Natural  Hazards  and  Disasters:

1. Earth Quake: Earthquake shaking of the Earth’s surface caused by rapid movement of

the Earth’s rocky outer layer. Earthquakes occur when energy stored within the Earth,
usually in the form of strain in rocks, suddenly releases. This energy is transmitted to the
surface of the Earth by earthquake waves. The study of earthquakes and the waves they
create is called Seismology (from the Greek seismos, “to shake”). Scientists who study
earthquakes are called seismologists.
Anatomy of an Earthquake

Focus and Epicenter: The point within the Earth along the rupturing geological fault
where an earthquake originates is called the focus, or hypocenter. The point on the
Earth’s surface directly above the focus is called the epicenter.

Seismologists know from observations that most earthquakes originate as shallow-focus

earthquakes and most of them occur near plate boundaries—areas where the Earth’s
crustal plates move against each other. Other earthquakes, including deep-focus
earthquakes, can originate in subduction zones, where one tectonic plate sub ducts, or
moves under another plate.

Faults: Stress in the Earth’s crust creates faults, resulting in earthquakes. The properties
of an earthquake depend strongly on the type of fault slip, or movement along the fault,
that causes the earthquake.

Waves: The sudden movement of rocks along a fault causes vibrations that transmit
energy through the Earth in the form of waves. Waves that travel in the rocks below the
surface of the Earth are called body waves, and there are two types of body waves:
primary, or P, waves, and secondary, or S, waves. The S waves, also known as shearing
waves, move the ground back and forth.

Earthquakes also contain surface waves that travel out from the epicenter along the
surface of the Earth. Two types of these surface waves occur: Rayleigh waves, named
after British physicist Lord Rayleigh, and Love waves, named after British geophysicist
A. E. H. Love. Surface waves also cause damage to structures, as they shake the ground
underneath the foundations of buildings and other structures.

Earthquake Causes (CSS 2008):

Most earthquakes are caused by the sudden slip along geologic faults. The faults slip
because of movement of the Earth’s tectonic plates. This concept is called the elastic
rebound theory. The rocky tectonic plates move very slowly, floating on top of a weaker
rocky layer. As the plates collide with each other or slide past each other, pressure builds
up within the rocky crust. Earthquakes occur when pressure within the crust increases
slowly over hundreds of years and finally exceeds the strength of the rocks. Earthquakes
also occur when human activities, such as the filling of reservoirs, increase stress in the
Earth’s crust.
Theories of Earthquakes

Plate Tectonics Theory

Plate tectonics is the theory that Earth’s outer shell is divided into several plates that glide
over the mantle, the rocky inner layer above the core. The plates act like a hard and rigid
shell compared to Earth’s mantle. This strong outer layer is called the lithosphere.

Developed from the 1950s through the 1970s, plate tectonics is the modern version of
continental drift, a theory first proposed by scientist Alfred Wegener in 1912.

The theory states that Earth’s outermost layer, the lithosphere, is broken into 7 large,
rigid pieces called plates: the African, North American, South American, Eurasian,
Australian, Antarctic, and Pacific plates. Several minor plates also exist, including the
Arabian, Nazca, and Philippines plates.

The plates are all moving in different directions and at different speeds (from 2 cm to 10
cm per year–about the speed at which your fingernails grow) in relationship to each
other. The plates are moving around like cars in a demolition derby, which means they
sometimes crash together, pull apart, or sideswipe each other.

The place where the two plates meet is called a plate boundary. Boundaries have different
names depending on how the two plates are moving in relationship to each other

 crashing: Convergent Boundaries,

 pulling apart: Divergent Boundaries,
 or sideswiping: Transform Boundaries

Volcanic Earthquake

Molten rock, called magma, is stored in reservoirs under volcanoes. As this magma
moves upwards, it can fracture the rock it squeezes through, causing earthquakes, usually
with magnitudes not much greater than 5.0. Sometimes the magma collects in a high level
reservoir prior to a volcanic eruption and as it moves around it causes bursts of
continuous vibration, called volcanic tremor. Because of these precursors, seismographs
(earthquake recorders) are very useful for monitoring volcanoes to give warning of an
impending eruption.

Foreshocks and Aftershocks

Foreshocks are smaller earthquakes that may occur in the same area as a larger
earthquake that follows. They are caused by minor fracturing of rocks under stress prior
to the main break that happens during the largest earthquake of the series, called the main
shock. Foreshocks can start up to a year before the main shock
Aftershocks are smaller earthquakes that may occur after the main shock, in the same
area. They are caused by the main shock area readjusting to the fault movement, and
some may be the result of continuing movement along the same fault. The largest
aftershocks are usually at least half a magnitude unit smaller than the mainshock and the
aftershock sequence may continue for months or years after the main shock.

Earthquakes caused by the Isostatic Adjustment

As the crust re-adjusts to the lighter load (isostatic rebound to achieve equilibrium) it
transfers stress to other parts of the crust. If there is a fault near enough to the new
stresses, that can add enough stress to cause the fault(s) to move and that can produce an
earthquake. This is not the major cause of earthquakes but New Madrid in the US may
have some of that effect but don’t quote me on that because there are other things going
on to cause fault movement there. Very few things happen in isolation. Since this process
happens over a great length of time, such earthquakes are more minor than

Fracking Causes Earthquakes

Two separate studies are providing insights into the earth-shaking consequences of the
controversial gas extraction process known as fracking. Both studies confirm that
processes linked to the extraction of oil and gas through hydraulic fracturing, or fracking,
can trigger manmade earthquakes Fracking involves blasting water, sand and chemicals
deep into the ground to fracture rock to obtain oil and natural gas. Energy companies are
increasingly using the technique across Canada, where there is already regular seismic
activity and an ever looming threat of various sized tremors. The U.S. Geological Survey
is set to release its findings April 2012 that a “remarkable” increase of quakes in the U.S.
midcontinent since 2001 is “almost certainly” the result of oil and gas production.

Most earthquakes are causally related to compressional or tensional stresses built up at

the margins of the huge moving lithospheric plates that make up the earth’s surface The
immediate cause of most shallow earthquakes is the sudden release of stress along a fault,
or fracture in the earth’s crust, resulting in movement of the opposing blocks of rock past
one another. These movements cause vibrations to pass through and around the earth in
wave form, just as ripples are generated when a pebble is dropped into water. Volcanic
eruptions, rock falls, landslides, and explosions can also cause a quake, but most of these
are of only local extent. Shock waves from a powerful earthquake can trigger smaller
earthquakes in a distant location hundreds of miles away if the geologic conditions are
favorable.

Measurement of Earthquakes

The power of an earthquake is measured using a seismometer. A seismometer detects the

vibrations caused by an earthquake. It plots these vibrations on a seismograph.

The strength, or magnitude, of an earthquake is measured using the Richter scale. The
Richter scale is numbered 0-10.
2. Volcanos: A volcano is a place on the Earth’s surface (or any other planet’s or moon’s
surface) where molten rock, gases and pyroclastic debris erupt through the earth’s crust.
Volcanoes vary quite a bit in their structure – some are cracks in the earth’s crust where
lava erupts, and some are domes, shields, or mountain-like structures with a crater at the
summit.
Magma is molten rock within the Earth’s crust. When magma erupts through the earth’s
surface it is called lava. Lava can be thick and slow-moving or thin and fast-moving.
Rock also comes from volcanoes in other forms, including ash (finely powdered rock that
looks like dark smoke coming from the volcano), cinders (bits of fragmented lava), and
pumice (light-weight rock that is full of air bubbles and is formed in explosive volcanic
eruptions – this type of rock can float on water).

The Word Volcano: The word volcano comes from the Roman god of fire, Vulcan.
Vulcan was said to have had a forge (a place to melt and shape iron) on Vulcano, an
active volcano on the Lipari Islands in Italy

Why do volcanoes erupt?

Let us start with what the earth is made of:
 The earth is made up of three layer parts. The outer crust is the layer on which we live. It
is estimated to be about 1800 miles deep. Then there is the mantle; and then the core
(inner and outer core)
 The mantle is made up of molten material and gases. Molten materials are solids (like
rock) that have turned into liquid because of extreme heat. The name for molten rock and
other gases in the earth’s mantle is Magma. Magma is liquid made up of many crystals,
fragments and gases including oxygen, silicon, iron, aluminum, magnesium and
manganese. When they cool off on the earth’s surface, they turn into magmatic or
igneous rocks.
 Whenever extreme pressure builds in the mantle, along fault lines (openings or cracks in
weak spots in the earth’s crust) an eruption is likely to happen next. During an eruption,
molten materials (soon to become lava) gush out through spaces in the crust to the
surface.
NOTE: Molten rock is called magma when it is inside the crust but once it gets to the
surface of the earth it is called lava.
 Eruptions can be in the form of lava fragments shooting into the atmosphere and forming
thick clouds of lava. Some also flow slowly (non-violent) from the vent, flooding the area
around it. Very fine particles of ash may also be discharged high into the stratosphere and
further carried away by wind action.
 Fresh lava is believed to be about 2,200°F. It can be red hot as it shoots from the vent and
turn into gray or black as it cools. Lava rich in silicon is like honey, and flows a lot more
slowly from the vent. In other types, lava also comes in thick, pasty form.
Types of Volcano

There are three main types of volcano. Scientists decide what type a volcano is examining the
plate movements that have caused it to form.

 ubduction volcanoes. Subduction volcanoes occur where plates move towards each
other and collide. The areas where this happens are called destructive plate margins,
because the earth’s crust is being destroyed. The diagrams on this page show that three
main types of destructive plate margin, where subduction volcanoes are formed.
 Rift volcanoes. Where plates are moving apart, as in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean,
magma rises through the gap between the separating plates and creates new rock. Here
the volcanoes are known as rift volcanoes. There are more rift volcanoes than subduction
volcanoes, but we hear far less about them. Most of them are hidden from view on the
ocean floor, and they do not often threaten human life or property. Also, they usually
erupt more gently than other types of volcano, with lava that oozes rather than explodes
from inside them. Iceland, which straddles the Mid-Atlantic Ocean Ridge, and the Rift
Valley of East Africa are two of the few places where rift volcanoes are found on land.
 Hot-spot volcanoes. Some volcanoes are found away from the edges of the plates. They
are formed where rising plumes of magma force their way to the surface from deep
within the mantle, a ‘hot spot’. As the plate moves, the existing volcano is carried away
from the hot spot and becomes extinct. The next time the pressure builds up, new magma
erupts to form another volcano in its place. The best-known hot-spot volcanoes are in the
Hawaiian Islands. The oldest in the west, such as Niihau and Kauai, contain extinct
volcanoes, but the eastern islands of Maui and Hawaii itself still have active volcanoes.
Distribution of Volcanoes

 There are three volcanic belts, besides many volcanoes which are outside these belts. The
three volcanic belts are as under:

1. The Circum-Pacific belt

2. The Mid-Continental belt
3. The Mid-Atlantic belt.

The Circum-Pacific belt:

This is the most important belt of volcanoes. This is the so called Ring of Fire. The Ring of
Fire is an area where a large number of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions occur in the basin
of the Pacific The Ring of Fire has 452 volcanoes and is home to over 75% of the world’s
active and dormant volcanoes It is sometimes called the circum-Pacific belt or the circum-
Pacific seismic belt.About 90% of the world’s earthquakes and 81% of the world’s largest
earthquakes occur along the Ring of Fire. The belt extends through the Andes of South
America, Central America, Mexico, the Cascade Mountains of Western United States, the
Aleutain Islands, Kamchatka, the Kuril Isles, Japan, the Philippines, Celebes, New Guinea,
the Solomon Islands, New Caledonia and New Zealand.
The Mid-Continental belt:

This belt has various volcanoes of the Alpine mountain chain, Mediterranean Sea (Stromboli,
Vesuvius, Etna etc.), Volcanoes of the Aegean Sea. Mt. Ararat, Elburz and Hindu Kush are
also included in this belt. In the region where the boundaries of Iran, Afghanistan, and
Pakistan meet, there are several volcanic cones of large size, and one or two of them emit
steam and other gases. This region has also a few extinct volcanoes.

The Mid- Atlantic belt:

As the name indicates, this belt includes the volcanoes of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The
volcanoes associated with the Atlantic Ocean are located either on swells or ridges rising
from the sea floor, or on or near the edge of the continent where it slopes abruptly into the
deep oceanic basins. However, in each case, the volcanoes are associated with zones of
crystal movement.

The effects of volcanic eruptions

Unlike other natural disasters such as floods, wild fires and earthquakes, volcanoes can have
some positive effects, even though they can be very disastrous.

Let us see some negative effects of volcanoes:

 Eruptions occurring close to human settlements may spill and destroy lives and property.
People often have to be evacuated. Example: Chaparrastique volcano in El Salvador
started erupting on 29 Dec, 2013. Anyone living within 2 miles of the volcano is
evacuated.
 Ash discharged very high into the stratosphere can have negative consequences on the
ozone layer.
 Landscapes and natural sceneries can be destroyed.
 Ash and mud can mix with rain and melting snow, forming lahars. Lahars are mudflows
flowing at very fast pace.

Some positive effects of volcanoes include:

 Different types of erupting volcanoes provide extraordinary scenery, so beautiful and

natural that they attract tourists to the area, bringing in some economic value.
 Places close to volcanic activities tend to have higher potential for geothermal energy,
which can be an advantage to the towns and cities.
 Some ash and lava breakdown become soils that are rich in nutrients, and become good
areas for crop planting activities.
 What does “tsunami” mean? (CSS-2016/2018)

Tsunami is a Japanese word with the English translation, “harbor wave.” Represented by two
characters, the top character, “tsu,” means harbor, while the bottom character, “nami,” means
“wave.” In the past, tsunamis were sometimes referred to as “tidal waves” by the general public,
and as “seismic sea waves” by the scientific community.

Characteristics (CSS-2018)

A tsunami can have wavelengths of 100 to 200 km, and may travel hundreds of kilometers across
the deep ocean, reaching speed s of about 725 to 800 km/h. Upon entering shallow coastal
waters, however, the waves may suddenly grow rapidly in height. When the waves reach the
shore, they may be up to 30m high or more.

Tsunamis have tremendous force because of the great volume of water affected and the speed at
which they travel. Just of water weighs >1 ton. Although the tsunami slows to a speed of about
48 km/h as it approaches a coastline, it has a destructive force equal to millions of tons.
Tsunamis are capable of obliterating coastal settlements

Causes of Tsunami (CSS-2016/2018)

A tsunami is a series of large waves generated by an abrupt movement on the ocean floor that
can result from an earthquake, an underwater landslide, a volcanic eruption or – very rarely – a
large meteorite strike.

However, powerful undersea earthquakes are responsible for most tsunamis. Seismologists say
only earthquakes measuring greater than 7.0 on the Richter scale can produce a major tsunami.

Most earthquakes that generate tsunamis – including Friday’s jolt off Japan’s eastern coast –
occur in areas called subduction zones, where pieces of the Earth’s crust press against each other.
Subduction means that one tectonic plate slides beneath another and sinks deep into the Earth’s
mantle.

The friction between two slow-moving plates of the Earth’s crust creates vast amounts of seismic
energy which is released in the form of an earthquake. When a strong undersea earthquake
strikes a relatively short distance below the sea floor, it abruptly pushes up one of the immense
plates of the Earth’s crust. That suddenly displaces an enormous amount of ocean water which
becomes a tsunami, spreading outward in every direction from the epicenter of an earthquake –
like ripples on a pond, only on a much larger scale.
Tsunamis generated in the open ocean appear to be only small waves, but they can grow rapidly
in size as they reach shallow water before crashing into seacoast settlements. Waves up to nine
meters high have been recorded on numerous occasions, and tsunamis up to 30 meters high are
believed to have occurred in the past.

Damage is usually worst in areas closest to the undersea quake, often because the fast-moving
waves will hit land so quickly. Tsunamis radiate out from the site of an undersea quake nearly as
fast as a jet airliner can travel, but because the expanse of the Pacific is so wide, alert systems are
in place to sound a warning to those in the path of an advancing wave.

Tsunami Warnings and Preparation

Tsunamis are rare and difficult to predict. Although scientists can rapidly detect an undersea
earthquake through the use of seismometers, not all undersea earthquakes will generate a
tsunami. Other factors, such as the topography of the ocean floor at the epicenter of a quake, are
involved.

Major Disasters

The worst tsunami disaster in history occurred in December 2004 when a magnitude 9.0
undersea earthquake, centered in the Indian Ocean off the northwestern coast of the Indonesian
island of Sumatra, generated a tsunami that struck the coasts of 14 countries from Southeast Asia
to northeastern Africa. Almost a month after the disaster, the United States Geological Survey
(USGS) reported a death toll of more than 150,000 people as a result of the tsunami and the
earthquake, with nearly two-thirds of the deaths occurring in Indonesia. High death tolls were
also reported in India, Sri Lanka, and Thailand.

Difference between Tidal Wave and Tsunami (CSS-2018)

A tidal wave is essentially a high tide that rises fast enough to appear in the form of a wave. It is
solely affected by weather and the gravitational pull from the moon and sun. A tsunami, on the
other hand, occurs when some event disturbs the ocean. They are usually caused by a geological
event, such as an earthquake, volcanic eruption, or landslide.

Many consider tidal waves to be synonyms for tsunamis, however scientifically that is incorrect.
In fact, tsunamis are not tidal at all. A tidal wave is essentially a high tide that rises fast enough
to appear in the form of a wave. It is solely affected by weather and the gravitational pull from
the moon and sun. Tides are the rise and fall of sea level that is caused by the gravitational pull
of the moon and the sun on the Earth.

Tides are not only limited to the oceans, but can also occur in other systems, whenever a
gravitational field is present. A majority of the Earth is affected by the gravitational force of the
sun, though it is not as easily visible as it is on water. The moon has a more prominent affect on
the tides, as it is much closer to the Earth compared to the sun. A wave can also be formed by
wind blowing across the surface of the water. These waves are generally known as wind waves.
The term tidal wave is usually used to refer to unusual rise of water alongshore due to strong
winds. They are most prominent in narrow bays or in rivers along the coast. The highest “tidal
waves” are found in the Bay of Fundy, in the Canadian province of New Brunswick, where the
water level can rise with the tide by 50 feet. Tidal waves may raise water level by several feet in
just a matter of hours. However, it is also possible that a tidal wave will burn out before it
reaches the coast. As a rule, tidal waves follow the currents and are unlikely to cause a landfall in
areas of temperate climates or northern countries.

FLOODS

Heavy storms may sometimes cause huge volumes of water to depart from a river's natural
course and spread over previously dry land. Unstoppable and all-pervasive, the resulting floods
can be devastating to human life."(Natural Disasters, Readers Digest, 1996)

What causes Floods?

Flooded areas of land usually start off as very dry land. Floods are caused by heavy rains that
pour to much water into rivers and other waterways. Making these natural channels unable to
carry all the water. Rising water flows over or breaks the banks to the waterways causing the
surrounding land to be flooded. Different causes of floods can come from masses of snow
melting of tidal waves.

Where do Floods occur?

The type of land that is prone to flooding are broad and flat usually situated on the banks of a
river or main waterway. Rivers that flood are regarded in three different stages. They are:-

ONE:- Water comes off the mountains, eroding the beds and banks of the river as it flows.

TWO:- This type river travels through broad valleys which slows the current of the river down.
If the current is slow it will transport less material down the river.

THREE:- Flood-plain stage. Little if not any erosion takes place most of the material tha tis
carried in the current is suspended and deposited to the form a flood plain.

Control of floods

Some methods of flood control have been practiced since ancient times. These methods include
planting vegetation to retain extra water, terracing hillsides to slow flow downhill, and the
construction of floodways (man-made channels to divert floodwater). Other techniques include
the construction of levees, dikes, dams, reservoirs or retention ponds to hold extra water during
times of flooding.

In many countries, rivers prone to floods are often carefully managed. Defences such as levees,
bunds, reservoirs, and weirs are used to prevent rivers from bursting their banks. When these
defences fail, emergency measures such as sandbags or portable inflatable tubes are used.
Coastal flooding has been addressed in Europe and the Americas with coastal defences, such as
sea walls, beach nourishment, and barrier islands.

A dike is another method of flood protection. A dike lowers the risk of having floods compared
to other methods.[citation needed] It can help prevent damage; however it is better to combine
dikes with other flood control methods to reduce the risk of a collapsed dike.

Tide gates are used in conjunction with dikes and culverts. They can be placed at the mouth of
streams or small rivers, where an estuary begins or where tributary streams, or drainage ditches
connect to sloughs. Tide gates close during incoming tides to prevent tidal waters from moving
upland, and open during outgoing tides to allow waters to drain out via the culvert and into the
estuary side of the dike. The opening and closing of the gates is driven by a difference in water
level on either side of the gate.

In the case of Pakistan, the major cause of floods is improper WATERSHED MANAGEMENT
in the catchement areas of the major rivers. If we want to reduce the incidents of floods, we will
have to reduce the population pressure in these areas, increase the vegitation cover to protect the
fragile soil and adopation of eco-friendly farming.

We need lot of forests in our northren areas, Kashmir and KP as these are the catchment areas of
our rivers. The trees slow the intensity of rain by covering the bare land and their roots hold the
soil in case of flash floods. This way the water is slowly absorbed in the ground and released in
the shape of springs during summer months, instead of causing floods in the lowlands.

On the other hand, in plain areas, big DAM are needed to hold the excess water during floods
and this excess water is used in dry season for irregation purposes through canals.

What Is An Avalanche?

The word avalanche is derived from the French word avalance meaning descent. An avalanche is
a mass of snow, often mixed with ice and debris which travels down mountain sides, destroying
all in its path.

What Causes Avalanches?

Avalanches occur due to any of the following triggers: overloading, temperature, slope angle,
snow pack conditions, and vibration. Overloading is an important trigger, the weight of the snow
increases until it overcomes cohesion to the snow pack underneath. Temperature has an effect on
the cohesion of snow; a rise in temperature weakens the bonds creating weakness, whilst a fall in
temperature increases the brittleness and tension of a slab. Slope angle is important as most
avalanches occur on slopes between 25 and 400C, although avalanches have been noted on
slopes as gentle as 150C and as steep as 60oC. Snow pack conditions is a significant factor as the
layers below the upper snow can not be seen and it is difficult to assess whether the slope is
likely to fail. Vibration is a physical trigger cause by thunder, a gun shot, by explosions or other
loud noises such as shouting. Earthquakes can start avalanches, as well as noise from heavy
machinery.
Where Can Avalanches Occur?

Mountainous areas throughout arctic and temperate regions which have slope angles between
25oC and 60oC are at risk. However, other conditions may affect the likelihood of an avalanche
being triggered as already mentioned. The avalanche problem is more severe in Europe than
North America due to the higher population densities in the Alp mountain range.

What Types of Avalanches Are There?

There are three main types of avalanche: Powder, Slab and Wet.

Powder avalanche

Often start from a single point and accumulates snow as it moves down the slope forming a
snowball effect. This type is most common following heavy snowfall of one inch per hour or
more and often on a smooth surface such as after rain or frost. Without the cohesion with the
snow layer underneath the snow is too heavy to settle. This type of avalanche can travel between
62 and 186 miles per hour.

Slab avalanche

Most common type of winter avalanche due to the build up fresh snow. A slab is a compact snow
surface layer that can detach from a weaker snow layer underneath. The slab slips forward as a
whole block or breaks into pieces.

Wet avalanche

Often occurs after a warm spell or during the spring thaw. Snow becomes heavier as it begins to
turn into water. Occurs frequently and are generally small and generally easier to predict than the
other types

Causes of Avalanches

There is no one reason behind the development of avalanches. It was believed for long that the
echo of a human voice in the mountains could dislodge enough snow to start one. Similarly, a
person’s weight can cause a avalanche too. The sudden addition of weight can fracture a weak
area of snow. However, scientific understanding of avalanches shows us that there are many
environmental factors at work.

1) Snowstorm and Wind Direction:

Heavy snowstorms are more likely to cause Avalanches. The 24 hours after a storm are
considered to be the most critical. Wind normally blows from one side of the slope of mountain
to another side. While blowing up, it will scour snow off the surface which can overhang a
mountain.

2) Heavy snowfall:

Heavy snowfall is the first, since it deposits snow in unstable areas and puts pressure on the
snow-pack. Precipitation during the summer months is the leading cause of wet snow
avalanches.

3) Human Activity:

Humans have contributed to the start of many avalanches in recent years. Winter sports that
require steep slopes often put pressure on the snow-pack which it cannot deal. Combined with
the heavy deforestation and soil erosion in mountain regions, it gives the snow little stability in
the winter months. Further natural causes include earthquakes and tremors, since they can often
create cracks in the snow-pack.

4) Vibration or Movement:

The use of All Terrain Vehicles and Snowmobiles creates vibrations within the snow that it
cannot withstand. Coupled with the gravitational pull, it is one of the quickest ways to cause an
avalanche. The other is construction work done with explosives, which tend to weaken the entire
surrounding area.

5) Layers of Snow:

There are conditions where snow is already on the mountains and has turned into ice. Then, fresh
snow falls on top which can easily slide down.

6) Steep Slopes:

Layers of snow build up and and slide down the mountain at a faster rate as steep slopes can
increase the speed of snow. A rock or piece of huge ice can shake the snow and cause it to come
down.

7) Warm Temperature:

Warm temperatures that can last several hours a day can weaken some of the upper layers of
snow and cause it to slide down.

Effects of Avalanches

As such, there is little damage to the overall ecological system due to avalanches. They are a part
of nature and have been happening for thousands of years. However, they are a major natural
hazard for the local human population.
1) Damage to Life and Property:

A large number of casualties takes place after avalanches hit heavily populated areas.
Infrastructure is damaged and the blockage caused, impacts the livelihood of many. People who
enjoy skiing, snowboarding and snowmobiling are at a greater risk of losing their lives. A
powerful avalanche can even destroy buildings and power supplies can be cut off.

2) Flash floods:

When an avalanche occurs, it brings down all the debris with it and can cause havoc in low lying
areas. Flash floods are seen to happen after avalanches, which is a long term problem many
villagers and townspeople have to deal with. They can also change weather patterns and cause
crop failure in farms present on the lower fields.

3) Economic Impact:

An avalanche can block anything in its path and even restrict the normal movement of traffic.
Various ski resorts depend on tourists to run their business successfully. Ski resorts and other
businesses are forced to close until the avalanche decreases and weather conditions become
suitable.

Cyclone:

Cyclones are low-pressure areas surrounded by high pressure from all sides. These are circular or
elliptical in shape.

Type of Cyclones:

1. Tropical Cyclones

Cyclones that originated and travel in the tropical region are called tropical cyclones.

2. Temperate cyclones

Cyclones that are formed in the temperate regions are called temperate cyclones.

Temperate Cyclones

1. Cyclones originate in temperate land.

2. Cyclones are develop in both land and sea.

3. Develop in winter.

4. Pressure gradient is gentle.

5. Light but wide spread rainfall.

6. Rainfaal is accompanied by hail and snow.

Tropical Cyclones

1. Cyclones originate in tropical land.

2. Cyclones develop on sea and disappear on land.

3. Develop in summer.

4. Pressure gradient is steep.

5. Torrential rainfall on small area.

6. No hail and snow.

The formation of a cyclone occurs in the following steps:

• Tropical cyclones form only over warm ocean waters near the equator.

• To form a cyclone, warm, moist air over the ocean rises upward from near the surface. As this
air moves up and away from the ocean surface, it leaves is less air near the surface. So basically
as the warm air rises, it causes an area of lower air pressure below.

• Air from surrounding areas with higher air pressure pushes in to the low pressure area. Then
this new “cool” air becomes warm and moist and rises, too. And the cycle continues…

• As the warmed, moist air rises and cools the water in the air forms clouds. The whole system of
clouds and wind spins and grows, fed by the ocean’s heat and water evaporating from the ocean
surface.

• As the storm system rotates faster and faster, an eye forms in the centre. It is very calm and
clear in the eye, with very low air pressure. Higher pressure air from above flows down into the
eye.

When the winds in the rotating storm reach 39 mph (63 kmph), the storm is called a “tropical
storm”. And when the wind speeds reach 74 mph (119 kmph), the storm is officially a “tropical
cyclone” or hurricane. Tropical cyclones usually weaken when they hit land, because they are no
longer being “fed” by the energy from the warm ocean waters. However, they often move far
inland, dumping many centimeters of rain and causing lots of wind damage before they die out
completely.

Tornado
A tornado is a violently rotating column of air extending between, and in contact with, a cloud
and the surface of the earth. Tornadoes are generally spawned by thunderstorms, though they
have been known to occur without the presence of lightning. The stronger tornadoes attain an
awe-inspiring intensity, with wind speeds that exceed 200 mph and in extreme cases may
approach 300 mph.

Tornado wind speeds are estimated after the fact based on the damage they produce. Tornadoes
are categorized on a scale of 0 (weakest) to 5 (strongest)

The United States has the highest incidence of tornadoes worldwide, with more than 1,000
occurring every year. This is due to the unique geography that brings together polar air from
Canada, tropical air from the Gulf of Mexico, and dry air from the Southwest to clash in the
middle of the country, producing thunderstorms and the tornadoes they spawn.

Tornadoes can come one at a time, or in clusters, and they can vary greatly in length, width,
direction of travel, and speed. They can leave a path 50 yards wide or over a mile wide. They
may touch down for only a matter of seconds, or remain in contact with the ground for over an
hour.

Hurricane

A hurricane is an intense, rotating oceanic weather system that possesses maximum sustained
winds exceeding 119 km/hr (74 mph). It forms and intensifies over tropical oceanic regions.

Hurricanes are generally smaller than storms in mid-latitudes, typically about 500 km (311
miles) in diameter. At the ocean’s surface, the air spirals inward in a counterclockwise direction.
This cyclonic circulation becomes weaker with height, eventually turning into clockwise
(anticyclonic) outflow near the top of the storm.

Hurricanes form and intensify over oceanic regions. They require sea-surface temperatures of at
least 26°C (80°F) and the influence of the earth’s rotation to initiate a spinning circulation
(Coriolis effect).

In North America, we call a storm that results from these conditions a hurricane. In other parts of
the world, a hurricane is known by other names, including "typhoon" in the Western North
Pacific and "tropical cyclone" in the Indian Ocean and the Western South Pacific.

Difference between a Cyclone, Typhoon and Hurricane

People often think they are one in the same. It is confusing enough to try to keep up with the
hurricane season and all the terminology, without having to decipher the difference between the
three. All storms are the same after all, or are they? I found out that while they share common
characteristics, they are still different. How are they different? Basically, the location is what
gives the storm it's name.
If a storm was to form in the Atlantic or eastern Pacific Ocean, we would call it a hurricane. So
basically every storm that endangers the United States is a hurricane. In recent years, we have all
become quite familiar with hurricanes and their powerful force.

A typhoon is generally any storm that begins in the Western Pacific. So a storm that threatens
Japan or the islands of Guam or the Philippines is called a typhoon. Winds from a typhoon
usually are stronger than a hurricane, however they endanger far less land area due to their
locations.

Cyclones are storms that begin in the Southern Pacific. They only are generated west of 160 east
Longitude. They are not as prevalent as hurricanes because of the cold water temperatures.
Generally, water temperature must be over 80 degrees in order to be conducive to any storm.

Recently however, there has been some controversy among the meteorological community as to
the definition of a hurricane, typhoon, and cyclone. Some experts now refer to either a hurricane
or a typhoon as a cyclone. Technically, when the definition of a cyclone is looked up in the
dictionary, it states it is a storm with a mass of thunderstorms centered around a mass of rotating
air, with an eye or center of calm air and winds, with blue skies. It states that the smaller the eye,
the stronger the storm. This sounds like the definition we would attach to a hurricane.

The interesting thing that a lot of people are not aware of, is that a storm that begins north of the
equator rotates clockwise and a storm that begins south of the equator rotates counterclockwise.
To complicate issues, my question has always been, can a storm cross over the equator and if so,
does the rotation change? No one has been able to answer this question for me. The only answer
I can get is that air currents will not allow a storm to cross over equatorial lines.

So in essence the three storms are the same. If you take a hurricane off of the coast of Florida
and dump it near Japan, you have a typhoon. If you take that typhoon and drop it in the middle of
the Indian ocean, it would be called a cyclone.

One thing is clear though a storm generates to the equator, the greater chance it has of being a
strong storm, whether it is a typhoon or hurricane. This is due in part to the currents of the
oceans, the air currents, and the water temperature. This is why typhoons are usually more
dangerous than a hurricane. They generally generate closer to the equator.
DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT

Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) aims to reduce the damage caused by natural hazards like
earthquakes, floods, droughts and cyclones, through an ethic of prevention. Disasters often
follow natural hazards. A disaster's severity depends on how much impact a hazard has on
society and the environment.

NEW MODEL CONCEPT OF PRODCUING BIOFUEL METHODS

Biofuel is considered to be the most pure and the easiest available fuels on the planet. Also
known as agrofuel, they are classified into gas, liquid and solid form derived from biomass. Most
of the people would be very happy to know that most of the forms of biofuels can be easily
manufactured even at in one's kitchen garden. One of the key features of biofuels is that they are
better than other forms of fuels like petrol or diesel that is manufactured by most of the big oil
manufacturing companies. Most of the diesel engines would work more efficiently and even last
longer with the use of these home made biofuels. These fuels are also very clean and
environment friendly. These biofuels can be a lot more economic if used in the kitchen for
cooking purpose. These fuels also encourage the recycling process as most of them are
manufactured from waste products.

There are various forms of biofuels and most of them are made through a detailed process having
various stages. Most of the animal fats, vegetables and oils contain glycerin and are thus called
triglycerides. In the process of manufacturing the biofuels, all the fats and oils are turned into
esters, separating the glycerin. At the end of the process, all the glycerin sinks down at the
bottom and all the biofuel rests at the top. The process through which the glycerin is separated
from the biodiesel is known as transesterification. This process also uses lye as a catalyst in the
whole process. Some of the chemicals which are used in the manufacturing of biofuels are
ethanol or methanol which brings into use methyl esters. Methanol is derived from fossil fuels
while ethanol is derived from plants. One of the advantages of using ethanol is that they can be
distilled even at the home without any problem.

The process of manufacturing biofuel can be classified in the following stages. These stages are:

Filtering: In this process, waste vegetable oil is filtered to remove all the food particles. This
process generally involves warming up the liquid a little. After warming up the liquid, it can be
filtered with the use of coffee filter.

Removing of water: All the water contained in the residual gangue has to be removed which will
make the reaction faster. The water can be easily removed by making the liquid boil at 100
degree C for sometime.

Titration: This process is carried out to determine the amount of lye that would be required. This
process is the most crucial and the most important stage of biofuel manufacturing.

Preparation of sodium methoxide: In this process, methanol is mixed with sodium hydroxide to
produce sodium methoxide. In most of the cases, the quantity of methanol used is generally 20
percent of waste vegetable oil.

Heating and mixing: The residue is heated in between 120 to 130 degree F after which it is
mixed well. It should be remembered that process should be done carefully avoiding splashing of
the liquid.

Settling and separation: After mixing the liquid, it has to be allowed to cool down. After the
cooling process, the biofuel will be found floating at the top while the heavier glycerin would be
found at the bottom. The glycerin can be easily separated by allowing it to drain out from the
bottom. The person is left over with pure biofuel which can be used for various purposes

Energy crisis (Energy  Resources)

We often hear about the global energy crisis .But if energy is always conserved,

How can it be running out?

The problem is that as we ‘use’ energy in our daily lives it is all eventually transferred to internal
energy in our surroundings .It is then almost impossible to transfer back to any form.

For example , our car are powered by the chemical potential energy stored in petrol.The engine
transfers some of this to kinetic energy but the rest is ‘wasted’ as heat.As the car comes to a stop
its kinetic energy is transferred to heat due to friction at the brakes and between the tyres and the
road .The heat generated is all eventually transferred to the surrounding air.

So energy is not being used up , but it is being dissipated in the environment .This is why we
need to conserve our limited supplies of fossil fuels and nuclear fuels .The energy stored in these
can be converted into wide range of useful forms.

As these high grade energy sources run out , we will need to make more use of ‘renewable’
sources such as biomass , solar , geothermal , wind , wave tidal and hydro-electric power.

Sources of energy

Most power stations burn fossil fuels (coal , oil and gas) but 20% produce electricity using
nuclear fuel.

Why are fossil fuels and nuclear fuel called non-renewable enrgy source?

The reserves of these fuels are limited and one day they will run out . It is estimate that the
known reserves of gas , oil and nuclear fuels will last between 40 and 60 years . Coal has longer -
about 200 years.

Burning fossil fuels releases vast amounts of carbon dioxide (green house gas) leading to global
warming.Sulphur dioxide is also released , causing acid rain.Nuclear power produces highly
radioactive waste.

So why do we rely so heavily on non-renewables?

These power stations are able to generate electricity at all times. Fossil fuel power stations are
relatively cheap to build and their power output is high - typically around 2000MW.Nuclear
power stations are costly to build (and to dismantle) but fuel is relatively cheap and power output
is high.

How is fossil fuel formed?

Fossil fuels were formed from the fossilized remains of tiny plants and animals that lived long
ago. Most electricity used in the world is generated from power plants that burn fossil fuels to
heat water and make steam. The highly pressurized steam is directed at turbine blades to make
them spin.

What are the forms of fossil fuels?

Coal is a hard, black, rock-like substance made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and
sulphur. There are three main types of coal: anthracite, bituminous, and lignite. The precursor to
coal, called “peat,” is still found in many countries and is also used as an energy source. Coal is
found in many parts of the U.S. and throughout the rest of the world.

Oil is a liquid fossil fuel, sometimes also called petroleum. It is found underground within
porous rocks. To obtain oil, companies drill down to deposits deep below the earth’s surface
using oil rigs. More than half of all the oil we use in the U.S. comes from outside our country—
most of it from the Middle East.

Natural gas is made up primarily of a gas called methane. Methane gas is highly flammable and
burns very cleanly. Natural gas is usually found underground along with oil. It is pumped up and
travels through pipelines to homes and businesses. Natural gas supplies are abundant from
sources in the U.S. and Canada.

How does nuclear power works?

Nuclear power uses heat released from splitting atoms to convert water into steam that turns
turbines. Nuclear power plants rely on uranium, a metal that is mined and specially processed.
Fuel rods containing uranium are placed next to each other in a machine called a nuclear reactor.
The reactor causes the uranium atoms to split and in so doing, they release a tremendous amount
of heat.

What are the disadvantages?

At each stage of the process various types of radioactive waste are produced. This waste is
poisonous and can cause harm to people and the environment coming into contact with it.

Energy resources

Hrydroelectricity and tidal power

Nowadays there are many hydro-electric power stations, providing around 20% of the world's
electricity. The name comes from "hydro", the Greek word for water. A dam is built to trap
water, usually in a valley where there is an existing lake. Water is allowed to flow through
tunnels in the dam, to turn turbines and thus drive generators. Notice that the dam is much
thicker at the bottom than at the top, because the pressure of the water increases with depth

What are the advantages?

This is clean way of generating electricity for mountainous regions such as scoltland and wales.
Once the station is built, the water comes free of charge, and there is no waste or
pollution.Electricity can be generated constantly.

What are the disadvantages?

Although there are many suitable sites around the world, hydro-electric dams are very expensive
to build.

Tidal power

The tide moves a huge amount of water twice each day, and harnessing it could provide a great
deal of energy .Although the energy supply is reliable and plentiful, converting it into useful
electrical power is not easy.There are eight main sites around Britain where tidal power stations
could usefully be built, including the Severn, Dee, Solway and Humber estuaries. Only around
20 sites in the world have been identified as possible tidal power stations.

What are the advantages?

Hydroelectric schemes produce no pollution

Once you've built it, tidal power is free.

It produces no greenhouse gases or other waste.

It needs no fuel.

It produces electricity reliably.

Not expensive to maintain.

Tides are totally predictable.

Offshore turbines and vertical-axis turbines are not ruinously expensive to build and do not have
a large environmental impact

what are the disadvantages?

The ecology of the area can be disrupted by changing the natural flow of water.Only provides
power for around 10 hours each day, when the tide is actually moving in or out.

Biomass

New power stations that burn renewable biomass such as wood , straw , animal waste and
specially grown crops such as willow are already producing electricity .Many more are planned

Doesn’t this produce the “green house gas”carbon dioxide?

No , because the amount of gas released by the burning is equal to the amount absorbed by the
growing plants in photosynthesis.
Rooting plants and animal waste also produce methane gas,If they rot in a tank called a digestor
the gas can be piped away and used as fuel.Methane can also be collected from land fill sites
used to tip domestic rubbish.These plants are small , but they can make a useful contribution.

What are the advantages?

It makes sense to use waste materials where we can.

The fuel tends to be cheap.

Less demand on the Earth's resources.

What are the disadvantages?

Collecting the waste in sufficient quantities can be difficult.

We burn the fuel, so it makes greenhouse gases.

Some waste materials are not available all year round.

Wind and wave energy

The Babylonians and Chinese were using wind power to pump water for irrigating crops 4,000
years ago, and sailing boats were around long before that.

Wind power was used in the Middle Ages, in Europe, to grind corn, which is where the term
"windmill" comes from.A large aerogenerator can produce up to 7MW of power from the kinetic
energy of the wind.A typical wind farm consists of about 20 machines covering 3 or 4 square
kilometers of land.The sea provides us with another source of energy , the kinetic energy of the
waves can be captured by floats and used to generate electricity .How ever 20km of floats would
produce only as much as energy as small power station. The Sun heats our atmosphere unevenly,
so some patches become warmer than others. These warm patches of air rise, other air blows in
to replace them - and we feel a wind blowing.We can use the energy in the wind by building a
tall tower, with a large propellor on the top.

What are the advantages?

Wind is free, wind farms need no fuel.

Produces no waste or greenhouse gases.

The land beneath can usually still be used for farming.

Wind farms can be tourist attractions.

A good method of supplying energy to remote areas.

What are the disadvantages?

The wind is not always predictable - some days have no wind.

Suitable areas for wind farms are often near the coast, where land is expensive.

Some people feel that covering the landscape with these towers is unsightly.

Can kill birds - migrating flocks tend to like strong winds.

However, this is rare, and we tend not to build wind farms on migratory routes anyway.

Can affect television reception if you live nearby.

Can be noisy. Wind generators have a reputation for making a constant, low, "swooshing" noise
day and night, which can drive you nuts.

Having said that, as aerodynamic designs have improved modern wind farms are much quieter.
A lot quieter than, say, a fossil fuel power station; and wind farms tend not to be close to
residential areas anyway. The small modern wind generators used on boats and caravans make
hardly any sound at all.

Geothermal energy

The inside of the earth is very hot due to radioactive decay .Bore-holes can be drilled down into
the hot rock and cold water is forced down the holes .The water is heated by the rock and returns
to the surface as steam. This steam is then used to turn turbines to generate electricity.

What are the advantages?

Geomthermal plants are clean , since they produce only steam .

The power stations do not take up much room, so there is not much impact on the environment.

No fuel is needed.

Once you've built a geothermal power station, the energy is almost free.

It may need a little energy to run a pump, but this can be taken from the energy being generated

What are the disadvantages?

The installation cost are high and the power out put is low.
The big problem is that there are not many places where you can build a geothermal power
station.

You need hot rocks of a suitable type, at a depth where we can drill down to them.

The type of rock above is also important, it must be of a type that we can easily drill through.

Sometimes a geothermal site may "run out of steam", perhaps for decades.

Hazardous gases and minerals may come up from underground, and can be difficult to safely
dispose of.

Solar energy

The earth receives an enormous amount of energy directly from the sun each day ,around 1,4KW
per square metre of its surface and the sun is 150 million kilometres away.

There are main ways to use solar energy:

Solar Furnaces

Solar Furnaces use a huge array of mirrors to concentrate the Sun's energy into a small space and
produce very high temperatures. There's one at Odellio, in France, used for scientific
experiments. It can achieve temperatures up to 33,000 degrees Celsius.

Solar water heating

Heat from the Sun is used to heat water in glass panels on your roof. This means you don't need
to use so much gas or electricity to heat your water at home. Water is pumped through pipes in
the panel. The pipes are painted black, so they get hot when the Sun shines on them.

Solar Cells

Some homes have solar panels on the roof to provide hot water.Solar photo-voltaic cells(PV
cells) convert sunlight directly into electricity.In a sunny climate, you can get enough power to
run a 100W light bulb from just one square metre of solar panel.This was originally developed in
order to provide electricity for satellites, but these days many of us own calculators powered by
solar cells.
What are the advantages?

Solar energy is free - it needs no fuel and produces no waste or pollution.

In sunny countries, solar power can be used where there is no easy way to get electricity to a
remote place.

Handy for low-power uses such as solar powered garden lights and battery chargers

What are the disadvantages?

Doesn't work at night.

Very expensive to build solar power stations.

Solar cells cost a great deal compared to the amount of electricity they'll produce in their
lifetime.

Can be unreliable unless you're in a very sunny climate.