Electric Power Quality

(EPQ)
Industrial Electronics
Master’s in Industrial Engineering
6th and 20th February 2020
EPQ: Introduction - definitions
• Electricity is one the most important technologies that
science has given to mankind, and it is basic need
nowadays.
IEEE Std 1100
“Power quality is the
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First edition
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Partie 1:

Powering and Généralités

Section 1: Application et interprétation
de définitions et termes fondamentaux
Grounding
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)
Electronic
Equipment IEC 61000-1-1 Part 1:
General
Section 1: Application and interpretation

“Electromagnetic compatibility is the

of fundamental definitions and terms

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EPQ: more definitions
Matt H. Bollen, Understanding Power Quality Problems, 1999, 1st edition, Chapter 1
Voltage quality is concerned with deviations of the voltage
from the ideal. The ideal voltage is a single-frequency sine
wave of constant frequency and constant magnitude. It
neglects the current distortions. It can be interpreted as the
quality of the product delivered by the utility to the
customers.
Current quality is concerned with deviations of the current
from the ideal. The ideal current is again a single-frequency
sine wave of constant frequency and magnitude. An
additional requirement is that this sine wave is in phase with
the supply voltage. Thus where voltage quality has to do with
what the utility delivers to the consumer, current quality is
concerned with what the consumer takes from the utility.
Voltage and current are strongly related and if either voltage
or current deviates from the ideal it is hard for the other to be
ideal.
EPQ: more definitions - I
Matt H. Bollen, Understanding Power Quality Problems, 1999, 1st edition, Chapter 1
Power quality is the combination of voltage quality and
current quality. Thus power quality is concerned with
deviations of voltage and/or current from the ideal.
Quality of supply includes a technical part (voltage
quality above) plus a nontechnical part sometimes
referred to as "quality of service." The latter covers the
interaction between the customer and the utility, e.g., the
speed with which the utility reacts to complaints, or the
transparency of the tariff structure. This could be a useful
definition as long as one does not want to include the
customer's responsibilities. The word "supply" clearly
excludes active involvement of the customer.
EPQ: more definitions - II
Matt H. Bollen, Understanding Power Quality Problems, 1999, 1st edition, Chapter 1
Quality of consumption would be the complementary
term of quality of supply. This would contain the current
quality plus, e.g., how accurate the customer is in paying
the electricity bill.
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) has to do with
mutual interaction between equipment and with
interaction between equipment and supply. Within
electromagnetic compatibility, two important terms are
used: the ''emission" is the electromagnetic pollution
produced by a device; the "immunity" is the device's
ability to withstand electromagnetic pollution. Emission is
related to the term current quality, immunity to the term
voltage quality.
 the low equipment anddifficult
but it is often to solve EMC
to obtain related
correct input problems,
values. a well continuous variation and discrete events. Two distinct
rge scale The second method is an indirect method which
w voltage
designed earthing system has to be implemented.
considers historical data for analysis and the customer’s
methods of measuring the economic impact of poor PQ
have been identified. The first method is the direct

Why EPQ is important? – Economic value

and the willingness to pay in solving PQ problem [13]. Total
ant issue. At annual
present, cost voltage unbalance
of poor PQ is notEuros
is 151.7 billion a bigin problem
25 in the method which is an analytical approach to consider the
ailure of countries of the European Union EU-25, according to
ating and
electricity network. In the high and medium voltage
the analysis of the Leonardo Power Quality Initiative in
probabilities and impacts of the events. This method
networks,
2003-2004loads [14]. are
The three phaseofand
percentages totalwell balanced. With
financial leads to a precise answer about the cost of a PQ event
thelosses on various
vertical PQ aspects
structure of inelectricity
EU-25 are shown network,in the low but it is often difficult to obtain correct input values.
Figure 5. The cost (in billion euros) of different PQ
gnificant
voltage
problems system is alsoandbalanced.
in the industries service sectorsHowever,
of EU-25, large scale
The second method is an indirect method which
facilities. implementation
as estimated from thatof DGs
survey,at arethe
shownmedium
in Table 2. and low voltage considers historical data for analysis and the customer’s
h amount
fficult to • Inadequate power quality costs: loss of production,
grids will change the network structure and the
unbalance
Table 2: Cost of poor PQ in EU-25 [14]
problemIndustries
might become Services an important issue.
willingness to pay in solving PQ problem [13]. Total
annual cost of poor PQ is 151.7 billion Euros in 25
loss of materials, additional power losses
event or a PQ phenomena Total
nterviews Voltage unbalance(in can bln €) cause
(in bln €)premature
(in bln €) failure of countries of the European Union EU-25, according to
Dips and short
estimate network components and motors due to86.5
interruptions
85.0 1.5
overheating and the analysis of the Leonardo Power Quality Initiative in
ree main

• Savings: unused materials, energy bill.

sment of can Long
cause electronic equipment
interruptions 4.6 to malfunction.
1.8 6.4 2003-2004 [14]. The percentages of total financial
Harmonics 0.2 1.1 1.3 losses on various PQ aspects in EU-25 are shown in
involved,
Surges and 51.2 2.1 53.4
lation of 3.2 transients
Financial Consequences Figure 5. The cost (in billion euros) of different PQ
quipment Flicker,power
earthing,
may affect Electric quality4.1disturbances
0.1 can 4.2
have significant problems in the industries and service sectors of EU-25,
unbalance, EMC
s may be financial consequences for different types of facilities. as estimated from that survey, are shown in Table 2.
mers too. Poor quality of the power supply can cause high amount
originated
the other of direct and indirect costs. It is often very difficult to Table 2: Cost of poor PQ in EU-25 [14]
financial specify the exact amount of losses when a PQ event or a PQ phenomena Industries Services Total
ny factors voltage disturbance occurs. Field surveys, interviews (in bln €) (in bln €) (in bln €)
e of the
with the customers and case studies are done to estimate Dips and short 85.0 1.5 86.5
Moreover,
t severity the cost of poor PQ of the electric supply. Three main interruptions
Various factors are often considered for accurate assessment of Long interruptions 4.6 1.8 6.4
follows: Harmonics 0.2 1.1 1.3
PQ cost: disturbance profile at the busbars involved,
loss of customer load susceptibility and the calculation of
Surges and 51.2 2.1 53.4
ment, loss transients
roductive
losses induced by damage or malfunction of equipment Flicker, earthing, 4.1 0.1 4.2
or process interruption. A disturbance event may affect unbalance, EMC
one piece of equipment but the consequences may be
, cost of
out-of-
wider affecting other equipments or other customers too.
ated with It may happen that a PQ disturbance that is originated
Figure 5 Percentageplant
cost ofaffects
PQ aspects
theinoperation
EU-25 [14] of the other
fromPercentage cost of EPQ
an industrial aspects in EU-25 Cost of poor EPQ in EU-25
industry located in the neighbourhood. Actual financial
S. losses
Bhattacharyya,
are customeret al, “Consequences
specific and depend on many of poor power quality – an overview”, IEEE UPEC 2007 pp. 651-656
factors
including customer category, type and nature of the
UPEC 2007 - 655
activities interrupted and the customer size. Moreover,
Why EPQ is important? – Reliability
• Equipment malfunction
• Power system stability
• Equipment ageing
• 10% increase on voltage stress caused by poor current quality (harmonic
currents) could result in 7% increase of the operating temperature of
capacitor banks and reduce its lifetime expectancy by 30%
• Supply continuity: critical in some areas (medical, data centres,
scientific…)
Average anual power supply interruption
in minutes for European countries in 2016
(including exceptional events)

CEER Benchmarking report 6.1, 2018

Council of European Energy Regulators

https://www.ceer.eu
Why EPQ is important? - Responsibilities

• Causes of power quality issues: utility (producers) vs

consumers have often different perspectives
• Voltage quality: utility responsibility
• Current quality: consumer responsibility
• Monitoring:
• Allocation of disturbances
• Measurements
• Mitigation methods
• Common terminology
• Avoid confusion, facilitate communication, allow statistical
analysis
Standardization
Commercial quality & Spanish regulation framework - I
• Non-technical issue: concerns the quality of rela1onships
between a supplier and a user. It covers many aspects, but
only some of them can be measured and regulated through
standards or other instruments.
• Código de la Energía Eléctrica
“El Código de la Energía Eléctrica recopila, ordena y compila las principales
normas estatales vigentes rela1vas al sistema eléctrico, para poner a
disposición de los sujetos del sistema, de las empresas, de los profesionales,
de los operadores jurídicos, y de los ciudadanos interesados en general, un
instrumento ú1l para conocer, mediante una fuente consolidada y
permanentemente actualizada, la legislación estatal de aplicación general a la
energía eléctrica, que cons1tuye un bien y un servicio esencial e
imprescindible para la par1cipación plena de los ciudadanos en la sociedad
actual, una de cuyas caracterís1cas principales es su inexorable proceso de
electrificación (Nota del autor)”
Commercial quality & Spanish regulation framework - II
• Ley 24/2013, de 26 de diciembre del Sector Eléctrico
Ar#culo 51 – Calidad del suministro eléctrico
“1. La calidad del suministro eléctrico es el conjunto de caracterís;cas, técnicas y de
atención y relación con los consumidores y, en su caso, productores, exigibles al suministro
de electricidad de las empresas que realicen ac;vidades des;nadas al suministro eléctrico.
En lo rela;vo a las caracterís;cas técnicas, la calidad del suministro eléctrico se refiere
a la con>nuidad, al número y duración de las interrupciones, así como a la calidad del
producto”….
….” Mediante real decreto del Consejo de Ministros se establecerán indicadores
individuales y colec;vos, y valores obje;vo para estos indicadores”.
• Real Decreto 1955/2000, de 1 de diciembre, por el que se regulan las
ac>vidades de transporte, distribución, comercialización, suministro y
procedimientos de autorización de instalaciones de energía eléctrica
Ar#culo 102 – Calidad del producto
“1. La calidad del producto hace referencia al conjunto de caracterís;cas de la onda de tensión, la
cual puede verse afectada, principalmente, por las variaciones del valor eficaz de la tensión y de la
frecuencia y por las interrupciones de servicio y huecos de tensión de duración inferior a tres minutos.
2. Para la determinación de los aspectos de la calidad del producto se seguirán los criterios
establecidos en la norma UNE-EN 50.160 o norma que la sus;tuya y las instrucciones técnicas
complementarias que se dicten por el Ministerio de Economía, previo informe de la Comisión Nacional
de Energía, en desarrollo del presente Real Decreto.”
EPQ and power electronics
M. Rashid, Power Electronics Handbook, 2007, Third Edition
Power electronics and power quality are irrevocably linked together as we strive to advance
both broad areas. With the dramatic increases over the last 20 years in energy conversion
systems utilizing power electronic devices, we have seen the emergence of “power quality”
as a major field of power engineering. The power electronic technology has played a major
role in creating “power quality,” and simple control algorithm modifications to this same
technology can often play an equally dominant role in enhancing overall quality of electrical
energy available to end-users.
Power electronics has given us, as a industrial society, a plethora of new ways to
manufacture products, provide services, and utilize energy. From a power quality impact
viewpoint, applications such as
1. Switched-mode power supplies, 2. DC arc furnaces, 3. Electronic fluorescent lamp ballasts, 4.
Adjustable speed drives, and 5. Flexible ac transmission components.
are often cause for concern. From the viewpoint of a utility supply system, these converter-
based systems can lead to operational and life expectancy problems for other equipment,
possibly not owned or operated by the same party. It was from this initial perspective that
the field of power quality emerged.
In most cases, the same devices and systems that create power quality problems can also be
used to solve power quality problems. “Problem solving” applications such as
1. Active harmonic filters, 2. Static and adaptive VAr compensators, and 3. Uninterruptable power
supplies.
all utilize the same switching device technology as the “problem causing” applications. As
the number of potentially problematic power electronic-based loads has increased over
time, so attention has given to enhanced converter control to maximize power quality.
Perfect examples of these improvements include
1. Unity power factor converters, 2. Dip-proof inverters, and 3. Limited-distortion electronic lamp
ballasts.
Electrical systems

Traditional
(centralised)

Present/Future
(distributed)
Electrical power defini0ons
• Instantaneous power: p(t) = v(t)i(t)
! t2
• Energy: W =
t1
p(t)dt

Periodic waveforms
!
• Average power:
t0 +T
1 W (t2 , t1 )
P = v(t)i(t)dt P =
T t0 T
Average power is usually called (especially in ac circuits) real power or active
power
• Apparent power: S = Vrms Irms

• Power factor (pf):

P
pf =
S
 Sinusoidal waveform parameters
• EQP refers to the ability to maintain sinusoidal distribution
waveforms (voltage & current) at rated magnitude and
frequency

Sinusoidal AC waveform main parameters x(t) = Xp sin(ωt)

Instantaneous value X(t) f = 1/T

Xp
ω = 2πf
Amplitude (Xp)
x(t1)
Peak to peak value (Xpp) t
Xpp t1
Average value (XDC)
T
Root mean square (RMS) value
(XRMS)
!
Period (T)
!
t0 +T t0 +T
1 1
"
XDC = x(t)dt XRM S = x2 (t)dt
T t0 T
Frequency (f) ! t0
1 !
N
"
"1 $ N
XDC = xi XRM S =# x2i
N i=1 N i=1
Point of Common Coupling (PCC)
• Point of a power supply network, electrically nearest to
a particular load, at which other loads are, or may be,
connected (IEC definition)
• Note 1 – These loads can be either devices, equipment or
systems, or distinct customer's installations.
• Point at which load interacts with other loads and the
network itself
• Residential applications: PCC is at the distribution
transformer secondary
• Large industrial and commercial services: PCC is usually
the transformer primary (as a distribution transformer
supplies a single costumer)
Voltage regulation & short circuit ratio
• The regulation of voltage is closely related to the
“strength” of the distribution bus, i. e. the ability of the
bus to supply current without changing voltage
amplitude ! "
• Vrated – rated RMS voltage VR [%] = 100 1 −
Vrated − V
• V – Measured RMS voltage Vrated

• SCR are between 20 and 100 for residenEal and more than
1000 for industrial circuits
• SCR is oFen limited by the distribuEon transformer when
PCC is at the transformer secondary
• Inom – circuit nominal (maximum) current measured and averaged
in 15min intervals over one calendar year
• Isc – short-circuit current of the bus due to a bolted short-circuit to
ground Isc
SCR =
Inom
EPQ sec(ons
• Fundamental concepts
• Identification of basic parameters and their degree of variation.
• Sources
• Events that cause the variation of those basic parameters
• Effects
• The consequences that the distribution system and the consumer
face after the disturbances occur.
• Modelling and analysis
• Effort to understand the origins and effects from a mathematical
point of view in order to establish solutions
• Measuring and monitoring
• Corroborate real and theoretical models
• Solutions
• Apply corrective methods to guarantee a better distribution system
Voltage distribution & EMC standards
Standard Description
EN 50160 Voltage characteristics of electricity supplied by public electricity
networks
IEC-61000-2-2 Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 2-2: Environment -
Compatibility levels for low-frequency conducted disturbances and
signalling in public low-voltage power supply systems
IEC-61000-2-4 Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 2-4: Environment -
Compatibility levels in industrial plants for low-frequency conducted
disturbances
IEC-61000-3-2 Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 3-2: Limits - Limits for
harmonic current emissions (equipment input current ≤16 A per phase)
IEC-61000-3-4 Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 3-4: Limits - Limitation of
emission of harmonic currents in low-voltage power supply systems for
equipment with rated current greater than 16 A
IEC-61000-3-12 Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 3-12: Limits - Limits for
harmonic currents produced by equipment connected to public low-
voltage systems with input current > 16 A and ≤ 75 A per phase
IEEE-519-2014 IEEE Recommended Practice and Requirements for Harmonic Control in
Electric Power Systems
IEEE power quality standards
Standard Description
IEEE 1159 Monitoring Electric Power Quality
IEEE 1159.1 Guide for recorder and data acquisition requirements
IEEE 1159.2 Power quality event characterization
IEEE P1564 Voltage sag indices
IEEE 1346 Power system compatibility with process equipment
IEEE P1100 Power and grounding electronic equipment (Emerald book)
IEEE 519 IEEE Recommended Practice and Requirements for Harmonic Control in
Electric Power Systems
IEEE P1453 Voltage flicker
IEEE P519A Guide for applying harmonic limits on power systems
EPQ disturbances classification - transient
• Interruption: voltage magnitude is zero (different considerations depending on the
interruption duration)
• Under (over)-voltage: voltage magnitude is below (above) its nominal value
• Impulse transient: sudden increase of the voltage (and/or current)
• Oscillatory transient: sudden superimposed oscillation of the voltage (and/or current)
• Voltage sag: A reduction in RMS voltage over a range of 0.1 – 0.9 pu for a duration greater
than 10ms but less than 1min.
Overview
• Voltage swell: ofRMS
An increase in PQvoltage
definitions
over a range of 1.1 - 1.8 pu for a duration greater
than 10ms but less than 1min
pu (per-unit system) is the expression of system quantities as fractions of a defined base unit quantity.

Power Quality, Ljubljana, 2013/14 52

CEI 61000-4-30
TÉCNICAS DE ENSAYO Y DE MEDIDA – MÉTODOS DE MEDIDA DE LA CALIDAD ELÉCTRICA

EPQ
4.7 disturbances
Flagging classifica2on – steady state varia2ons
• Harmonics (interharmonics): Non-sinusoidal waveforms
• • Noise:
Cuandounwanted superimposed
sucede un hueco, voltageo una
una sobretensión (or current) onlos
interrupción, thealgoritmos
waveform de medida de otros
parámetros eléctricos pueden fallar.
• • Frequency variations
Por ejemplo, en presencia de una interrupción, no hay posibilidad de medir frecuencia, y el algoritmo
• DC de offset
medida del analizador generará un valor bien fuera de los límites aceptables. Por lo tanto, al
evento del hueco se le añadirá un evento de frecuencia (e, igualmente, otros eventos de flicker,
• Voltage / current
armónicos,
unbalance
desequilibrios, etc.)
(3 phase systems): deviation in magnitude of
voltage/current of any of the three phases
• Para evitar contabilizar como varias perturbaciones lo que en realidad es una sola, en presencia de
• Flicker:
huecos, systematic variations
sobretensiones of the voltage
e interrupciones, waveform
las medidas envelope
de frecuencia, with
tensión, flicker, desequilibrios,
frequencies less than 25Hz
armónicos, intearmónicos y transmisión de señales se acompañarán de una indicación de aviso
(flag = bandera)

Ignacio Usunáriz
 225

Voltage and current varia0ons

220
Figure 1.1 Simulated voltage magnitude as a 0 5 10 15 20
function of time. Time in hours

• Voltage and current variations are relatively

Section 2.5.5). The underlying distribution was a normal distribution with an expected
value of 230 V and a standard deviation of 11.9 V. A set of independent samples from small deviations
of voltage or current characteristics around
this distribution is filtered by a low-pass filter to prevent too large short-time changes.
The probability density function of the voltage magnitude is shown in Fig. 1.2. The their nominal or
ideal values.
probability density function gives the probability that the voltage magnitude is within a
certain range. Of interest is mainly the probability that the voltage magnitude is below
or above a certain value. The probability distribution function (the integral of the

• The two
for this basic examples are voltage magnitude
density function) gives that information directly. The probability distribution function
fictitious variation is shown in Fig. 1.3. Both the probability density function and
frequency. On average, voltage magnitude and voltage
and the probability distribution function will be defined more accurately in Section
2.5.1.

frequency
not complete,are equal tosometheir nominal
is an enormous value,
An overview of voltage and current variations is given below. This list is certainly
it merely aims at giving example. There range in but they are
neverpower
exactly equal.
end-user equipment, many with special requirements and special problems. In the
quality field new types of variations and events appear regularly. The following
list uses neither the terms used by the IEC nor the terms recommended by the IEEE.

wer Quality Phenomena • Statistical analysis is used to describe deviations

Terms commonly used do not always fully describe a phenomenon. Also is there still
7 8 Chapter 1 • Overview of Power Quality

240 0.12 1
r

0.1 0.8
235
0.08
0.6
230 0.06
0.4
0.04
225
0.2
0.02

220 0 L— 0
tude as a 0 5 10 1.2 Probability
Figure 15 20 function of the
density 220 225 230 235 240 220 225 230 235 Figure 1.3
Time in hours
voltage magnitude in Fig. 1.1. Voltage in volts Voltage in volts of the volt

Voltage variations (Monte Carlo Probability density (Normal distribution, Probability distribution (integral of
erlying distribution was a normal distribution with an expected
simulation) 230V mean, 11.9V std dev) probability
some density).
inconsistency betweenProbablity to be about w
different documents
tandard deviation of 11.9 V. A set of independent samples from below
The termscertain value
used in the list below, and in a similar list in Secti
red by a low-pass filter to prevent too large short-time changes. alternative for the IEC or IEEE definitions, but simply an a
y function of the voltage magnitude is shown in Fig. 1.2. The the situation. The reader is advised to continue using officia
Voltage variation (IEC term)
• Increase and decrease of the voltage magnitude, e.g., due to
• variation of the total load of a distribution system or part of it;
• actions of transformer tap-changers;
• switching of capacitor banks or reactors.
• Voltage magnitude variations are mainly due to load variations, which
follow a daily pattern.
• Very fast variation of the voltage magnitude is referred to as voltage
fluctuation
• Voltage variations can be avoided using static voltage stabilizers
(SVR’s), uninterruptible power supplies (UPS’s)

SVR operaFng principle

Unbalance – Symmetrical components
• Unbalance refers to the deviation of phase voltages and
phase currents from their rated values with respect to
magnitude and phase.
• Unbalance degree is usually computed using the
sequence components:
Positive sequence component (a1,b1,c1)
Negative sequence component (a2,b2,c2)
Zero sequence component (a0,b0,c0)
c1
b2
c
a0
a2
+
a a1
= +
b0
c0

c2
b1

b Unbalanced Positive sequence Negative sequence Zero sequence

Unbalance – Symmetrical components (I)
• Zero sequence (homopolar): the sum of three phasors is
three times the value of single phasor.
• Homopolar currents in four-wire systems will flow through
the neutral conductor.
• Negative sequence tend to produce a field in the
opposite direction in generators and motors
• Analysis of symmetrical sequence is widespread tool to
assess distribution faults
c1
b2
c
a0
a2
+
a a1
= +
b0
c0

c2
b1

b Unbalanced PosiCve sequence Negative sequence Zero sequence

Unbalance – abc – 012 transformation
• Symmetrical components computation from a three
phase system.
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
1 1 1 va v0
1 2
v012 = A−1 vabc A−1 = ⎝1 a a 2 ⎠ a = e 3 πi vabc = vb ⎠
⎝ v012 = ⎝v1 ⎠
3
1 a2 a vc v2

• abc phasor three phase system representation from

their symmetrical components
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
1 1 1 va v0
2
vabc = Av012 A = ⎝1 a2 a ⎠ a = e 3 πi vabc = ⎝ vb ⎠ v012 = ⎝v1 ⎠
1 a a2 vc v2

• Symmetrical component representation applies for any

electrical quantity (voltage, current, power, impedance)

Unit 1 - Exercise 1
Sources and effects of unbalance
Typical sources:
• Different single-phase loading in a three-phase system
(domestic loads, industrial lighting).
• Single phase failure or capacitor bank failure in three phase
systems
Typical effects:
• Stability problems: different reactive power compensation
for individual phase
• Increase of current in some phase and decrease on other
(unequal loss and heating)
• Three phase loads (e.g. motors) draw different current from
unbalanced systems (torque oscillations in motors)
• Neutral currents in four wire systems.
Unit 1 - Exercise 2
What are the harmonics (and inter-harmonics and sub-
harmonics)?
• A harmonic is a wave (voltage, current or power in the
electrical context) whose frequency is an integral (whole-
number) multiple of the frequency at which the supply
system is operating (e.g. 50Hz or 60Hz).
• A inter-harmonic is a frequency component of a periodic
quantity that is not an integer multiple of the frequency at
which the supply system is operating (e.g. 50Hz or 60Hz)
• An special case of inter-harmonics are the sub-harmonics,
where the frequency component is below the operating
frequency

f1 = fundamental frequency
If n is any positive integer If m is any positive non-integer
n·f1 is the nth harmonic m·f1 is the mth inter-harmonic
If n=0, n·f1 is DC If m<1, m·f1 is a sub-harmonic
 Fourier analysis (series)
• A Fourier series is a way to represent a function as the
sum of simple sine waves. More formally, it decomposes
any periodic wave into the weighted sum of a (possibly
infinite) set of sines and cosines (or alternatively,
complex exponentials).
1 !∞
f (t) ∼ a0 + [an cos (nt) + bn sin (nt)]
2 n=1

! ! !
1 π 1 π
1 π
a0 := f (t)dt an := f (t) cos(nt)dt bn := f (t) sin(nt)dt
π −π
π −π π −π

h1, h3, h5, and h7 of a square waveform h1+h3+h5+h7

-
.

)
*

) *

.
-
7 +67 67 +67 ( 67 ( +67 ) 67 ) +67 * 67
6 *56 56 *56 56 *56 ( 56 ( *56 ) 56 ) 201 (. 3564 ( (( 201 ) (. 3564 (-) 201 + (. 3564 201 - (. 3564
. . 1 0 - 2453 ( 1 0 * - 2453 1 0 ( - 2453 ( 1 0 - 2453 3564
2453
Fourier analysis (series)
• A Fourier series alternative expressions:
Cosine terms:
!
∞
f (t) = a0 + Cn cos(nω0 t + θn )
n=1 ! "
! −bn
Cn = a2n + b2n θn = tan −1
an

Sine terms: !
∞
f (t) = a0 + Cn sin(nω0 t + θn )
n=1
! "
! an
Cn = a2n + b2n θn = tan−1
bn

Complex exponential (Euler’s equation):

eiφ = cos(φ) + i sin(φ)

eiφ + e−iφ eiφ − e−iφ

cos(φ) = sin(φ) =
2 2i
Power computa-on for non-sinusoidal periodic
waveforms
• If periodic voltage and current waveforms represented
by the Fourier series:
!
∞
!
∞
v(t) = V0 + [Vn cos (nω0 t) + θn ] i(t) = I0 + [In cos (nω0 t) + φn ]
n=1 n=1

exist for a device or circuit, then average power is

computed from:
! ∞ " #
1 T ! Vn In
P = v(t)i(t)dt P = V0 I0 + cos (θn − φn )
T n=1
2
0

Note that the total average power is the sum of the

powers at the frequencies in the Fourier series.
Power computation ideal case: sinusoidal source and
non-linear load
• Periodic voltage and current waveforms !
are represented
by:
∞
v(t) = V sin (ω t + θ )
1 i(t) = I +
0 1 [I sin (nω t) + φ ] 0 n 0 n
n=1

then average power is computed from:

∞ " #
! Vn In P = V1,rms I1,rms cos (θ1 − φ1 )
P = V0 I0 + cos (θn − φn )
n=1
2

Note that the only nonzero power term is at the frequency of the
applied voltage.
The power factor (pf) is then:
I1,rms
pf = cos (θ1 − φ1 )
Irms

Displacement power factor: cos (θ 1 − φ1 )

Distortion factor (DF): DF = II 1,rms

rms !

Total harmonic distortion (THD):

2 2
!
Irms − I1,rms 1
T HD = 2 DF =
I1,rms 1 + T HD2
Harmonics and symmetrical components
• 2th harmonic (and n=5, 8…) are negative sequence
components V = V cos(2ωt) = e
a 2
0i

Vb = V2 cos(2(ωt − 120)) = e−2∗120i = e−240i Torque motor problems

Vc = V2 cos(2(ωt − 240)) = e−2∗240i = e−120i

• 3rd harmonic (and triplens n=6, 9…) are zero sequence

components
Va = V3 cos(3ωt) = e0i
Vb = V3 cos(3(ωt − 120)) = e−3∗120i = e0i
Vc = V3 cos(3(ωt − 240)) = e−3∗240i = e0i Neutral current (wire hea6ng)

• 4th harmonic (and n=7, 10…) are positive sequence

components

Va = V4 cos(4ωt) = e0i
Vb = V4 cos(4(ωt − 120)) = e−4∗120i = e−120i
Wire heating
Vc = V4 cos(4(ωt − 240)) = e−4∗240i = e−240i

Exercises 3 and 4
IEEE 1459-2010
• IEEE standard defini-ons for the measurement of
electric power quan--es under sinusoidal,
nonsinusoidal, balanced or unbalanced condi-ons

• Addi$onal ac$vity - annex B - Prac$cal studies and

measurements: a detailed explana$on of apparent power
components
√ √
v1 = √2 100 sin(ωt − 0) i1 = √2 100 sin(ωt − 30)
v3 = √2 8 sin(3ωt − 70) i3 = √2 20 sin(3ωt − 165)
v5 = √2 15 sin(5ωt + 140) i5 = √2 15 sin(5ωt + 234)
v7 = 2 5 sin(7ωt + 20) i7 = 2 10 sin(7ωt + 234)
Power quality (Energy) analyser
• An instrument for measuring various parameters of an
electrical power distribution system.
• Typical instruments include power and energy
measurements.

Lab session – Electric power quality measurement (Fluke

43)