Portable earth access covers The philosophy of portable earthing is discussed in Section 11 of this chapter. The mechanism by which 310 it is applied is covered here. The design of the access covers must allow reinstatement of the air conditioning system when portable earths are applied to prevent condensation and dampness forming within the main connections system during periods of prolonged out- ages. The access cover to the enclosure must allow 00d access to the conductor and earthing device withi the enelosure, but be securely bolted and hinged when not in use, The earthing connection onto the conductor is made by a clamp and is applied using an insulated pole. A flexible cable then connects this via another clamp onto the main connections earth system. The access cover must also allow the application of a voltage testing device. CEGB safety rules require the cover to be lockable, 7.12 Viewing ports Viewing ports, comprising clear glass or Perspex view: ing windows, are provided in the enclosure at positions where there is a need to check the condition of flexible connectors and other equipment regularly. These also permit the use of infra-red heat measuring devices for checking the temperature of the connectors. 7.13 Connection of the conductor to piant As detailed earlier in Section 7.5.2 of this chapter, braided flexible connectors are used to continue the conducting path to the connected plant. At the gen erator, a ‘candelabra’ assembly (see Fig 4.21) has been developed which forms a circular terminal arrangement fitted to the machine terminals. Braids then bridge the gap between the main connections conductor and the generator terminals forming, in effect, a short cylinder that assists equal current-sharing among the braids. Care must be taken in the design to ensure that there is adequate clearance from stator water cooling pipe- work, Connections onto the generator transformer, which may be either a three-phase tank or three single-phase tanks, are by braided flexible connectors onto six ter minal bushings. A typical arrangement in isolated phase busbar is shown in Fig 4.22. To give a good current distribution, the connections conto the bushings should be arranged in as near cit- cular configuration as possible, typically cight palms arranged in an octagonal formation (see Fig 4.23). A single palm connection would not give good current distribution and should be avoided. However, since the generator transformer connections carry phase current rather than line current, there is no need for the ela borate candelabra arrangement used at the generator Connections to auxiliary transformers, ¢.g., the unit transformer, are simpler than the generator transformer since the load currents are much lower. ‘The temperature rise due to losses in the connec- tions system must be reduced in areas where significantComponent parts of an IPB system GENERATOR TERMINAL FSi ereLosune INSULATOR SUPPORT ASSEMBLY Fic, 4.21 Generator terminal ‘candelabra’ connection he may be conducted from plant, for example, at the senerator and the generator transformer via its bush- ing. The specifications for these items permit higher lemperatures than are permitted for generator main sonnections, Access {0 terminals should be as easy as possible, ith the removal of a minimum of enclosure compo- hhents {0 gain access to the terminations. 7.14 Joints in the conductor \lthough apparently simple, joints have given serious Problems in the past, due to the unequal current-shar- ‘ng in braids and poor pointing procedures. One cause sometimes aggravates the other and leads to the even- tual failure of the joint, often with catastrophic results, A joint (which really consists of many joints in parallel) can be so badly burnt-out that the original cause of the fault is impossible to determine. Consequently, ex- tensive experimental work on joints has been performed by the CEGB to establish the most suitable joint surface preparation assembly and fixing procedures. There are several influencing factors to consider when making a joint: ¢ The material of the mating surfaces to be joined. © The preparation of the mating surfaces. © The bolt size. © The bolt material 3Generator main connections Chapter 4 22 MAIN PHASE ‘connections BR SIncte PHASE GENERATOR TRANSFORMER _-HVBUSHING REMOVABLE, ina Fubaite CONNECTIONS ’AND LV BUSHING Fic, 4.22 Air delta arrangement in isolated phase busbars The size of spreading washer to give necessary clamp- ing load. @ The necessary torque, The method of locking the nut ‘The materials making up the joint are normally either aluminium or copper; the joints are therefore copper to copper, aluninium to aluminium or copper 10 alu- minium, in order of increasing difficulty in making the joint. It is recommended in the CEGB that where surfaces are coated or plated this should be removed a the interface by finishing, so that one of these three joint interfaces is created. Without going into the science of jointing, the most satisfactory method will be described. The jointing surfaces are first cleaned ‘sith a wire brush, a separate wire brush being used for each material. A liberal coating of petroleum jelly is then applied to prevent further oxidation. High-tensile steel bolts, washers and nuts are then torqued-up and locked, the number of bolts depending on the size of the ferrule being bolted. Recommended sizes of these components are shown in Table 4.1. 32 cevenaron cme apinoniar Tame 4 Recommended dimensions for bls and wasters wed washer Tie dia Oui dia Thiskocs Me ou 2 1 Me aoe ee eae mio [| ws om ae | 3s mo foe 30 | 0 mis | oes wa | 7.15 On-load temperature measurement ‘As can be appreciated, temperature measurement of ‘an IPB system is not easy, but it is necessary during commissioning to ensure that the design requirements have been met, and during operation to ensure that there has been no degradation of joints, flexible con- ectors, ete. During commissioning, there are variousscousre Bere = sion, Ge scc#ss COVER. access coven. a Component parts of an IPE system an org ‘at SECTION conovevor ewe. 08URE /COXDUCIOR MSULATOR exoansion ~ Ba tows SECTON sroMnG NOUSNG INTERIOR Fic, 4.23 Generator transformer connections ‘stick-on’ tapes available to record the maximum temperature attained at a spot, They have the obvious disadvantage that they can only be read after the sys- tem has been de-energised but they are a useful way of doing a temperature survey. Temperature-sensitive paints are also available which change colour at a set temperature, For both these methods, it is essential to ensure that, once the sensor has been ‘triggered’, it remains stable until an opportunity to check it is available, Thermocouples and contact thermometers also exist, but they are generally only of use on the star-bar because of the high voltages involved. An alternative method is an infra-red camera, which ob- iously requires line-of-sight vision to the spot to be ‘measured. Painting the surface of the joint can improve the efficiency of emission of infra-red. Since magnetic flelds can influence an infra-red camera, caution must he exercised when using it. Because of the difficulty of temperature measure ‘nent, indirect methods of monitoring can be consi- dered, Checks of joint resistance, using a micro-ohm meter, can be made during plant shutdown, and all Joints checked for obvious signs of discoloration due to high cemperature. 1 viewing ports are provided, both the infra-red camera and visual checks for discoloration are possi- ble. Hot spots only occur at jointed areas; the general busbar temperature is not a problem, provided that the busbars have been correctly designed. 7.16 VT cubicles Each phase may require up to five VTs arranged in isolated phase compartments. When isolating a VT, it is usual to break the primary side before the secondary side, so that isolating contacts compatible with the secondary voltage can be used. Each VT is separately protected by a primary fuse, typically 3 A, which discriminates with the 10 A fuse fitted at the tee-off, already described. The VT secondary wiring, suitably fused, is wired to a combined CT and VT secondary marshalling cubicle and then into its associated pro- tection or instrumentation scheme. When the VT is isolated, before access can be gained to it, earths must be applied by the VT isolating mechanism to both sides of the 3 A fuse, and the primary and the se- condary terminals of the transformer. To ensure that this procedure is followed, the VT cubicle door is interlocked. 7.17 Access platforms Since the main connections route is complicated by proximity to other plant, some access covers are un- avoidably located at awkward places; access platforms are therefore necessary to facilitate quick inspection of joints and connection of portable earthing equip- ‘ment. Sufficient room must be available for an operator to manoeuvre voltage sensing probes, earth application 313Generator main connections Chapter 4 poles, etc. Care must be taken to ensure that ladders and handrails do not bridge insulated joints elect cally at plant interfaces and thus render them inef- fective. Also, such structures in the vicinity of the connections are designed so that they are not heated by stray magnetic fields during continuous operation of the plant The continuicy of any current-condueting path in the steelwork should be interrupted by the inclusion of insulating pads, bushes and washers, ete. Attention should be given t0 the need to sectionalise or insulate cladding or screens 7.18 Structural steelwork Structural steelwork running parallel 10 main con hneetions enclosures must be spaced at least 300 mm distant. Steelwork running at right angles to. main connections enclosures must be spaced at least 150 mm, distant. The supporting structure for the whole of the main connections, including the tee-off connections, is designed to give a rigid structure for the static and dynamic loads imposed with a typical safety factor of LS. Supports must be completely independent of the equipment to which the busbars are connected and separate from main building steelwork. They are floor-mounted and designed to prevent heating of the structure by magnetic leakage fields. 7.19 Neutral earthing equipment This equipment has developed in the manner described in Section 11 of this chapter and, for a 660 MW gen- erator, typically comprises a solid insulation (SNAW) 462 KVA cast-resin transformer with a suitably-sized load resistor and anticondensation heater_mounted within a free-standing module, one per unit. The trans- former is normally unenergised, so particular attention must be given to ensuring that the complete encap- sulation performed under vacuum is free from voids, cracks and other defects, and accurate location of the winding is essential. The resistor is likely to be of the metallic type and have a value which limits the earth fault current to 10-15 A in each neutral. Tt will be air cooled, non-deteriorating, non-corrodible and fireproof, non-inductive and capable of carrying the carth fault current for five minutes without mechani- val damage: the total resulting temperature rise should not exceed 200°C. 7.20. Site installation Clearly itis advantageous to do as much factory labrication as possible, subject to transportation limits. Equipment housings and sections including bends re- quire more complicated fabrication techniques and are best done at the works, leaving the relatively easy welding of siraight joints to be done on site. The sec- 314 tions are transported complete, i¢., they include conductor, enclosure, insulaiors and all fittings. 7.21 Quality assurance Notwithstanding the quality checks required for each individual component, careful final assembly and weld. ing of the busbar sections is most important. Welding must be in accordance with a specified standard, e.g. BS3S71 Part | for metal are welding or BS3019 Part 1 for cungsten arc welding (both inert gas}, and all welds must be clearly identified in the design, including their type, weld process, weld preparation, with samples of ‘each weld type made available for examination. Welds can be grouped as electrical circuit welds or structural/ mechanical welds and detailed welding procedures are prepared. Testing of welds by radiography and dye- penetrant techniques is carried out on a percentage of all welds produced, with clear acceptance levels agreed before work starts, 8 Testing This section covers tests for © Component parts of the main connections installation. 7 # Manufacture of a test piece 10 ensure adequate design. © Testing on site. © Type tests © Routine tests. © Sample tests. 8.1. Tests on component parts a41 At the time of writing, these components are made of an epoxy material. Type fests are carried out on samples of complete insulators representative of each type used in the installation; they will already have passed the specified Rowtine tesis. Each insulator type needs a different jig in order to subject it to realistic testing. The necessary corrections for temperature, ba- rometric pressure and humidity are applied. Typical type tests are: Insulators and bushings © Lightning-impuise voltage withsiand This is the standard 1.2/30 ys impulse test with the test con- ditions given in BS3297 Part 1 1974 or BS223 1985, as appropriate, the test value being that for the highest system yoltage of the installation. © Dry power frequency withstand To BS3297 at the appropriate test value for one minute.: Testing + aver power frequency withstand To BS3297 at the propriate rest value for one minute. partial discharge West Carried out in accordance cidy BSA828, the purtial discharge being measured wMlerins of apparent charge; the level should not exceed $0 picacoulombs. Cantilever mechanical (ype-test This is applied to Complete insulator secured by its normal means of Faing, with the load applied at right angles to the duis of the insulator, This test would not be applied to a dise bushing. ‘jhe following Routine fests should be carried out on all individual insulators and bushings: ‘« Visual examination. Electrical routine vest A V-minute withstand test at the appropriate voltage. ‘e Mechanical routine test A cantilever test at 70% of the failing load of the insulator in this mode. In addition to these Type and Routine tests, the fol- lowing Sample tests should be performed; the method cof selection is discussed in BS3297 Part 1, 1974: « Verification of dimensions This involves checking that the dimensions are in accordance with the re- evant drawings, with due regard for tolerances and other details which may affect interchangeability. + Temperature cycle sample test Several cycles of immersion in hot and cold water, the sample being held at each temperature for one hour to ensure hat a uniform temperature has been attained. The difletence in hot and cold temperatures should not be less than 70°C. This test would be followed by a routine electrical test to ensure that no degradation of the insulator has occurred. © Oseillatory-load sample test This simulates mechani: cal shocks onto the main connection installation caused by, for example, operation of a circuit. breaker, The number of oscillations selected is left lo the judgement of the engineer specifying the installation (of the order of four million), but is ot applicable to dise bushings. * Tension sample test Each sample insulator is subjected to 70% of its ultimate tensile failure load for one minute without failure to it or its fixings. {i is not applicable to disc bushings. * Torsional sample test A torsional load is applied to each threaded insert or stud of an insulator or bushing to demonstrate that no permanent distortion or loosening of fittings occurs. For thread sizes up (0 Mi2, a load of $0 Nm is used. © Puncture sample test For this, the insulator is inmersed in switchgear oil and a voltage of approxi- mately 50% of the specified puncture voltage applied across the unit. This voltage is then inereased gradually to 1.3 times the actual dry flashover voltage of the unit without causing puncture, © Ukimate cantilever-load sample test Finally, a unit should be loaded up in the cantilever mode umtil failure occurs. For this sample test, failure should not occur below 80° of the failure load obtained from the Type testing. 8.1.2 Busbar material Checks are made to ensure that the material is to specification and that different material types are clear- ly identified, so that the incorrect material or thick- ness cannot be inadvertently used in any part of the installation 8.1.3 Transformers The various VTs and CTs throughout the system require Type and Routine tests, as described in Chapter 3 8.1.4 Loading resistors ‘The neutral earthing system loading-resistor must be tested in accordance with BS587: 1957, as follows Type testing © High voltage. '* Ohmic value of resistor. ‘© Temperature rise. Routine testing © High voliage. © Ohmic value of resistor, 8.1.5 Capacitors Capacitors may be installed in the main connections for the reasons explained in Section 10 of this chapter. ‘They should be tested in accordance with BS1650. 8.1.6 Switchgear and earthing switches Testing requirements for switchgear are discussed in Chapter 5, Type and routine testing of earthing switches is in accordance with BS5253, the test arrangement simu- lating the service condition as far as practical, i.e., the switches should be mounted in their service enclosures, together with a section of busbar. The short-circuit test is made on a three-phase group of switches, but all ‘other tests may be performed single-phase. Control and electrical interlocking circuits, if appli- cable, should be tested for correct operation. 315Generator main connections Chapter 4 8.1.7 Compressed air system All compressors, pipework, valves and ancillary ap- paratus are tested to appropriate standards, i.e., the Pressure of their associated safety valves, with air receivers being pressure tested to one and a half times their safety valve operation pressure. 8.2 Tests on representative sections of IPB It has been explained earlier that calculation of the forces that exist upon @ main connections installation during short-circuit is very difficult and at the time of writing there is no reliable calculation method avail- able. Any computational method later developed will Tequire validation by testing. Consequently the CEGB’s normal practice is to test the capability of a main con. nections design by subjecting it to the worst Fault urrents which might occur in service. There are limited facilities worldwide where tests of this kind can be carried out, and such testing is very expensive. It may be advantageous for the manufacturer to offer a main connections installation of higher current rating than is necessary simply in order to use a tested design, thereby making repeat tests unnecessary. 1c is normal to offer two test pieces; a section of main and tce-off busbar, including the tee-off itself and the delta section. The former requires representa. tion of all three phases and the earth bar whereas for the latter a ‘go and return’ section plus earth bar suf. fices. An example of a test piece comprising aluminium busbar in an aluminium enclosure representative of @ unit transformer tee-off connection is shown in Fig 4.24 Consideration should be given to incorporating ad- ditional equipment into the test piece, for example CT chambers, expansion joints, flexible connections, ete. The following design aspects of the test piece should be considered. In addition to the selected test piece, it is advisable to add a short interface section where connections are made to the incoming unscreened section of the test station busbar. This reduces the end effects of non-representative connections on the test piece. The connection to the test station supply is by flexible connections, as used in normal service The short-circuit is by means of a shorting bar of construction generally similar to part of the main con- nections installation. It is connected to the test piece by joints similar to a normal ee-off but strengthened, typically by welded webs, in order to withstand the high knife-switch forces in this area, those forces being higher than those in practice at a rigint-angle bend In a single-phase-to-earth fault, connection to the test Piece is in a section of earth bar returning 10 the test Fic, 4.24 Test piece for generator main connections 316sonnections by unscreened conductor, this being resentative of @ normal earth bar arrangement in a epal design. Laminated flexible sections should be wprded at cach end of the screened conductor and re conductor held down in the manner proposed i the earth bar design. Bonding bars should be incor- varated in the test piece at the test supply end, though pera teireut bar enclosure will provide the bonding honween individual phase enclosures at the remote vette te piece ae eae ihpoa- ese station ¢ are recorded: e Input ‘The applied current (and voltages) are re- corded on UV oscillographs. It is advisable to take additional current measurements using Rogowski- coil type current transducers in various parts of the test piece, these being particularly useful for di gnostic purposes should some failure occur. (If any CTs are fitted in the test piece, they should have heir secondary windings shorted unless some mea- surement of their output is required.) @ Force Piezoelectric force transducers should be positioned to measure load on the earth bar. If a correlation is being made between the test results and predictions by calculation, as many transducers as possible should be applied to the earth bar to give greater confidence in the calculation method. ‘@ Voltage rise The voltage rise in various parts of the test piece should be measured relative to one point on the test piece. © Temperature Maximum-indicating temperature de- vices of the stick-on type should be liberally applied to the test piece in order to record the maximum. temperature reached. These should be examined after the one-second test (see Section 7.15 of this chapter) to ensure that the final conductor tempera- lure does not exceed specification. Clearly, initial temperature prior to short-circuit must be recorded to determine temperature rise. The thermal short- cireuit capacity of the main busbar is far in excess of the actual values due to the high continuous current and large conductor and enclosure cross- sections. For the unit transformer tee-off, the tem- perature rise has less margin due 10 its relatively smaller cross-section, 83° Test levels The fault conditions normally quoted in a specification ‘We synthetic insofar as the actual fault currents that ould flow on a given power station installation cannot be predicted precisely. The test values are therefore dletived from real plant parameters, assuming that all the variables combine at their worst. The test philo- Sophy is based on the presumption that any real fault will be less severe than the test condition. Testing The values of fault conditions are the sum of the contributions from the generator side and the genera: tor transformer side of the system, The design values should be applied throughout the system, including the associated earth bar system, to ensure a high integrity. For a 660 MW installation, the test levels quoted would be as follows: (2) Equivalent RMS short-circuit three-phase 200 kA. fault current for I second (b) Calculated first loop peak of (a) 630 kA 168 kA (©) RMS short-circuit single-phase equiva Jent to each fault current for 1 second (ie., this represents the heating effect equivalent to that fault current which actually flows, taking into account cur- rent decrement) (4) Calculated first loop peak of (c) 435 kA The earth fault values assume that the generator neu- tral earthing transformer primary is short-circuited. (a) and (c) are thermal tests, whereas the peak tests (b) and (d) are mechanical. Representative parts of the design are also tested 10 demonstrate: © Lightning impulse-voltage withstand, using the stand- ard 1.2/50 us impulse, i.e., that there is adequate air clearance between conductor and enclosure. At resent generator voltages, a test level of 170 kV peak full-wave is used, applicable to a system highest voltage of 36 kV. ‘© Power frequency one-minute dry withstand corre- sponding to the above figure, in this case 70 kV RMS at 50 Hz. Due to the less-onerous service conditions, the tests on cexciter systems (see Section 5.5 of this chapter) can be confined to: ‘# Power frequency dry withstand, 10 kV RMS for one minute at 50 Hz, ¢ Full wave lightning-impulse withstand, 5 positive and $ negative discharges, at 40 kV. © A heat run of $000 A RMS for 8 hours, including adequate instrumentation to survey the whole system. 8.4 Tests at site The complete installation, including compressed ait pipework if fitted, for a 660 MW Generator would be subjected to either a dry one-minute power fre ‘quency voltage-withstand test at 68 kV RMS or a dry fifteen-minute DC voltage test at a test level of 66 kV DC. The insulation resistance is measured before and after this HV test. The connections to the generator 307Generator main connections Chapter 4 and transformer windings are disconnected during the test {In addition to the above, a heat rum is carried out on che complete installation, using the generator as the power Source to ensure that the main connections design is satisfactory for the rated overload current and temperature condition. This test is performed by short-circuiting the main connections on the grid side ot the generator transformer, closing the HV earthing witches in the grid connection to form a three-phase short-circuit and adjusting the generator voltage to give the maximum continuous rated current of the con- neetions, A liberal number of temperatures should be recorded and the installation run for sufficient time to become thermally stable. Finally, the enclosure installation should be subject to an insulation-to-earth test appropriate to @ 3.6 kV insulation level Similar tests are performed on the exciter connection, though at a reduced level 9 Experience of testing In the event of an unrestricted fault at or in the unit transformer, the main connection system cannot pre- vent damage at the point of the fault. It is therefore considered that a specification for the main connections should ensure that: ‘¢ They are not the source of any faults. ‘# The connections will not compound @ fault occur- ring outside the main connections terminal points. Their design must be such as to allow a return to operation with the minimum possible refurbishment. ‘The test results of a main connections design are therefore analysed with the above criteria in mind. ‘The short-circuit testing of designs undertaken by the CEGB has not been without incident and has shown that the designer eannot rely fully on calculations. This is true both of the thermal and the mechanical short- circuit tests. The distortion of the test sections caused by mechanical forces has been considerable. In addi- tion, the rise in potential of enclosures and earth bars ss been higher than predicted. Experience has shown, that as many measurements as possible, of all the parameters, should be taken so that all the results of the test can be fully interpreted. An adequate supply of measuring devices is also essential, since some can be camaged during the test, Since test laboratory time is expensive, detailed preparation work is essential to ensure a trouble-free test session. This requires a com- plete understanding of the requirements among con- actors, laboratory staff and customer. Ivis essential to ensure that the test connections from Ute test station are arranged such that no unrepresenta- bse stress is put on the test piece due to their presence, 318 The results of all short-circuit tests that have been performed to date by the CEGB allow some general comments to be made concerning the arcas of the design which are most critical Faults in the past have generally been associated with small-section conductors, sharp changes of direc tion in small-section conductors, welds in small-section conductors and end effects at bonding bars. Generally, the main conductor cross-section required for con. tinuous maximum rating is such that it has ample short-circuit withstand capability. The same is true of the main enclosure except, for example, where extra local loading is placed upon it by poorly supported bonding bars, Nevertheless, itis still essential to include a section of main busbar in the test piece in order to steady the unit transformer tee-off and other small ‘or complex section conductors, e.g., in line laminae, bolted joints, earth bar fittings, etc. Details of some typical problems reveated in testing are: # Enclosure bonding bars, if not sufficiently robust, will be distorted at the test piece ends during the mechanical test. Bonding bar movement can pass. the stress down to the enclosure support Feet, causing them to distort. © The additional forces that exist due to end effects are revealed by general relative movement and dis- tortion of the conductors at the test piece ends, though elsewhere the conductor and enclosure must remain straight and undistorted. The forces in this end area can damage laminae or braided flexible connectors. ‘© Inadequate earth bar cross-section and insufficient holding down points can allow the earth bar to dis. tort severely: this is probably one of the most common problems revealed by testing. This demon- strates the effect of lack of shielding since the earth bar is not provided with a sheath. It also illustrates that a system of this mass, when subjected to forces, produced by the fault current, will suffer distortion and possible damage whilst absorbing the energy present. The conductor is a large, very rigid structure supported by a strong insulator system in a braced enclosure itself supported on strong insulated feet. This assembly has litte flexibility and a large mass (very high inertia). The earth bar, whilst supported at many points and of large cross-section, is rela- tively less massive as a system and in the event of reaction between it and the conductor system it is the earth bar that suffers most damage. © Because of the centralising force exerted on the conductor by the enclosure, damage can result to the feet supporting the conductor by spreading or crack- ing, and the design must cater for this force. © Testing has shown that during short-circuit con: ditions, diametrically opposite laminaes or braidsGenerator voltage switchgear ‘vill be attracted Jogether when forming part of the Nonductor and repelled when part of the enclosure. sondian cause movement of the conductor and damage to the support insulator Feet, or indeed the solator itself ‘The forces produced during the mechanical test provide a coinprehensive check of the adequacy of the welding specification, During the testing it is common for extensive arcing and smoke to be produced, generally caused by paint in joints of the test piece frame burning out fine to circulating current. If such arcing is to be tliminated, sound electrical joints in the frame are required. ne other significant factors have arisen concerning ystrumentation of short-circuit tests The principal object of the tests is to short-circuit pproof-test a busbar specimen. The instrumentation pro- ‘ded is intended to provide supplementary information for comparative records as well as data that might help in the ensuing fault analysis, Taking the instru- mentation normally applied in turn: |a) Voltage measurement Measurement of enclosure voltages does prove useful, but care should be taken when interpreting the results. The intention is to measure the voltage drop along the enclosure when fault current flows in the conductor. The actual enclosure currents are the sum of many complex and interacting phenomena. For example, the prin- cipal enclosure current flows on the inner surface but currents induced by other conductors flow on the outer surface. ‘The current flow in the enclosures is not homogenous, but is subject both to concentrations and eddies. As a result, placing a set of potential measuring points along the outside of a relatively short test piece of complex geometry will not yield a smooth potential gradient along the test piece. However, experience has demonstrated that en- closure monitoring points can show when arcs or ‘conducting metal touch the enclosure. Additionally, providing that the correct measuring method is chosen, useful information can be derived concern- ing the earth bar and the voltage drops along it iy Surain gauges Strain gauges are very sensitive to electrical interference and, furthermore, unless great care is taken when positioning them, they can be affected by thermal expansion of the test piece Converting the results obtained into meaningful loading figures is unreliable because of the diffi- wulty of defining exactly how the loadings are Produced Temperature The stick-on maximum temperature indicating devices are a perfectly adequate means of recording temperatures during these tests. (0) Film record The basic concept of a film record is sound and such a record should be specified. Some shortcomings have been highlighted in recent tests which should be dealt with. The designer's assumption at the outset of test- ing is that no major problems will be encountered Thus filming is carried out in a fairly standard fashion, using a frame speed in the region of S000 frames/s at the instant of the fault. If a fault occurs in which the camera sees an electrical arc then the film record from this point onwards is Virtually useless. On other tests where an arcing fault has been intentionally provoked, filming has been performed through a high sensitivity neutral filter. The illumination of the arc is sufficient to penetrate this filter and give @ rough outline of the surrounding equipment but, prior to the arc, the film is totally blank and unexposed. One possible solution, on a test where it is not known whether arcing will occur, is to run both normal and filtered cameras simultaneously, al- though this is wasicful of film should a fault not occur, It is also complicated and expensive in terms of the initial equipment to be provided Another potential solution currently being in- vestigated, centres around a product marketed for military use. A chemically-treated plastic, trans- parent under normal illumination, becomes almost ‘opaque when subject to intense ultra-violet radia- tion. The time taken to change from clear to opaque is very short indeed, and a fier of this material applied to the lens of the camera might offer a cheap and ready insurance against unexpected arc- ing faults with the possibility of recording evidence during the are. 10 Generator voltage switchgear Only a brief mention of this equipment is made here: the actual switchgear is described in Chapter $ and the factors to be considered regarding its use are dis- cussed in Chapter 1. However, if such equipment is incorporated in the main connections installation, this affects the layout of the busbar and calls for additional equipment to be installed, ¢.g., pneumatic equipment, cooling equipment and, possibly, system capacitors. ‘The switchgear is located in the horizontal cun of bus- bar and an area, preferably enclosed, must be provided to house it. Due to the physical size of the switchgear, increased centres between phases will be required in that area. The switchgear comprises an independent ‘interrupting device’ per phase, thereby maintaining complete phase isolation throughout the system. Con- sideration must be given to the foundation requirements for mounting the switchgear. The switchgear itself may be either water ot air cooled, the option being selected after consideration of the continuous current-carrying capacity and therefore 319Generator main connections Chapter 4 the quantity of heat to be extracted, air cooling having obvious limitations. To minimise transmission of shock to the main busbars due to the operation of the switchgear, flexible connections are made between the switch and busbar, normally using aluminium laminae. Caution should be exercised if aluminium laminae are used, as this may reduce electrical clearances to an unacceptable degree if the switchgear was designed to be connected by copper laminae. Since a continuous circuit for circu lating current within the main connection enclosure is required, loop connections to the body of the switch- gear must be provided, the most suitable being alu- ‘minim laminae. Another significant factor affecting the main con. nections is whether the switchgear is fault-rated oF iower-rated as isa switch disconnector; the implications of this decision are discussed fully in Chapter 1 of this volume. However, depending on the characteristics of the switchgear selected, and in particular the value of the transient recovery voltage (TRV), capacitors may have to be added to the system, fitted between the conductor and the earth, to cater for the satisfactory operation of the generator switchgear under all op- erating conditions. The most suitable position for these capacitors is generally in a specially designed compart- ment within a VT cubicle, a three-phase bank of single- phase capacitors being connected between phase and earth. These are used to decrease the steepness of the switching or fault clearance voltage wavefront in order not to exceed the maximum allowable voltage stress on the insulation of the equipment. They reduce the rate-of-rise of recovery voltage at the interruption of short-cireuits and load currents. Capacitors can also reduce overvoltages caused by single-phase faults on the LV side of the generator transformer, The capa- citors themselves comply with BS1650 or equivalent specilication, and are preferably of the steel-tank oil- filled type, having insulation and impulse voltage ca- pabilities equivalent to those specified for the remainder of the main connections installation. The capacitors should incorporate discharge resistors to ensure that they are safely discharged to earth potential, following the shut down and isolation of the plant. When the capacitors are installed in the VT cubicle and the tee- off cubicle is fed through fuses (Section 5.3 of this chapter), then those fuses must be capable of handling the capacitor inrush current without failure, The design of the generator stator neutral earthing is described in Section 11 of this chapter. If generator switchgear is installed, main connections system between the switchgear and the generator transformer is unearthed when that switchgear is open, To cater for this, a system neutral earthing transformer must be installed between the switch and the transformer which will form @ neutral point on the LV side of the generator transformer, This neutral earthing trans- former has an interstar primary with its neutral point earthed via a transformer and resistor, these last (wo 320 components being similar to those used for the gen- erator stator neutral earthing, already described. Consideration must be given to the additional syn- chronising requirements when generator switchgear is employed. The normal measuring VTs, already de- scribed, are installed between the switchgear and the generator (see Fig 4.8), To monitor the ‘system’ side of the switchgear either a supply can be taken from the system neutral earthing transformer, by incorporating @ tertiary winding within it, or an additional tee-off and VT provided instead. If system capacitérs are needed, the latter is the better solution and the VT cubicle would then house both the additional synchro 1g VTs and the system capacitors. ‘The methods of earthing for maintenance purposes are different for installations with and without gen erator switchgear. 11 Earthing ‘The methods of earthing the main connections, namely stator neutral earthing and systems neutral earthing, have already been discussed, together with the earthing tequirements for the enclosure system and fot con- nected equipment, for example, transformer tanks. This section briefly explains the philosophy of earthing the generator and its connections. Prior to 1950, the normally established earthing practice for the neutral of a main generator connected to the system by transformers, was to use @ voltage transformer, the secondary of which generally operated an alarm in preference to tripping the generator. A number of serious breakdowns in the early 1950s caused this practice to be abandoned, Instead, the neutral was earthed via a low resistance, namely a liquid earth- ing resistor. The resistance was typically 22 ohms for 30 MW and 60 MW generators operating at 11.8 kV, so that the maximum line-to-earth current would be about 300 A. The time rating of the resistor was 30 5, This method continued until the 1960s when, instead, earthing was effected by a low resistance connected to the LY winding of a distribution-type matching transformer, the HY winding of which was connected in the neutral lead (see Fig 4.10). This has worked satisfactorily and costs no more than earthing through 2 liquid earthing resistor. The high effective resistance to earth fault current limits the damage at the point of fault and there is the advantage that the resistor can be designed for low voltage with attendant robust- ness and reliability. The surge-reflection characteristics Of this system have been found to be satisfactory. This scheme has the additional advantage that, because the maximum earth fault current is very low, in the order of 10-15 A, a sensitive setting of the protection relay, as shown in Fig 4.8, can be used in the unit protection scheme, Clearly, the fault current flows in the trans- former primary winding, so the curreni-limiting resistor ‘on the secondary side of the matching transformercurrent, During normal conditions with aries a ggrents balanced, no current flows in the ‘re pal carting transformer. seinthen this scheme was developed, the trans- Maly resistor wete situated some distance away vores anc Uf point, sometimes outside the turbine trom Jee the ‘ansformer was il filed, This neces: hall guhe use of Tong length of cable, an earth fault ~iste th could only be detected during outage times vee yStuch a fault on this eable would, ducing an Cin ac a the ate, cause oMenced arepsalt current to Flow. Consequently, a cast-resin wah ansformer was developed which is located ad (oe tothe star-bar together with its loading resistor, Jeeer sanereasing the integrity ofthe system by having eon a connection tO the star-bar as possible. a eietaiso Section 10 of this chapter for details of sgouin nevtcal eatthing when a generator switch is carries a higher Initial installed. 12. Earthing for maintenance purposes before any maintenance work can be performed on a tain connections installation, the system must be ef- rively isolated by lockable means, and fully earthed The methods used and the extent to which this is achieved depend on the Safety Rules of the operating lity Ac the time of writing, the CEGB uses @ National Code of Practice for earthing high voltage apparatus whieh (simply put) calls for a ‘Primary earth’ to be ap- plied within the isolated zone on which work is to be performed. This Primary earth must be of adequate «ross-seetional area to discharge safely any fault current which may flow as the result of inadvertent energisa- tion. A citcuit-breaker or a specially provided earth switeh or fixed earthing device must be used to make the fist Primary earth connection. After application of this earth, the system then has a number of ‘portable drain earths’ added in accordance with an agreed ‘Earth- ing schedule’ in positions such that, wherever work is to be carried ous, the person performing the maintenance work can See at all times that the portable drain earth iy in position, The CEGB requires that a visible drain sarin must be positioned within 19 m of the place of 11 generator switchgear is installed, the Primary earth switch must be located between the generator and the eenerator switehgcat. This earth then covers the section in whieh itis fitted and also the remainder of the instal- lation when the generator switchgear is closed. There- lore earthing procedures and sequences are different, epending on whether a generator switch is installed. 12.1. Primary earth or a 660 MW installation without generator voltage Switchgear, it is considered that inadvertent re-ener- Earthing for maintenance purposes gisation via the HV breaker in the substation is not credible due to the fact that it would be open and locked, as would the HV isolator, and the HV earth switches would be closed and locked Any back-feed is then limited to: TA for 2s Residual magnetism at barring speed 1 kA continuous Unit auxiliary system 1 KA continuous 25 KA for 2s Residual magnetism at full speed Full excitation at full speed It is therefore deemed adequate that, for installations without generator voltage switchgear, the primary earth should be rated at 25 KA for 2s. For installations with generator voltage switchgear, the section between the switch and the generator could be re-energised, since the switch is the point of isolation. Here, the Primary earth is applied by fully-rated motorised earth switches, complying with BS5253, on the basis of one per phase for each generator unit For a 660 MW generator installation, the following minimum earth switch specification would be expected for a terminal voltage of 23.5 kV, 50 Hz. © Impulse voltage withstand 170 kV peak © Power frequency voltage withstand 75 KV RMS. to earth © Continuous rated current 1000 A @ Rated short time current 160 kA © Permissible duration of short-circuit 1 s @ Rated peak current 440 kA peak ‘© Operating time 10s ‘@ Rated short-circuit making current 750 A peak at rated voltage A typical earth switch arrangement is shown in Fig 4,25, one switch would be installed in each phase. ‘The switch is mounted integrally with the main connections enclosure and penetrates to the conductor via a drive housing. The actual earth connection is made by a motor-driven lead-screw system operating a drum-type contact. A position indicator must be provided on the outside of the switch: a window in the busbar enclosure allows the position of the contact to be checked visually, It is usual to provide a handle for manual operation of the earthing switch, should that be necessary. 12.2 Portable drain earths These devices are applied after the Primary earth, as explained earlier in this section, and are rated to handle the maximum fault current, For a 660 MW generator 321Generator main connections fonve oro Fic. 4.28 Single-phase earth switsh operating at 23.5 kV, the portable earthing equipment is rated at 17.5 kA for 2 s or, alternatively, 23.5 kA for one second, ‘The portable carth is applied to the conductor after gaining access to it via a portable earth access cover. E ne cum “conpucton anna (ohn DST; (OPERATING Foxe OETA Chapter 4 A typical method of application is the fitting of a clamping device on the portable earth connection to 2 ‘ball’ fitted permanently to the conductor, the com. ponent parts being shown in Fig 4.26, The earthing clamp is applied to the ball, using an HV insulated pole of approved design, The pole is about two metres long so that the person applying the earth is never in any danger if, for some extremely unlikely reason, the equipment were alive. Similar de. vices are used to apply earths to substation equipment but a longer pole, typically four metres long, is used because of the higher voltages in those arcas. Design Of the clamping devices must be such that it is not Possible to apply an earth with a two-metre pole, when @ four-metre pole should be used. After application of the clamp onto the conductor, the portable earth access caver should be closed. At the other end of the portable earthing cable, an- other clamp is fitted, suitable for connection co the system main earth bar. For this purpose, secondary earth bar loops from the main earth bar tun are pro. vided adjacent to each portable earth access point, though the main earth bar run must be continuous and independent of such loops. Typical points to which it should be possibie to connect portable drain earths are: * Generator transformer LV bushings. © Unit transformer HY bushings, EARTH END CLAN? Fia, 4.26 Ponable earthing device 322 SsFuture trends System earthing transformer HV bushings. ‘Teansformer side of unit transformer tee-off CTs. Unit transformer tee-off. oth sides of generator switchgear, off. VT cubicle te \T cubicle side of tee-off Tuse, ‘¢ Generator terminals, ‘¢ Sestem capacitor terminals and tanks, portable earthing equipment must obviously be ex- vpined regularly to ensure that it is undamaged and the results of such examinations must be recorded {i must also be examined immediately before use by the person responsible for the application of such earths. Carelul recording of the number of portable earths Spnlied and of their locations is essential to ensure ‘hat all are removed prior to re-energisation of the Sistem, This can be performed either by a mechanical jnverlock method (which can become very involved ‘and time consuming on extensive systems), or by strict administrative controls. ‘The locations of some of the portable earth access covers may be several metres above ground, Access platiorms are provided, the design of which takes into count the difficulty of applying the portable earth lamp. Careful consideration must be given to avoiding induced circulating current in this steelwork. 13 Protection Ih is not intended to explain the protection systems employed to cover the main connections; these are hilly described in Chapter 11. However, the designer the main connections installation must be fully aware of the requirements for protection devices, such ‘current transformers, within the equipment and heir accommodation within the design. He must also bbe aware of the operation time of the protection and his equipment to carry fault current safely for shat period. Present figures are quoted in Section 8.3 oF this chapter, The design of accommodation must take into ac- ‘ouint ease of assembly, access for testing and ease of withdrawal if @ device becomes faulty. During com- ‘missioning and reinstatement of the main connections, primary and secondary injection tests must be per- Yormed 10 check the protection schemes. Also, con- sideration should be given to incorporating primary loop through a CT for primary injection purposes ‘shen that CT is located in an inaccessible position, ‘or example, in @ transformer bushing Marshalling cubicles accommodating interposing cur iransformers and terminals for secondary wiring Nill be required. 14. Interlocking Operational and maintenance interlocking schemes are discussed in detail in Chapter 1 but the designer of the main connections should be aware of the possible requirements for such schemes. The method of inter- locking may be electrical on circuit-breakers and earth switches, but may be of the mechanical key-interlock type on other equipment. If minimal interlocking is used, then very strict administrative controls are re- quired to ensure that the operator cannot gain access to live equipment and that a safe sequence of events has to be performed before access can be achieved. 15 Future trends 660 MW generators are now the standard size used by the CEGB, though the industry is considering an increase from that figure for both fossil-fired and nu- clear (PWR) stations. There are two possible future steps in the short term: the choice will probably depend on the type of steam raising plant. If the PWR con cept is pursued, it may be decided to drive only one generator from each reactor, thereby requiring a tur bine-generator rated at about 1300 MW. Future coal-fired plant may incorporate turbine. generators rated at about 900 MW. Whichever option is selected, a move to some form of forced-cooling of generator main connections will be required, with a probable increase in voltage and higher line current; in this way, large dimensional in- creases can be avoided. A forced-air cooled system is the more likely since this would be a relatively simple extension of current designs. It may become possible, if adequate research work is performed, to increase the operating temperature of main connections. If so, itis likely that silver plating will be required to avoid oxidation. Since the cost of testing main connections designs is so high, some development work would be desirable to reduce testing costs. This could involve cither cal- culation methods or small-scale comparisons. In the former, a design would be completely modelled and the forces due to shori-circuit calculated. Some physical testing would initially be required to validate the cal culation method. As an alternative, it may be possible to model the installation or a representative part of it and to fault-test at higher than normal frequency. This reduces the size of the test piece required and consequently the cost. It also means that the test could be performed in smaller test stations rather than hav- ing to use the very limited facilities available for full scale testing. Clearly IPB systems will continue to be required and the basic technology of this subject will apply for the foreseeable future. Only a rapid improvement in superconductivity techniques would cause @ dramatic rethink of the materials and conditions used in the main connections installations of tomorrow. 323.Generator main connections Sees eee EEE 16 a py by 18) 15) 324 References Carter, F. W. Note on losses in cable sheaths: Proceed- ings of Cambridge Philosophical Society No. 24, pp 68-73: 1 Duvight, H. B.: Theory for proximity effects in wites, thin tubes and sheaths: ALEE Trans 42: 1923, Skeats, W. F. and Swerdiow; N.: Minimising the magnetic field surrounding isolated phace bus by eletrcally-continuous en: closures: AIEE Trans. No 62: 1962 Wilson, W. R, and Mankof!, L. Li: Short eltewit forces in Isolated phase buses: AIEE Trans: 1954 Daight, H. Bu: Electrical coils and conductors: MeGraw Hi sss Chapter 4 [6] Niemotler, A. B.: Isolated phase bus enclosure curcents: Trans, IEEE: August 1968 7] IEEE: Guide ror calculating loses in isolated phase bus: IEEE Paper 298: June 1969 8) Dwight, H. B., Andrews, G. W. and Tileston Jnr, W.: Ter perature ise of busbars: General Electric Review: May 194 9] Albright, R. H., Conasla, A., Bates, A.C. and Owens, J. 8 Iolated phase ‘metal-enclosed conductors for large eect generators, Ashdowa, K.T- and Swerdlow, N.: Cantilever-loaded insula. tors for isolated phase bus: AIEE Paper: Apel 1953 Swerdlow, N, and Buchta, M. A.: Practical solutions of in ductive heating problems resulting from high current buses Trans, AIEE 1960 19) ua