PROJECT PROPOSAL

THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF UNDISTURBED SAMPLES OF SABON

DAGGA CLAY DEPOSIT

BY

KADIR, SHETTIMA GADZAMA

(2011/2/38243EC)

SUPERVISOR: ENGR. DR. A.A AMADI

A RESEARCH SUBMITED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF

CIVIL ENGINEERING

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY MINNA

NIGER STATE, NIGERIA.

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF

BACHELOR IN ENGINEERING B. ENG (HONS) IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

MARCH 23, 2015

 CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

This research represent the evaluation of the index and engineering properties of sabon Dagga
clay deposits. The investigation involves collection of undisturbed samples of Dagga clay
deposits at a variable depth on which the mechanical properties of the soil are ascertain (i.e. the
shear strength parameters which are cohesion(C) and angle of internal friction() and also
consolidation test. Are to carried out) The triaxial test enables the determination of the shear
strength parameters while the consolidation test enable the determination of compression index,
coefficient of consolidation, settlement coefficient of volume compressibility, degree of
consolidation ,modulus of elasticity and compression ratio.

In civil engineering, soils with properties that cannot be safely and economically used for the
construction of civil engineering structures without adopting some measures to improve
properties . clay soils are expensive/swelling and collapsing soils. To geotechnical and highway
engineers, a problem soil is one that posse’s problem to construction.

OLA(1978) observed that Such problems may be as a result of instability of the soil which
makes it unsuitable as a construction material in foundations, buildings, highways, water
retaining structures. Clay is predominantly in most of the sub-grade soils in Nigeria. The clay
minerals attract and absorb water.

Adesunloye, (1987) viewed problem soils as those which exhibit low strength and high
compressibility; they are also expansive or collapsible. In their natural state, these soils have a
high void ratio and a low moisture contents, potentially expansive soils can be found almost
anywhere in the world but they are confined to semi arid and arid regions of the
tropical/temperate areas.
Clay:
Definition 1: Under the USCS classification system, a fine-grained soil whose Atterberg Limits
(ASTM D4318) cause it to be plotted above the ‘A’ Line in the Casagrande Plasticity chart.
(Lambe and Whitman 1969). Definition 2: A soil which, by weight, more than 50 % of its
particles are smaller than 0.002 mm. Definition 3: A soil consisting primarily of clay minerals,
e.g. smectite, illite, kaolinite.
Silt Definition 1: A soil which, by weight, more than 50 % of its particles are smaller than 0.075
mm
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

The mechanical behaviour of fine-grained soils is now relatively well understood for the range of
stresses conventionally encountered in geotechnical engineering practice.
Traditionally, the geotechnical engineering discipline has been focused on applications involving
stresses less than about 1 MPa, with behavior at higher stresses being of much less concern. On
the other hand, the field of rock mechanics has traditionally been associated with the study of
lithified materials, often at pressures in excess of 100 MPa. As a result, the mechanical behavior
of intermediatory materials, which include hard clays and unlithified or weakly lithified soft
clayshales, is far less well understood. Such materials are the most abundant in the uppermost 5
km of the Earth’s crust. Most clay soil is very weak soil and therefore it can not serve as
foundation soil or sub grade of highway soil. The knowledge of such degree of weakness and
engineering properties of this clay soil establishes a fact and a data for future development in the
area or along the area peradventure Niger state government may proposed a project for the
community like dam for irrigation since their major occupation is farming. So knowledge of the
soil characteristics may be a vital element for such development.
This research work involves an extensive experimental investigation of the compressibility
(consolidation) and shear strength behavior of Dagga clay deposit.

1.3 AIM AND OBJECTIVES

The aim of this research is to investigative the mechanical properties of undisturbed samples of
Dagga clay deposit with the following objectives :

i. Collection of undisturbed samples from the study area

ii. To determine the engineering properties of clay deposit in Dagga. The laboratory test
to be carried basically are shear strength parameters and consolidation test.
iii. To compare the results of the research findings with relevant set standard.
iv. To make recommendation based on the research findings.

1.4 SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF STUDY

This research work covers the collection of undisturbed samples of clay deposits from sabon
Dagga .And the laboratory tests to be carried out include:

i. Consolidation test
ii. Triaxial tests (aimed at obtaining the shear strength parameters).

The research is organized into five chapters, each of which has a separate and distinct
function as given below.

Chapter one covers the introduction to the project, aim/objectives, scope and limitation.
Chapter two provides a literature review of important background information relevant to the
study. The aim is to establish an overall picture of the current level of knowledge regarding
the research. Chapter three describes the equipment and procedures that will be used and
chapter four discuss the result obtained while chapter five summarizes the result and
conclusion as well as recommendations.

1.5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The methods intended to use in the course of this research work, though not exhaustive
included the under listed:

i. Visitation to the study area

ii. Collection of undisturbed samples from the study area
iii. Laboratory tests on the samples collected from the study area
iv. Consultation of engineering journals, textbooks and internet.
 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

Clay is a naturally occurring, inorganic component of most soils. Chemically, clays are
aluminosilicates[Al4Si4O10(OH)8] and carry negative charges. Sand, on the other hand, is
composed of large, neutral particles of silicon dioxide (SiO2).Clay is made up of tiny particles
less than 0.002mm in diameter. By comparison, silt particles range from 0.002 to 0.05 mm in
size and sand particles from 0.05 to 2.0 mm. For this reason, clay soils are considered to be fine
textured; silts, medium textured; and sands, coarse textured. (Online free dictionary)
2.1 EFFECT OF CLAY ON NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY
Because clay particles are so small, pure clay has at least 1000 times more external surface area
than coarse sand. Because clays have a large surface area and negative charges, they can attract
and hold positively charged ions. This characteristic is important because many positively
charged ions are plant nutrients, such as calcium, magnesium and potassium. A soil’s ability to
hold and store positively charged ions is known as cation exchange capacity (CEC). Soil with
high CEC holds more nutrients and loses fewer of them when rainfall leaches through the soil the
more clay a soil has the greater its CEC. Of all soil types, sandy soils have the lowest CEC
values. These soils hold few nutrients and lose them easily as water moves through the soil.
(NCDA&CS Agronomic, 1999)
2.2 EFFECT OF CLAY ON SOIL WATER
Clay acts as a binding agent between soil particles. It gives soil elasticity and provides cohesion
of soil particles. The result is a network of capillary pores that hold moisture against the force of
gravity. The moisture content of a soil after gravity has removed excess water is called field
capacity. The moisture content at which plants wilt is called the wilting point. the moisture
content of sand at field capacity and wilting point is much lower than in clay soil. Unlike clays,
sandy-textured soils have large pores that allow water to drain more easily. Although this
condition may be beneficial in preventing disease development, it has a double disadvantage.
2.3 PREVIOUS STUDIES OF HARD CLAYS IN TRIAXIAL COMPRESSION
One of the earliest programs of triaxial testing at relatively high stresses is that of Bishop et al.
(1965) on London Clay from Ashford Common for σ’vc up to approximately 7.5 MPa. Boom
clay has been investigated by both Horseman et al. (1993) and Taylor and Coop (1993) for σ’vc
up to 5.4 MPa. Petley et al. (1993) tested Kimmeridge Clay up to 10.6 MPa and Eocene North
Sea Shale up to 16 MPa, and compared their undrained shear deformation behaviour with that of
chalk. Petley (1999) tested London Clay up to 30.1 MPa in an effort to define the form of the
peak strength envelope.
Marsden et al. (1992) conducted tests on Weald Shale and Fullers Earth up to 23 MPa and on
London Clay up to 8 MPa with the objective of making correlations between petrophysical and
mineralogical properties and the measured mechanical behavior. More recently, while Gutierrez
et al. (2008) tested Kimmeridge Clay up to 30 MPa and Barents Sea Shale up to 63 MPa as part
of an investigation into normalized behavior. All of the studies mentioned above involved
isotropically consolidated undrained triaxial compression (CIUC) tests on unweathered intact
samples. Obtaining intact samples generally involves some sampling disturbance, even with the
use of careful sampling procedures, and ideally large diameter or block samples should be used.
However, this is generally too expensive or infeasible, particularly in the case of deep samples or
samples from the deep ocean. Even more important, the use of intact samples rather than
resedimented ones does not allow one to control the stress history, i.e. pre- consolidation
pressure (σ’p), of the sample. As a result, intact samples with a high σ’p require a large
consolidation stress to reach the normally consolidated range while samples with a low σ’p
require the development of large strains in order to test at high stresses. Combined, these factors
make a systematic investigation of the mechanical
behavior of any soil as a function of both stress level and OCR practically impossible. It is
important to note that the above studies also involved isotropic consolidation of test specimens
prior to shearing. Unlike one-dimensional (i.e. KO) consolidation which best mimics in situ
conditions, isotropic consolidation is a very rare occurrence in nature and can produce a
significantly misleading behaviour in laboratory shear testing. A compilation of a large variety
soft clays in both intact and resedimented states by Belviso et al. (2001) illustrates the large
difference in undrained strength which some clays exhibit depending on the laboratory
consolidation procedure used. For consolidation to the same σ’vc, isotropically consolidated
specimens will generally have a higher undrained strength (Resedimented Boston Blue Clay is a
notable exception). This is due to the fact that, assuming KO < 1, the mean effective stress prior
to shearing will be larger, thereby producing a lower water content/void ratio and a
highernundrained strength. On the other hand, due to the anisotropic micro-structure possessed
by soil in a KO condition, KO consolidated specimens will generally exhibit a higher undrained
strength than isotropically consolidated specimens when consolidated to the same mean effective
stress. Isotropic consolidation can also produce a very misleading stress-strain response during
shearing
(Ladd and Varallyay 1965). For samples of resedimented clay and low OCR intact clay in
particular, isotropic consolidation can result in a much larger strain to failure (εf) and a less
distinct peak shear strength compared to samples subjected to KO consolidation.
Amorosi and Rampello (2007) investigated the behaviour of Vallericca Clay, a structured stiff
clay of marine origin from Italy, using a series isotropically and anisotropically consolidated
triaxial compression tests for σ’vc up to 11 MPa and 6.75 MPa respectively. These tests were
performed on intact samples, though some isotropically consolidated tests were also performed
on resedimented samples for σ’vc up to approximately 1.2 MPa. Specimens were sheared under
both drained and undrained conditions.
. Amorosi and Rampello reported that, under both isotropic and anisotropic consolidation to
stresses greater than σ’p, major and irreversible damage to the soil’s initial interparticle bonding
(likely weak cementation) was produced. While significant changes to the initial soil fabric
(where fabric refers to the arrangement of soil particles) also occurred during isotropic
consolidation to stresses beyond σ’p, only minor changes to the soil’s fabric were induced by
anisotropic consolidation to stresses Cambridge stress space plots deviatoric stress (σ1 - σ3)
versus mean effective stress p’m = ⅓(σ’1 + 2σ’3) beyond σ’p under nearly KO conditions. It was
proposed that, unlike for purely cemented soils, the natural fabric of the Vallericca Clay gave the
intact specimens an undrained strength much higher than the resedimented counterparts and this
difference was not eliminated by consolidation to high stresses nor by shearing.. The end points
of the tests where a constant shear stress was observed with continued straining produce a critical
state line (CSL). A single CSL can be defined for the intact specimens irrespective of their
isotropic or anisotropic consolidation histories. The critical states observed for resedimented
specimens define a CSL significantly below the one associated with the intact specimens, though
characterized by the same slope λ = 0.148. Since the intact and resedimented CSLs were found to
be parallel it was concluded, that over the stress range investigated, the natural Vallericca Clay
does not tend to the reference state defined by the corresponding resedimented material. Amorosi
and Rampello attributed the variation in behavior between the intact and resedimented samples
to a difference in soil fabric. Images taken of the fabric of the natural clay showed a prevalence
of edge-to-face contacts with average intra-aggregate pore spaces of 1 – 3 μm and inter-
aggregate pores of 3 – 6 μm. In contrast, the resedimented material displayed mostly face-to-face
contacts with more closely spaced aggregates. However, Vallericca Clay also contains an
unusually large proportion of microfossils, giving the clay a calcium carbonate content of about
30%. It is possible that these microfossils provide the intact material with additional strength
which is destroyed by the resedimentation process, though not by shearing in the triaxial device.
One of the most comprehensive and systematic investigations of the mechanical behaviour of a
clay for σ’vc up to 10 MPa was carried out by Abdulhadi (2009). Abdulhadi tested
Resedimented Boston Blue Clay (RBBC) through a series of CKOUC tests.
. Burland (1990) and Amorosi and Rampello (2007), as well as with previous work carried out
on RBBC, e.g. Sheahan (1991), Santagata (1994) and Santagata (1998). The increase in
normalized undrained strength (su/σ’vc, a.k.a. undrained strength ratio) associated with
increasing OCR is due to the dilative response of OC clay during shearing. As a result of
dilation, OC samples tend to generate lower excess pore pressures and fail at an effective stress
higher than the consolidation stress. On the other hand, NC samples exhibit entirely contractive
behaviour during shearing as positive excess pore pressures are produced and tend to fail at an
effective stress much lower than the consolidation stress.
, Abdulhadi (2009) found that increasing consolidation stress causes a reduction in normalized
undrained strength. Most of the decrease occurs at low stresses < 1 MPa. This reduction in
normalized strength with stress corresponds with an increase in the normally consolidated value
of KO (KONC) at the end of virgin consolidation as stress level increases,
Abdulhadi suggested that the link between normalized undrained strength and KO is more
pronounced in the NC clay than
the OC clay, since for the NC clay a relatively small shear stress increment is required to attain
the peak stress state from the pre-shear stress state. At a given stress level, the stress paths for
OCR approach a common failure envelope at large strains, However, while the failure envelope
at 10 MPa has a critical state friction angle φ’cs = 26.8° and normalized cohesion intercept c’/σ’p
= 0.032, the failure envelope at 0.2 MPa has φ’cs = 33.7° and c’/σ’p = 0.018. This implies a
failure envelope having significant curvature. The secant friction angle at peak shear strength
(φ’p) decreases with increasing stress level for the OC clay, which is expected given that φ’p
coincides with φ’cs. However, for the NC clay φ’p is unrelated φ’cs and the value of φ’p is
found to be unaffected by stress level. Increasing consolidation stress also produces a more
ductile response during shearing as strain to failure increases and post-peak strain softening
decreases for a given OCR, a behaviour illustrated in
MIT stress space plots shear stress q = ½(σv – σh) versus effective stress p’ = ½(σ’v + σ’h)

Abdulhadi (2009) found that as consolidation stress increases, the normalized excess pore
pressures generated during undrained shearing decreased for each OCR tested. To isolate the
pore pressure response due to changes in shear stress alone, the shear
induced pore pressure (us = Δu – Δσoct)3 provides a better understanding of pore pressure
generation during undrained shearing as it essentially removes the effect of total stress path. Note
that unlike ue, us is a soil property. In all cases the shear induced pore pressures initially
increase, indicating contractive behaviour. The NC clay remains contractive throughout shearing,
while the OCR = 2 clay changes to slightly dilative behaviour before contracting again with
increasing strain. The shear induced pore pressures decrease beyond 0.5% strain for the OCR = 4
clay which ultimately displays dilative behaviour with continued shearing. As the stress level
increases, the shear induced pore pressures decrease for the NC and OCR = 2 clay while for the
OCR = 4 clay the pore pressures instead increase, i.e. become less negative. Some of the very
limited triaxial compression testing carried out on resedimented clays for σ’vc higher than the 10
MPa achieved by Abdulhadi (2009) includes William (2007), Yassir (1989), Berre (1992) and
Bishop et al. (1975). William (2007) tested both resedimented and intact Bringelly Shale from
Sydney for σ’vc up to 60 MPa. However, these tests involved incremental isotropic consolidation
of test specimens prior to drained shearing. Only a limited number of tests were performed on
the resedimented material and the results are of little 3 Octahedral stress (σoct) is the same as
total mean stress (pm). For conventional triaxial compression testing where there is no change in
cell pressure during shearing, i.e. Oσ3 = 0, us is simply equal to Ou – ⅓Oσv.
Berre (1992) attempted to mimic the behaviour of intact natural clay shale using artificial shale
produced in the laboratory by resedimentation. Mixtures of remolded Moum Clay and kaolinite
were created so that their composition would be as close as possible to that of the natural clay
shale. The mixture had a clay fraction of approximately 58%, liquid limit (wL) of 60% and
plasticity index (Ip) of 37%, resulting in a Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)
classification of CH. Samples were consolidated in an oedometer
to σ’p = 32 MPa before being unloaded and dismounted. Triaxial specimens were then cut from
the oedometer sample and reconsolidated anisotropically in the triaxial cell to σ’vc = 20 MPa
(corresponding to an OCR = 1.6) before being sheared undrained. A comparison of very limited
results from triaxial tests performed on the resedimented material and on the natural clay shale
shows that while the undrained strengths were somewhat similar for the two materials when
compared at the same porosity, the stress-strain responses were very different. The resedimented
material behaved in a purely ductile manner with εf of almost 5%, while the intact natural clay
shale behaved in a brittle manner with εf varying from 0.4% to 2.4% and increasing with stress
level. It should be noted that εf of 5% is extremely large even for resedimented clay at an OCR
of 1.6. In addition to the differences in stress-strain response, the resedimented specimens
displayed a pronounced barrel shape when dismounted from the triaxial cell after shearing, with
little sliding along a slip surface. This is in contrast to the intact specimens where most of the
displacements after the small strain failure took place along one or two very distinct slip
surfaces. This type of shear deformation reported by Berre has also been found to occur in many
other natural clay shales (e.g. Petley (1999) and Petley et al. (1993)). Berre concluded that the
artificial clay shale may be considered as an uncemented version of the natural clay shale. Yassir
(1989) carried out an investigation into the undrained shear behaviour of severalresedimented
soils from mud volcanoes. A clay obtained from a mud volcano in Taiwan was tested for σ’vc up
to 68 MPa. This clay had a clay fraction of approximately 29%, wL = 32% and
Ip = 13%, resulting in a USCS classification of CL (low plasticity clay). Since it was obtained in
a completely remolded state from nature, it contained little or no cementation bonding. The
samples tested were prepared by consolidating a vacuumed slurry in an oedometer to σ’p = 2.45
MPa. Triaxial specimens were then trimmed from the oedometer sample and reconsolidated in
the triaxial cell to a stress higher than the oedometer σ’p using either isotropic or anisotropic
consolidation. All specimens were normally consolidated prior to undrained shearing. A peak
shear strength was not observed in any of the anisotropically consolidated tests and the clay
behaved in a completely ductile fashion, maintaining maximum deviatoric stress without
significant strain weakening for axial strains up to 16%. This is shown in Figure 2-9, where one
can also see a large difference in stress-strain response for tests TA and TF which involved
isotropic consolidation to σ’vc = 50 and 5 MPa respectively, compared to tests TC, TD and TE
which were anisotropically consolidated (with K = 0.6) to σ’vc = 68, 20 and 34 MPa (p’m = 50,
15 and 25 MPa) respectively. Figure 2-10 shows the corresponding undrained effective stress
paths for the tests in Cambridge stress space.
Rampello (2007). Similar to the findings of Abdulhadi (2009), Yassir reported a failure envelope
having significant curvature, with φ’cs (assuming c’ = 0) decreasing from 26.1° for test TF (σ’vc
= 5 MPa) to 22.6° for test TC (σ’vc = 68 MPa). A line drawn through the end points of the tests
at lower stresses. Pore pressures increased initially during undrained shearing after which they
remained approximately constant, indicating that critical state had been achieved. The
normalized undrained shear strengths found by Yassir (1989) vary very little over the entire
stress range investigated, ranging between just 0.24 to 0.25 for the anisotropically consolidated
tests, with no clear trend with stress level. This is in contrast to the findings of Abdulhadi (2009)
and may be related to the fact that Yassir used a constant K = 0.6 for all anisotropically
consolidated tests. Abdulhadi employed KO consolidation and found KONC to increase with
increasing consolidation stress as normalized undrained strength decreased. However, similar to
Abdulhadi, Yassir did find a clear decrease in normalized excess pore pressures with increasing
consolidation stress. Nuesch (1991) pioneered work on laboratory testing of reconstituted clay
shale. Nuesch
tested partially saturated samples of Opalinus Shale from the Jura Mountains in both triaxial and
simple shear configurations. Tests were performed at temperatures of 20 – 350 ˚C, strain rates of
10-4 – 10-6 s-1, and confining pressures of 0.1 - 400 MPa. It was found that water content and
confining pressure were the most important factors controlling the strength of the partially
saturated samples, with temperature and strain rate having much smaller influences by
comparison. Experiments performed at room temperature and at a confining pressure of 50 MPa
showed that a water content corresponding to a single layer of absorbed water had little effect on
strength when compared to a dry sample, but that a second layer of absorbed water reduced
strength by 20 % and a third layer by 50 %. The partially saturated nature of samples, however,
reduces the relevance of the study to the author’s work.
Compressibility
Settlement in soil is the reaction to stress or loading leading to straining of the
material. Soil settlement has been studied at length and is relatively well understood
(Terzaghi and Peck 1948, Holtz and Kovacs 1981, Das 1987, Salgado 2006). In this
section, soil settlement mechanisms are first briefly discussed to establish a framework
for investigating waste compressibility.
2.4 SOIL COMPRESSIBILITY (CONSOLIDATION)
The application of stress in soils is often a result of construction of a building or
earthen structure at the site and is considered one-dimensionally. In this section,
mechanisms of soil settlement are discussed. Next, the relationship between the
application of stress and strain for soil is described and discussed.
Quantification of the compression of soils in response to loading is complicated
by the non-linear and non-conservative response of soils to loading (Terzaghi and Peck
1948). Non-linearity of soil response may be described as a change in strain rate
despite a constant increase in stress (Holtz and Kovacs 1981). The non-conservative
nature of soils may be described as soil memory, akin to plastic deformation in other
materials (Holtz and Kovacs 1981).
The total amount of compression of a soil is the sum of three mechanisms:
elastic compression, consolidation, and secondary compression, or creep. Elastic
compression of soil occurs as a result of the application of load to the soil, resulting in
compression of the voids within the soil matrix and rearrangement of the soil particles
into a tighter packing structure. Elastic compression of soil is a function of initial void
ratio, applied stress, and stress history of the soil.
The application of load to soils is generally considered to result in an elastic
response. Although the portion of settlement described as elastic settlement is not truly
elastic, it is often approximated with the use of elastic theory. Elastic settlement occurs
in an undrained state, prior to dissipation of excess pore pressures due to loading (Lambe and
Whitman 1969).
Consolidation occurs as the water within the soil pore space is expelled by
continued loading and is time-dependent. Continued settlement due to consolidation is
generally more pronounced in fine grained soils as the hydraulic conductivity is lower
and the rate of pore water drainage is orders of magnitude lower than that of coarse
grained soils. Consolidation of soils is often approximated using Terzaghi’s one-dimensional
consolidation theory (Terzaghi’s and Peck 1948).
Secondary compression of soils occurs after excess pore water pressure has
dissipated and at constant effective stress. The secondary compression of soils is time
dependent and is particularly problematic in organic soils such as peats (Holtz and
Kovacs 1981).
In addition to having different phases of settlement, the stress-strain behavior of
soil is affected by compaction moisture content. Seed and Chan (1959) performed
unconsolidated, undrained triaxial compression tests on two silty clay samples, one
compacted dry of optimum and one compacted wet of optimum. They reported that the
sample that was compacted dry of optimum had a higher initial stress-strain slope than
the sample compacted wet of optimum. They attributed the measured differences to the
difference in soil structure resulting from different compaction moisture contents.
Seed and Chan (1959) showed that the strength of compacted clay peaked dry
of optimum. The curves reported by Seed and Chan showed a significant decrease in
strength at a specific moisture content dry of optimum. At higher levels of strain, the
drop in strength, although similar in magnitude, was drawn out over a larger range of
moisture content.
The stress-strain compression behavior of soil during confined compression may
be described as a three part process, as detailed in Lambe and Whitman (1969). For
soil, the initial portion of the stress-strain diagram shows locking (stage 1), as evidenced
by an upward concavity in the plot as soil grains interlock and voids are closed.
Continued stress begins to yield/crush particles, breaking off angularities and edges of
soil grains, resulting in a yielding behavior, as illustrated by a downward concavity of the
stress-strain plot (stage 2). Further yielding of the soil grains then begins to force the
new particles to be packed into the existing voids, resulting in a tighter packing structure,
more locking, and yet another change in the concavity of the stress-strain plot (stage 3).
Mechanical compression characteristics of a soil are commonly plotted on a void
ratio or strain versus log stress curve. The curve is commonly approximated as a
bilinear curve. The point of inflection of the curve is generally understood to represent
the highest previous stress that the soil or material has been subjected to, which is
known as the preconsolidation stress (Terzaghi and Peck 1948). The recompression
index, cr, represents the slope of the tangent line to the recompression curve that is
located to the left of (lower stress than) the preconsolidation stress. The compression
index, commonly denoted as cc, is the tangent to the compression curve at stresses
greater than the preconsolidation stress. A graphic illustrating a general void ratio
versus log stress curve is presented in Figure below

.The compression index may be used to predict the change in void ratio (and hence change in
strain or settlement) for normally consolidated soils based on a change in applied stress. To
account for differences in initial void ratio, it is common to calculate the compression ratio,
Soils with larger values of compression index will have greater settlement under
loading than soils with smaller values of compression index. Values of cc can range
from 0.15 for Chicago Clay to 15 for peats (Holtz and Kovacs 1981).
Peat soils exhibit significant settlements including a large fraction of secondary
Compression. Peat generally has high compositional variability, high compressibility

2.5 SOIL SHEAR STRENGTH

In soils, strength is measured in terms of shear strength. Soils do not generally
have much, if any, strength in tension due to the particulate composition of soils. Shear
strength in soils is the resistance to shear deformation of the soil mass and is described
by internal angle of friction and cohesion. Shear strength in soils results from particle
interlocking, particle interference, and sliding resistance (Terzaghi and Peck 1948).
Internal angle of friction (f) is a function of mineralogical composition, shape,
gradation, void ratio, and organic content of the soil and is measured in degrees (Holtz
and Kovacs 1981, Coduto 1999). The contribution of friction angle to the shear strength
of a soil is a function of the vertical effective stress at a given point in the soil. A higher
confining stress on the soil element will result in a higher frictional component of shear
strength.
Cohesion is interparticle attraction (Bowles 1997) or tendency of a soil to adhere
to itself. Cohesion is independent of the effective stress in the soil (Holtz and Kovacs
1981) and is a function of the colloidal forces within soil. The shear strength of a soil is
typically described by the Mohr-Coulomb failure criteria (Holtz and Kovacs 1981):

The shear strength envelope is plotted on a shear stress versus normal stress plot. Coarse grained
soils generally have little to no cohesion and greater internal angles of friction whereas fine
grained soils generally have a strength envelope dominated by cohesion with lower internal
angles of friction. Description of the strength behavior of sand and clay soils follows.
As moisture content in clay soil is increased, the mechanisms responsible for the
shear strength change. When the clay soil is dry of optimum, the soil tends to behave
more like a cohesion less soil, with a relatively high angle of friction and low cohesion as
potentially angular, flocculated structures dominate the shear strength behavior. As the
clay soil approaches optimum moisture content the internal angle of friction decreases
and the cohesion increases to maximum cohesion at optimum moisture content (Cokca
et al. 2004). This response is due to the breakdown of the flocculated structures, which
decreases frictional resistance to shearing and to increasing moisture content, which
lubricates the movement of clay particles past each other.
The shear strength of sands is not as sensitive to changes in moisture content as
in clays. Instead, shear strength of sandy soils is primarily dependent on relative
density, void ratio, and gradation (Holtz and Kovacs 1981). Better grading of sandy soils
also tends to increase internal angle of friction. With other factors held constant; poorly
graded materials have lower friction angles than well graded materials.
Frictional shear strength is also developed in peats. High friction angles have
been reported for peat by numerous researchers. Values within the 50° to 60° range are
not uncommon for fibrous peats tested in triaxial compression (Mesri and Ajlouni 2007).
However, large strains are required to mobilize the maximum frictional resistance in
fibrous peats, on the order of 5 to 10 times that required for mobilization of friction anglein soft
clay.
2.5.1 FAILURE ENVELOPES
Factors such as natural micro-structure, OCR and stress level result in several failure
envelopes being defined for a fine-grained soil. Burland (1990) reviewed the behaviour of
different intact and resedimented clays and demonstrated that the peak undrained strength of
undisturbed clays is often significantly greater than that of the corresponding resedimented
material at the same void ratio due to the effects of natural micro-structure. Burland concluded
that four fundamental failure envelopes may be defined for clays: 1) a peak strength envelope
defining brittle failure of undisturbed OC clays; 2) a post-rupture strength envelope representing
the end of rapid post-peak strain softening of undisturbed OC clays; 3) an ‘intrinsic’ critical
strength envelope defined by the failure of resedimented samples; and 4) a residual strength
envelope reached only after very large strains as particles become aligned parallel to the failure
surface. the peak strength envelope is curved, shows a cohesive intercept and lies above the
intrinsic critical state envelope due to the influence of natural micro-structure possessed by
undisturbed OC clay.
On the other hand, undisturbed NC clay (i.e. intact clay which possesses no mechanical or
apparent preconsolidation) will tend to fail on the intrinsic critical state envelope and then travel
down this envelope. The intrinsic critical state envelope may be interpreted as a basic property
independent of the undisturbed state of the material and can be viewed as providing a good basis
for comparison of the properties of different clays. The post-rupture envelope can be seen to lie
very close to the intrinsic critical state envelope. After very large shear strains, such as can be
attained in a ring shear device, both undisturbed and resedimented clay will reach a common
residual strength envelope as the platy clay particles become aligned parallel to a shear surface.
Petley (1999) reviewed the undrained shear behaviour of some resedimented and intact
hard clays and clay shales and proposed an extension to the work of Burland (1990) to include
the behaviour of these materials for consolidation stresses up to 50 MPa
intrinsic critical state envelope under Burland’s (1990) definition; a true residual strength
envelope is not considered by Petley). The brittle failure envelope (i.e. the ‘peak strength’
envelope under Burland’s terminology) is initially approximately linear with a cohesive intercept
but reduces in gradient with increasing consolidation stress as the material undergoes a transition
to a more ductile stress-strain response. The gradient of the brittle failure envelope decreases
such that it ultimately intersects the intrinsic critical state envelope, at which point behavior is
purely ductile. The stress level at which these envelopes intersect will likely depend on the
amount and strength of natural micro-structure which the material possesses, as indicated by the
magnitude of the [apparent] preconsolidation stress, with strongly structured soils showing a
distinct peak strength up to relatively high stresses. After brittle failure, the undisturbed material
will strain weaken to the post-rupture envelope. The shape of the post-rupture envelope is poorly
understood and difficult to define, but evidence suggests that it has a curved form at high
stresses. For relatively low consolidation stresses, undisturbed natural OC clays and clay shales
do not reach the intrinsic critical state envelope except at large strains. On the other hand, at
relatively high consolidation stresses the peak strength envelope coincides with the intrinsic
critical state envelope. However, the form of the failure envelope in the ductile regime is not well
understood. Based on the work of Yassir (1989), Petley concluded that the intrinsic critical state
envelope is linear for mean consolidation stresses up to at least 50 MPa. However, as mentioned
previously, Yassir (1989) actually found that slope of this envelope decreases slightly with stress
level. Moreover, the findings of Abdulhadi (2009) give strong indication that the intrinsic critical
state envelope is in fact also non-linear.
2.6 UNDISTURBED SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
Of the very large number of sampling techniques devised worldwide since the turn of the
century, few are now in current use, and even fewer are in current use in the UK. Here, the most
widely used tools are the 100 mm dia. thick-walled open-drive sampler, the ‘Standard
Penetration Test’ 35 mm thick-walled open-drive split barrel sampler, 54mm or 102mm thin-
walled fixed-piston samplers, and double-tube swivel type core barrels. The types of sampler
adopted in each part of the world depend on the state of development of the area, its sampling
tradition, economics, and its principal soil types. In the heavily developed South East and
Midlands of England, soil types are typically stiff or very stiff clays and weak rocks. In the
valleys, alluvium often consists of coarse gravels. Sampling is therefore based on the use of
rugged tools in a large diameter borehole.
When carrying out site investigation abroad, the available drilling equipment is often very
different from that used at home, and the familiar sampling tools may be either unobtainable or
inappropriate. When drilling at home the solution of new problems may require a reappraisal of
the value of commonly used techniques. These factors require an engineer to be aware of as
many types of sampler as possible and this chapter therefore sets out to review the main types of
equipment now available (Sampling and sample disturbance) the way in which a number of
common types of sampler are constructed, and the manner in which they work was described.
Samples are obtained in a number of ways:
1. by using a number of techniques in shallow pits, shafts and exposures; and
2. in boreholes, using either drive or rotary techniques.

Drive samplers are pushed into the soil without rotation, displacing the soil as they penetrate.
They generally have a sharp cutting edge at their base. In contrast, rotary samplers (often termed
‘corebarrels’) have a relatively thick and blunt cutting surface, which has hard inclusions of
tungsten or diamond set into it. The sampler is rotated and pushed (relatively) gently downwards,
cutting and grinding the soil away beneath it.
It is generally believed that undisturbed sampling is not possible in granular soils. Nonetheless,
special techniques for sand sampling have been developed over the years, considering the
selection of appropriate samplers for different purposes, and to suit different ground conditions.

2.6.1 SAMPLES FROM PITS AND EXPOSURES

Trial pits, trenches and shallow excavations are often used in site investigations, particularly
during investigations for low- and medium-rise construction, because they provide an
economical means of acquiring a very detailed record of the complex soil conditions which often
exist near to the ground surface. It is worth remembering, however, that trial pits and other
exposures can also be used for in situ testing and to obtain high-quality samples.
The types of samples taken will vary according to the needs of the investigation. Disturbed
samples of granular soil are likely to be more representative than those that can be taken from
boreholes. Disturbed samples are often taken for moisture content or plasticity determination in
the laboratory, and in association with determinations of in situ density.
Undisturbed samples can be obtained either by drive sampling or block sampling . In either case
it is important to recognize the disturbance created by excavating the trial excavation, and ensure
that disturbed material is carefully removed before or after sampling. To this end, the faces and
bottom of the pit should be hand trimmed in the areas to be sampled (or described), particularly
when the pit has been machine excavated. In exposures, an attempt should be made to remove
the weathered surface of the soil.
In the UK 38mm open-drive tubes are often hammered into the sides and base of trial pits. These
tubes normally have no check valve, a high area ratio, and no inside clearance. It is often
necessary to dig the sample tube out of the soil in order to avoid losses. When U100 tubes (see
under ‘Drive samplers’) are used, they require considerable force and are commonly pushed into
the soil with a ‘back-actor’ bucket. Care must be taken to prevent rocking of sample tubes during
driving since this causes serious disturbance to the soil at the shoe level. The use of a frame to
align the sampler during driving is advisable.
Better quality samples of firm to stiff clay soils can be obtained by trimming the soil in advance
of a large diameter (100—200 mm) sampler. This eliminates the disturbance caused by soil
displacement ahead of the cutting shoe, but may allow slight lateral expansion of the soil. When
the material to be sampled is either hard, stoney or coarse and granular, it is essential that
advanced trimming of large diameter samples is used.
When the soil is sufficiently stiff or cemented to stand up under its own weight, a block sample
may be taken. The normal technique is to cut a column of soil about 300mm cube, so that it will
fit inside a box with a clearance of 10—20 mm on all sides. A box with a detachable lid and
bottom is used for storage. With the lid and bottom removed, the sides of the box are slid over
the prepared soil block, which is as yet attached to the bottom of the pit. After filling the space
between the sides of the box and block with paraffin wax, and similarly sealing the top of the
block, the lid is placed on the box. The block is then cut from the soil using a spade, and the base
of the sample trimmed and sealed. Block samples allow complete stress relief, and may therefore
lead to expansion of the soil, but in very stiff clays this technique is widely regarded as providing
the best available samples.
2.6.2 THE SHERBROOKE SAMPLER
Block samples can only be taken from depth in heavily overconsolidated soils, such as the
London clay. In normally and lightly overconsolidated clays, excavation of a pit or shaft to more
than a few metres depth is often impossible because base heave will occur. Lefebvre and Poulin
(1979) calculate that, for example, in a clay with an undrained shear strength the depth of a
trench or pit will be limited to about 4 m, if a factor of safety of two is to be maintained.
To overcome this problem, Levebvre and Poulin (1979) designed the apparatus shown in Fig.
7.2, which is essentially a down-borehole block sampler. The equipment needs a borehole of
about 400 mm diameter, which is best cleaned using a flat- bottomed auger, in order to reduce
disturbance and minimize the amount of disturbed material left in the base of the hole before
sampling. The hole is kept full of bentonite mud. The sampler is lowered to the base of the hole,
and rotated, either by hand or using a small electric motor, at about 5r.p.m. A cylinder of soil,
about 250 mm in diameter, is carved out by three circumferential blades, spaced at 120°. They
make a slot about 50mm wide, and are fed by bentonite or water to help clear the cuttings. The
time taken to obtain a sample obviously depends upon ground conditions, but may be about 30—
40min. After carving out a cylinder about 350 mm high, the operator pulls a pin, and the blades
(which are spring-mounted) gradually rotate under the base of the sample, as rotation is
continued. Closure of the blades separates the sample from the underlying soil, and the sample is
then lifted to the surface with a block and tackle. Lifting takes place very slowly for the first 0.5
m, in order to avoid suction at the base of the sample. The sample is coated with layers of
paraffin wax, and may be placed in a container packed with damp sawdust or other suitable
material. The complete process takes about 3 h, including preparation for shipment.
Tests by Lefebvre and Poulin have shown that this sampler is capable of obtaining soil of
comparable quality to that produced by block sampling in the sensitive clays of eastern Canada.
The sampler was used in the Bothkennar clay in Scotland, where it provided the highest quality
of samples obtainable (Clayton et al. 1992). It was found, however, that the apparatus is quite
time-consuming and difficult to use. Lefebvre and Poulin (1979) note that it is not intended that
this technique should replace tube sampling for routine investigations. But where the highest
quality samples are required for testing of soft or sensitive clays, at the time of writing this
apparatus provides the best method of obtaining undisturbed samples from depth.
2.6.3 DRIVE SAMPLERS
Drive samplers are samplers which are either pushed or driven into the soil without rotation. The
volume of soil corresponding to the thickness of the sampler wall is displaced into the
surrounding soil, which is either compacted or compressed.
Drive samplers can be divided into two broad groups: open-drive samplers and piston drive
samplers. Open-drive samplers consist of a tube which is open at its lower end, while piston
drive samplers have a movable piston located within the sampler tube. Piston samplers can be
pushed through a soft soil to the desired sampling level, but open-drive samplers will admit soil
as soon as they are brought into contact with, for example, the bottom of a borehole.

2.6.4 OPEN-DRIVE SAMPLERS

Open-drive samplers suffer from several disadvantages, as Hvorslev (1949) pointed out. Poor
cleaning of the borehole before sampling, or collapse of sides of the borehole after cleaning may
mean that much of the recovered soil is not only highly disturbed, but also non-representative.
The use of a large area ratio can induce soil displaced by the sampler drive and causing large-
scale remoulding of the
sample.
The advantages of open-drive sampling are principally those of cheapness, ruggedness and
simplicity of operation. Open-drive samplers can be arbitrarily divided into two groups. Thin-
wall open-drive samplers have been defined as those with a wall thickness of sampling tube of
less than 2.5% of the diameter, corresponding approximately to an area ratio of 10% (Hvorslev
1949). This classification is not a good guide to the amount of sampling disturbance because of
the influence of cutting shoe taper and in situ stress level in the soil. In the following discussion
thin-wall sampling devices are taken to be those with an area ratio of less than 20%, and a
suitable cutting shoe taper, while thick-wall samplers are taken to have an area ratio greater than
20%.
2.6.5 THICK-WALLED OPEN-DRIVE SAMPLERS
Thick-walled open-drive samplers are widely used throughout the world. In their most common
forms they consist of a solid or split sampler barrel, threaded at both ends to take a cutting shoe
(typically with inside clearance) and a sampler head provided with either a check valve or vents.
2.6.6 BS GENERAL PURPOSE SAMPLER
The British Standard General Purpose 100 mm Sampler (BS ‘5930:1981), commonly termed the
U100 sampler, evolved during the 1930s and 1940s (Le Grand et al. 1934; Cooling and Smith
1936; Cooling 1942; Longsdon 1945; Rodin 1949). The sampler is rugged, cheap and will
provide a core sample in most British clays, which are typically heavily overconsolidated. Its
size and form were adopted because of the common borehole size at the time of its development,
and because of its ability to sample (however ‘inadequately) in stoney very stiff glacial clays.
The British Standard U100 sampler will fit inside a 150mm dia. borehole. Harding (1949) noted
that:some believe that the smaller the [casing] tube the cheaper will be the hole. This is a fallacy.
In British gravel-laden deposits, nothing less than 6-inches [152 mm] diameter is worthwhile.
This permits the average type of stone to be brought up by shell without pounding with a chisel
and also allows of 4-inch diameter sampling.
Light percussion drillers will often use 200mm tools in preference to the 150mm size because of
their greater weight, and thus their improved ability to make fast progress.
A typical British 100mm dia. open-drive sampler. It has a 104 mm inside dia. at the base of the
cutting shoe, a 27% area ratio, and an inside clearance of 1.4% provided by tapering the inside
diameter of the cutting shoe at an angle of 30 to meet the 106mm internal diameter of the sample
tube, or by providing a uniform internal diameter to the cutting shoe and thus stepping out,
abruptly at the junction of the shoe and sampler tube. The outside cutting edge taper may be 20°
up to a thickness of 2.3 mm, and 7° thereafter, or alternatively may initially be 30°, and then 15°
up to a 6.5mm thickness. Designs vary according to the manufacturer, but shoes and tubes are
always interchangeable. The normal sample tube length is 457 mm, but two tubes are often
coupled together in order to allow debris at the bottom of the borehole to pass into the upper tube
during driving. Thus the normal length to diameter ratio is about 4.5, with a possible maximum
of 9.
The U100 sampler head incorporates vents and a ball valve assembly to allow air or water to
leave the top of the tube as soil enters at its base. The ball valve is also intended to improve the
sample retention by preventing air or water re-entering the top of the tube if the sample starts to
slide out. Because of the conditions under which the vents and ball valve are expected to work, it
is important to ensure that the sampler head is cleaned before each sampling operation. Even
though the build-up of pressure above the sample can be reduced to an acceptable level, it is
doubtful if the ball-valve assembly can be effective in reducing sample losses.
The so-called British Standard sampler is not as completely standardized as, for example the
Swedish piston sampler. In CP 2001:1957 the maximum area ratio was specified as 25%, with an
inside clearance of between 1% and 3%, and a drawing of a suitable design was given. BS
5930:1981 allows an area ratio of 30%, but other recommendations remain the same. The vent
area should be not less than 600mm2 cutting shoe taper is not specified. The sampler may or may
not use liners, to allow the specimen to be transported and stored in a lightweight cylinder which
does not have to be able to resist driving forces.
laminated clay. The inclusion of a plastic liner, typically about 3mm thck (means that the cutting
shoe thickness must be increased. Taking the example of the lower cutting shoe in Fig. 6.11, it
can be calculated that the area ratio will increase from 27% to 41%. Examination of cutting
shoes used with this type of sampler suggests that a value of area ratio of 45—50% is usual,
equivalent to a B/t ratio of about 11. The minimum axial strain (at the centreline) will be of the
order of 4—5%, and peripheral strains and shear distortions can be expected to have a very
significant effect on soil properties (Georgiannou and Right, 1994).
The U100 sampler is rugged, and easy to use. The sample tubes are screw-threaded to the head
and cutting shoe before sampling. The sampler head is screwed to a sliding hammer (also termed
a ‘jarring link’) and lowered down to the base of the hole on square rods. The sampler is driven
into the soil by repeatedly lifting the rods through about 500mm and allowing them to fall. The
number of blows and the distance moved by the sampler head during the drive are recorded by
the driller. The sampler may be pulled immediately from the soil, or in stiff cohesive soils it may
be left in the soil for a few minutes before it is brought to the top of the hole. After sampling, the
tube and soil are carefully separated from the cutting shoe and sampler head. A small quantity of
soil is removed from either end of the tube if necessary, and the ends of the sample are waxed,
packed and then sealed with either plastic, or screw-threaded metal caps. If damaged or blunt, the
cutting shoe is replaced before the sampler is next used.
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction
A laboratory test program will be undertaken to evaluate the mechanical properties of
Clay as a function of compaction conditions. The objectives of the test program were
to establish the geotechnical parameters associated with that Sample behavior.
.

3.2 Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) Test for Untreated Black Cotton Soil

Apparatus to be used for Unconfined Compressive Strength Test include:

(i) Unconfined compressive testing machine (Triaxial Machine)

(ii) Specimen preparation equipment

(iii) Sample extruder.

Procedure

Unconfined compressive strength (UCS) test will be performed on cylindrical speciens 38.1mm

in diameter and length of 76.2mm. The specimen will be compacted at optimum moisture

content with British standard light (BSL) energy levels. After each compaction, the soil will be

extruded from mould and trims the soil and sealed in a geotextile (polythene bag) and places the

sample in a humidity room maintained at a relative humidity of 90% in order to minimize

moisture loss, and kept for a period of 48hours to allow for uniform moisture distribution and

curing. After curing specimen they will be trimmed to diameter of 38.1mm and placed on a

triaxial base (acrylic) in a load frame UCS machine driven strain control at 0.10%mm and then

record the load and deformation dial reading on data sheet at every 20-50 division on the

deformation the dial, until failure occurred.

Remove the sample from compressive device and obtain a sample for water content

determination.

3.3 Consolidation Test (Remold method) for the Soil sample

Apparatus for Consolidation Test include:

(i) Washing bottle

(ii) Electronic weighing balance

(iii) Compacting light metal bar

(iv) Consolidation Apparatus

(v) Porous and non-porous metal plates

(vi) Evaporating dish

(vii) 200ml measuring cylinder

(viii) Consolidation machine.

Procedure

The sample wil be prepared at a maximum dry density (MDD) and the optimum moisture

Content (OMC) obtained from the British standard light effort. The amount of soil to be

used compacting into the (60x60x22mm) square mould will be obtained. The required quality of

soil will be measured using electronic weighing balance and evaporating dish, the soil will be

thoroughly mixed with the required amount of water until a homogeneous material is obtained.

The consolidometer was properly arranged, the base was fixed, the non-porous plate placed on it

first and then the porous plate will be place on the non-porous one. The homogenous soil

material soil will be compacted into the square mould in layers leaving allowance for the top

porous plates and the cap to sit. A ring will be placed on the compacted soil sample and will be

trim to the level of the mould, hammer will be used to hit the ring into the soil sample, so as to
get the shape of the ring. After hitting, the ring will be removed from sample. Water was filled

into the fixed base consolidation apparatus and the consolidometer was carefully fixed into the

apparatus and the ring fixed with the sample will also be entered into the apparatus and the dial

gauge will be properly made to come in contact with the piston resting on the top cap. The gauge

are to be adjusted to initialize the reading at zero. Soil square in the consolidometer will be

loaded using 10kg weight through the lever on the consolidating machine. The soil will be

compressed by this load, and was confined in the horizontal direction in a rigid square mould.

Measurements will be made of the settlement of the top cap, using the mechanical dial gauge to

an accuracy of 0.001mm.

The settlement are to be taken at 15seconds, 30seconds, 1minutes, 2minutes, 4minutes,

8minutes, 15minutes, 30minutes, 1hours, 2hours, 4hours, 12hours, without increment of load.

The result obtained for various percentages and coefficient of consolidation Cv.

Coefficient of consolidation is given as;

Cv = T90H2 (4)
t90

Where; Cv = Co-efficient of consolidation.

t9o = A theoretical constant as 0.848

H = Half the height of the specimen in the consolidometer.

T90 = Time at 90% consolidation of the specimen (Terzaghis theory).

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