ALGEBRA

17 ALGEBRA
Importance : Algebra based 2-3 questions are (iv) If a polynomial p(x) is divided by b – ax, the remainder
essentially asked in almost all competitive exams obviously
this chapter should be given sufficient time and practice
b b FG IJ
done.
is the value of p(x) at x =
a
i.e. p
a H K
Scope of questions : Questions based on different
algebraic expressions, equations (e.g. quadratic or higher
b
[ Q b – ax = 0 Þ x = ]
order, square root, cube root and inverse) or based on a
graphic representation of equations and the value of a Factor Theorem
variable is asked or an equation is required to be validated.
Let p(x) be a polynomial of degree greater than or equal
Way to success : Solution of questions of this to 1 and a be a real number such that p(a) = 0,
chapter can be ensured by memorising the concerved
then (x – a) is a factor of p(x).
formulae/rules and by regular practice. Conversely, if (x – a) is a factor of p(x),
Polynomials : An algebraic expression in which the then p(a) = 0

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variables involved have only non-negative integral powers Þ p(x), when divided by (x – a) gives remainder zero.
is called a polynomial. But by Remainder theorem,
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General Form : p(x) = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + ... + anxn is a p(x) when divided by (x – a) gives the remainder equal
polynomial in variable x, where a0, a1, a2, a3 ... an are to p(a).
4

real numbers and n is non-negative integer. \ p(a) = 0

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Remainder Theorem : Let f(x) be a polynomial of degree Remarks

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n > 1, and let a be any real number. When f (x) is

divided by (x – a), then the remainder is f (a). (i) (x + a) is a factor of a polynomial iff (if and only if)
A

Proof : Suppose that when f(x) is divided by (x – a), the p (–a) = 0

FG b IJ
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quotient is g(x) and the remainder is r (x).

Then,degree r(x) < degree (x – a)
Þ degree r(x ) < 1
(ii) (ax – b) is a factor of a polynomial if p
HaK =0

Þ degree r(x ) = 0 [ Q degree of (x – a) = 1]

(iii) (ax + b) is a factor of a polynomial p(x) if p -
FG b IJ
Þ r(x ) is constant, equal to r (say). H aK =0
Thus, when f (x ) is divided by (x – a), then the quotient
(iv) (x – a) (x – b) are factors of a polynomial p(x) if p(a)
is g(x ) and the remainder is r.
= 0 and p(b) = 0
\ f (x ) = (x – a) . g (x ) + r ... (i)
Putting x = a in (i), we get r = f(a).
ALGEBRAIC IDENTITIES
Thus, when f(x) is divided by (x – a), then the remainder
is f (a). An algebraic identity is an algebraic equation which is
Remarks true for all values of the variable (s).
(i) If a polynomial p(x ) is divided by (x + a), the remainder
is the value of p(x ) at x = –a i.e. p (–a) IMPORTANT FORMULAE
[ Q x + a = 0 Þ x = –a]
1. (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2
(ii) If a polynomial p(x) is divided by (ax – b), the remainder
2. (a – b)2 = a2 – 2ab + b2
b FG b IJ . 3. (a + b)2 = (a – b)2 + 4ab
is the value of p(x) at x =
a
i.e. p
HaK 4. (a – b)2 = (a + b)2 – 4ab
b 5. a2 – b2 = (a + b) (a – b)
[ Q ax – b = 0 Þ x = ] 6. a3 + b3 = (a + b) (a2 – ab + b2)
a
(iii) If a polynomial p (x ) is divided by (ax + b), then 7. a3 – b3 = (a – b) (a2 + ab + b2)

b
i.e. p -
b FG IJ 8. (a + b)3 = a3 + b3 + 3ab (a + b)
remainder is the value of p(x) at x = -
a a H K 9. (a – b)3 = a3 – b3 – 3ab (a – b)
10. a3 + b3 = (a + b)3 – 3ab (a + b)
b 11. a3 – b3 = (a – b)3 + 3ab (a – b)
[ Q ax + b = 0 Þ x = – ]
a

SME–766
 ALGEBRA

12. a3 + b3 + c3 – 3abc
= (a + b + c) (a2 + b2 + c2 – ab – bc – ac) Y
1 5
= (a + b + c) (2a2 + 2b2 + 2c2 – 2ab – 2bc – 2ac) 4
2
3
1 II 2 I
= (a + b + c) [(a – b)2 + (b – c)2 + (c – a)2]
2 1
13. If a + b + c = 0, then a3 + b3 + c3 = 3abc X' X
14. (a + b + c)3 = a3 + b3 + c3 + 3 (b + c) (c + a) (a + b) –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1
–1
2 3 4 5

15. a2 + b2 = (a + b)2 – 2ab

–2
16. a2 + b2 = (a – b)2 + 2ab III IV
–3
17. (a + b + c)2 = a2 + b2 + c2 + 2ab + 2ac + 2bc
18. a4 + b4 + a2b2 = (a2 – ab + b2) (a2 + ab + b2) –4
–5
GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION OF Y'

STRAIGHT LINES
We can fix a convenient unit of length and taking the

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Ordered Pair : A pair of numbers a and b listed in a origin as zero, mark equal distances on the x-axis as
specific order with a at the first place and b at the well as on the y-axis.
A
second place is called an ordered pair (a, b). Convention of Signs : The distances measured along
4
Note that (a, b) ¹ (b, a). OX and OY are taken as positive and those along OX’
Thus, (2, 3) is one ordered pair and (3, 2) is another and OY’ are taken as negative, as shown in the figure
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ordered pair. given above.

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CO-ORDINATE SYSTEM CO-ORDINATES OF A POINT IN A PLANE

Co-ordinate Axes : The position of a point in a plane is Let P be a point in a plane.
A

determined with reference to two fixed mutually Let the distance of P from the y-axis = a units.
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perpendicular lines, called the coordinate axes. And, the distance of P from the x-axis = b units.
Let us draw two lines X’OX and YOY’, which are Then, we say that the co-ordinates of P are (a, b).
perpendicular to each other and intersect at the point O. a is called the x-co-ordinate, or abscissa of P.
These lines are called the coordinate axes or the axes b is called the y co-ordinate, or ordinate of P.
of reference.
The horizontal line X’OX is called the x-axis.
The vertical line YOY’ is called the y-axis.
Y
The point O is called the origin.
The distance of a point from y-axis is called its x-co-
ordinate or abscissa and the distance of the point from
x-axis is called its y-co ordinate or ordinate.
P (a, b)
If x and y, denote respectively the abscissa and ordinate
of a point P, then (x, y) are called the coordinates of the
point P. b
The y–co-ordinate of every point on x-axis is zero. i.e.
when a straight line intersects at x-axis, its y-co-ordinate M
is zero. So, the co-ordinates of any point on the x-axis X' O a X
are of the form (x, 0).
The x-co-ordinate of every point on y-axis is zero. So,
the co-ordinates of any point on y-axis are of the form Y'
(0, y).
The co-ordinates of the origin are (0, 0).
y = a where a is constant denotes a straight line parallel Quadrants : Let X’ OX and YOY’ be the co-ordinate
to x-axis. axes.
x = a where a is constant, denotes a straight line parallel These axes divide the plane of the paper into four
to y-axis. regions, called quadrants. The regions XOY, YOX’,X’OY’
x = 0 denotes y-axis. and Y’OX are respectively known as the first, second,
y = 0 denotes x-axis. third and fourth quadrants.

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 ALGEBRA
Using the convention of signs, we have the signs of the Rule 2. (a + b)2 + (a – b)2 = 2(a2 + b2)
coordinates in various quadrants as given below. Rule 3. (a + b)2 – (a – b)2 = 4ab
Region Quadrant Nature of Signs of or, (a + b)2 =(a – b)2 + 4ab
x and y co-ordinates or, (a – b) 2 =(a + b)2 – 4ab
XOY I x > 0, y > 0 (+, +) Rule 4. (a2 – b2) = (a + b) (a – b)
YOX' II x < 0, y > 0 (–, +)
2
Rule 5. a +
1
= a+
FG 1 IJ 2
- 2 or,
FG a - 1 IJ 2
+2
X'OY'
Y'OX
III
IV
x < 0, y < 0
x > 0, y < 0
(–, –)
(+, –)
a2 a H K H aK
Rule 6. a4 – b4 =(a2 + b2) (a + b) (a – b)
Y Rule 7. (a + b + c)2 =a2+ b2+ c2+ 2(ab+ bc + ca)
or, a2 + b2 + c2 =(a + b + c)2–2(ab+ bc + ca)
I Rule 8. (a + b)3 =a3 + b3 + 3ab(a + b)
II
(–, +) (+, +) or, a3 + b3 = (a + b)3 – 3ab(a + b)
Rule 9. (a – b)3 = a3 – b3 – 3ab(a – b)
or, a3 – b3 = (a – b)3 – 3ab(a – b).
Rule 10. a3 + b3 =(a + b) (a2 – ab + b2)
X' X Rule 11. a3 – b3 =(a – b) (a2 + ab + b2)

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III IV 3
Rule 12. a +
1
= a+
FG 1 IJ 3
FG 1 IJ
-3 a +
(–, –) (+, –)
a3 a H K H aK
A
F 1I F 1I
4
1 3
= Ga - J + 3Ga - J
3
Rule 13. a -
H aK H aK
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Y'
a3
TH

1 1
Note : Any point lying on x-axis or y-axis does not lie in Rule 14. If a + = 2 then a n + n = 2.
A

any quadrant. a a
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Consistency and Inconsistency 1 1

Rule 15. If a + = 2 then, a n - =0
A system of a pair of linear equations in two variables a an
is said to be consistent if it has at least one solution.
(By putting a = 1)
A system of a pair of linear equations in two variables
is said to be inconsistent if it has no solution. 1 1
Rule 16. If a + = 2 then a m + =2
The system of a pair of linear equations a1x + b1y + c1 a an
= 0 and a2x + b2y + c2 = 0 has : (By putting a = 1), and m ¹ n.
a1 b 1 1
(i) a unique solution (i.e. consistent) if ¹ 1 . The graph Rule 17. If a + = 2 then a m - =0
a 2 b2 a an
of the linear equations intersect at only one point. (By putting a = 1)
1 1
a1 b1 c1 Rule 18. If a + = -2, then a n + = 2 If n is even
(ii) no solution (i.e. inconsistent) if b = b ¹ c a an
2 2 2

The graph of the two linear equations are parallel to n 1

and a + = –2, if n is odd.
each other i.e. the lines do not intersect. an
(By putting a = –1)
a1 b1 c1
(iii) an infinite number of solution if a = b = c 1
2 2 2 Rule 19. If a+ = -2 then the val ue of
a
The graph of the linear equations are coincident.
Homogeneous equation of the form ax + by = 0 is a line
am ±
1
b g
= -1
m
±
1
passing through the origin. Therefore, this system is
always consistent.
an b-1g n

Rule 1. (a + b)2 =a2 + 2ab + b2 Rule 20. a3 + b3 + c3 – 3abc = (a + b + c) (a2 + b2 + c2 –

Þ a2 + b2 =(a + b)2 – 2ab
(a – b) 2 = a2 – 2ab + b2 ab – bc – ca) or,
1
2
b g
a + b + c [(a – b)2 + (b – c)2 + (c – a)2]
Þ a2 + b2 =(a – b)2 + 2ab Rule 21. If a + b + c = 0, then a3 + b3 + c3 = 3abc.

SME–768
 ALGEBRA
Rule 22. If a + b + c = 3abc, then a + b + c = 0 or a
3 3 3
1 1
= b = c. Rule 31. If a - = x, then a 3 - 3 = x 3 + 3 x.
Proof Q a3 + b3 + c3 = 3abc a a
Þ a3 + b3 + c3 – 3abc = 0 Rule 32. Binomial theorem :
(a + b)n = nC0anb0 + nC1an – 1b1 + nC2an – 2b2 + ... +
1
Now, a3 + b3 + c3 – 3abc = (a + b + c) [(a – b)2 +
n
Cn – 1a1bn – 1 + nCna0bn, where, n is a positive number and
2
n n!
(b – c)2 + (c – a)2] Cr =
1
b
r! n -r ! g
Þ 0= (a + b + c) [(a – b)2 + (b – c)2 + (c – a)2] Permutation and Combination
2
Permutation : It is used where we have to arrange
\ Either a + b + c = 0 or, (a – b)2 + (b – c)2 + (c – a)2 things. Out of total n things, r things (taken at a time)
= 0, i.e., a – b = 0 can be arranged as npr or P (n,r)
Þ a = b, b – c = 0
Þ b = c, c – a = 0 P (n,r) = n
Pr =
n!
where n > r
Þ c=a (n -r )!

\ a=b=c Combination : It is used where we have to select

Rule 23. If a2 + b2 + c2 = ab + bc + ca, then a = b = c. things. It is written as nCr or C(n,r)
Rule 24. Componendo and Dividendo Rule, If
n!
a+b c+d C (n,r) = n>r

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a c (n – r )! r !
= then =
b d a -b c-d A Some important results.
a+b c a c+d n Po =1; n Pn = n !
= , then =
4
Rule 25. If .
a-b d b c-d n
Co = nCn=1 ; nCr = nCn–r = nC1 = nCn–1 = n.
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7! 7! 7.6.5.4 !
TH

=
Rule 26. If x + x + x +... ¥ where x = n(n + 1) Ex. 7
P3
b7 - 3g ! = 4 ! = 4!
= 210
A

then x + x + x +... ¥ = n + 1 b g 5! 5.4.3 !

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5C2 =
b5 - 2g ! 2 ! = 3 !´ 2 ´ 1 = 10
Rule 27. If x - x - x -... ¥ where x = n(n + 1) then, n! (is called as n factorial)
5! = 5.4!
= 5.4.3!
x- x- x -... ¥ = n.
= 5.4.3.2!
Rule 28. (a + b + c) 3 = a 3 + b 3 + c 3 – 3(a + b) = 5.4.3.2.1!
(b + c) (c + a)
Rule 29. a4 + a2b2 + b4 = (a2 + ab + b2) (a2 – ab + b2) 5 ! = 120
1 1
Rule 30. If a + = x, then a 3 + = x3 - 3 x. Also 0 ! = 1
a a3

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
Importance : Coordinate geometry is separate and Important Points :
important filled in mathematics but very rarely asked in x–coordinate is called the abscissa of P, where
competitive exams. However in two-dimensional (2–D) (x, y) are co-ordinates of any point P.
y–co-ordinate is called the ordinate of P, where
geometry introductory/easy questions should be practised
(x, y) are co–ordinates of any point P.
for improving marks.
Quadrants :
Scope of questions : Mostly questions are related to
distance between two points, linear/non-linear these coplaner y
points, cutting a line a specific ratio by a given point. IInd quadrant Ist quadrant
(–x, y) (x, y)
Way to success : The concept of coordinate geometry
x¢ x
and practice of above mentioned questions is very
important to solve questions.
IIIrd quadrant (–x, –y) IVth quadrant (x, –y)
y¢

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