DESIGN OF HIGHWAYS

Relationship of Traffic to Highway Design

Design Criteria The major traffic elements that influence highway
The elements of design are influenced by a wide design are:
variety of design controls, engineering criteria, and Average Daily Traffic The fundamental
project-specific objectives. Such factors include the (ADT) & Annual Average measures of traffic flow
following: Daily Traffic (AADT)
▪ Traffic safety considerations Design Hourly Volume The most significant
▪ Functional classification of the roadway (DHV) measure of traffic
▪ Projected traffic volume and composition volume to the designer
▪ Required design speed Directional Distribution The one-way volume in
▪ Multimodal needs of the surrounding community (D) the predominant
▪ Topography of the surrounding land direction of travel,
▪ Capital costs for construction expressed as a
▪ Agency funding mechanisms proportion of the volume
▪ Human sensory capacities of roadway users in the two-way design
▪ Vehicle size and performance characteristics hour volume. Ranges
▪ Public involvement, review, and comment from 50% – 70%.
▪ Environment considerations Percentage of Trucks (T) Expressed as the
▪ Right-of-way impacts and costs percentage of trucks
These considerations are not completely (exclusive of light
independent of one another. Of all factors that are delivery trucks) present
considered in the design of a highway, the principal in the traffic flow during
criteria are traffic volume, design speed, vehicle size the design hour.
and vehicle mix. Design Speed (V)

 The functional class of a proposed facility

largely determined by the volume and
composition of the traffic to be served. It is also
related to the type of service that a highway
will accommodate and the design speed that a
vehicle will travel while being driven along a
highway.
 The choice of a design speed is governed
primarily by the surrounding topography,
regional importance within the larger highway
network, magnitude of related construction
impacts, and capital costs associated with
construction of the highway project.
 Once a design speed is chosen, many of the
elements of design (e.g. horizontal & vertical
alignment, shoulder width, and side slopes)
may be established on the basis of fundamental
human sensory capabilities, vehicle
performance, and other related operating
characteristics.
Roadway Capacity
 Once a level of service has been chosen for a
particular project design, the corresponding
service volume logically becomes the design
service volume. This implies that if the traffic
volume using this facility exceeds that value, the
operating conditions will be inferior to the level
of service for which the roadway was designed.
 An evaluation of the estimated volume of traffic
anticipated to occur during the design year is
useful in determining the number of lanes
required to achieve the desired level of service
operation.
Design Speed
 The assumed design speed for a highway may
be considered as “a selected speed used to
determine the various geometric design
features of the roadway”. The engineer should
select a design speed appropriate to assure that
road users can travel their desired speeds for
the specific facility.
 Other factors determining the selection of
design speed include terrain, traffic volume and
composition, costs of right-of-way and
construction, and aesthetic considerations.
Design Vehicle
 The dimensions of the motor vehicles that will
utilize the proposed facility also influence the
design of a roadway project. The width of the
vehicle naturally affects the width of the traffic
lane; the vehicle length has a bearing on a
roadway capacity and affects the turning radius;
and the vehicle height affects the clearance of
the various structures.
 AASHTO recommends four design vehicle
classes for geometric design of a highway
vehicles. They include (1) passenger cars, (2)
buses, (3) trucks, (4) recreational vehicles.
Cross – Section Elements
 The width of the surfaced road and number of
lanes should be adequate to accommodate
the type and volume of traffic anticipated and
the assumed design speed of vehicles. Roads
presently in use have traditionally been
separated into generalized categories that
include two-lane, three-lane, multilane
undivided, multilane divided, and limited-access
highways.
Pavement Crowns
 It is the raising of the centerline of the roadway
above the elevation of the pavement edges.
Curb Configurations
 The design of curbs varies from a low, flat, angle
– type, to nearly vertical barrier – type curb. In
areas where sidewalks are not provided, curbs
adjacent to traffic lanes should be low in height
and constructed with a flatter vertical angle so
as not to create an obstruction. The face of the
curb should be no steeper than 45° (mountable
curb) so that vehicles may drive over the curb
without difficulty.
 Curbs at parking areas and adjacent to
sidewalks should be 150 to 200 mm in height,
with a curb face that is nearly vertical. Storm
water drainage and the ability to accommodate
curb inlets will also affect the shape and height
of the curb.
Shoulders
 For roads without curbs, it is necessary to
provide shoulders for safe operation and to
allow the development of full traffic capacity. A
well-maintained, smooth, firm shoulders
increase the effective width (3m) of the traffic
lane, as most vehicle operators drive closer to
the edge of the pavement in the presence of
adequate shoulders.
 In mountainous areas, where the extra cost of
providing shoulders of this width may be
prohibited, the use of partial shoulders may be
permitted provided that a stopped vehicle
would only protrude to 0.3m to1.2m into the
adjacent travel lane.
 For areas of terrain where guardrails or other
vertical elements (such us retaining walls) are
required, an additional 0.6m of shoulder
widening should be provided.
Guardrails
 A guardrail should be provided where fills are
over 2.4m in height, when shoulder slopes are
greater than 1V:4H, in locations where there is
sudden change in alignment, and where a
greater reduction in speed is necessary. In
locations with deep roadside ditches, steep
banks, or other right-of-way limitations, it is
often necessary to steepen the side slopes and
to require the use of a guardrail.
W-Beam-Cable- Box Beam
Drainage Ditches
 It should be located and shaped to avoid
creating a hazard to traffic safety. Under normal
conditions, ditches should be low enough to
drain the water from under the pavement. A
broad, flat, rounded ditch section has been
found to be safer than a V-type ditch.
Slopes
 The graded area immediately adjacent to the
graded roadway shoulder is the sideslope. In a
cross section with a drainage ditch, the slope on
the far side of the ditch where the roadside
region slopes back to natural topography is the
backslope. The sideslope down to the ditch is
often referred to as the foreslope.
Roadway Alignment
 An ideal and most desirable roadway is one that
generally follows the existing natural alignment
of the countryside. This is the most economical
type of highway to construct, but certain
aspects of the design that must be maintained.
The designer must produce an alignment in
which conditions are consistent and uniform to
 help reduce problems related to driver
expectancy.
 The ideal highway locations is one with
consistent alignment, where both vertical grade
and horizontal curvature receive consideration
and are configured to satisfy limiting design
criteria. The optimal final alignment will be that
in which the best balance between grade and
curvature is achieved.
 Terrain has considerable influence on the final
choice of alignment. Generally, the topography
of the surrounding area is fitted into one of
three classifications: level, rolling, or
mountainous.
 In level country, the alignment is in general
limited by considerations other than grade, that
is, cost of rightof-way, land use, waterways
requiring expensive bridging, existing cross
roads, railroads, canals, power lines, and
subgrade conditions or the availability of
suitable borrow materials.
 In rolling country, grade and curvature must be
carefully considered and to a certain extent
balanced. Depths of cut and height of fill,
drainage structures, and number of bridges will
depend on whether the route follows the
ridges, the valleys, or a cross-drainage
alignment.
 In mountainous country, grades provide the
greatest problem, and, in general, the
horizontal alignment or curvature is controlled
by maximum grade criteria.
Sight Distance
 Safe highways must be designed to give drivers
a sufficient distance of clear vision ahead so
they can avoid hitting unexpected obstacles and
can pass slower vehicles without danger.
 Sight Distance is the length of highway visible
ahead to the driver of a vehicle. For roadway
segments, three general types of sight distance
should be considered:
1. The stopping sight distance is the minimum distance
required to stop a vehicle traveling near the design speed
before it reaches a stationary object in the vehicle’s path.
2. When the sight distance is long enough to enable a vehicle
to overtake and pass another vehicle on a two-lane highway
without interference from opposing traffic, this distance is
referred to as passing sight distance.
3. Often a driver may encounter an unexpected road feature.
The sight distance required for a driver to make decisions
and successfully execute required maneuvers at complex
locations is decisions sight distance.
ROADSIDE DESIGN
Roadside Topography
 When a motorist leaves the roadway, the
vehicle’s lateral encroachment and trajectory
are affected by the geometry of the roadside.
Most roadsides are not flat. Usually, the
motorist encounters an embankment, a cut
slope, or a ditch. The slopes of embankments
may be parallel to the flow of traffic or at an
angle to the flow of traffic.
Embankments Parallel to the Flow of Traffic
AASHTO defines three categories of slopes of
embankments parallel to the flow of traffic:
1. Recoverable Slopes. Motorists encroaching on recoverable
embankment slopes can
generally stop their vehicles or slow them enough to return
safely to the road way. Slopes 1V:4H or flatter are generally
considered to be recoverable.
2. Non-recoverable Slopes. These slopes are traversable, but
motorists who encroach on then will be unable to stop or to
return to the roadway safely. Slopes between 1V:3H and
1V:4H are typically considered to be non-recoverable.
3. Critical Slopes. Critical slopes are those on which a vehicle
is likely to overturn. Slopes generally steeper than 1V:3H
occur with critical slopes, and protective roadside barriers
may be required to restrict access to these slopes.
Drainage Features
 Ditches and drainage structures are integral and
necessary elements of the highway cross
section. These elements must, however, be
thoughtfully and properly designed,
constructed, and maintained, with
consideration given to their effect on a safe
roadside environment.
Ditches
 The side slopes of ditches should be as flat as
possible consistent with drainage requirements.
Preferably, the bottoms of ditches should be
wide and rounded so as to be traversable by
out-of-control vehicles. If deep, narrow side
ditches must be used, they may need to be
shielded by roadside barriers.
Drainage Structures
 It is important that curbs, cross-drainage
structures, parallel drainage culverts, and drop
inlets be designedwith proper consideration for
safety. To enhance roadside safety, the
following guidelines apply:
1. Eliminate all nonessential drainage structures.
2. Design, relocate, or modify drainage structures so they are
traversable and not otherwise hazardous to an out-of-control
vehicle.
3. Shield hazardous drainage features that cannot be
redesigned or relocated with a suitable traffic
barrier.
Curbs
 The use of curbs along high-speed roadways
should be avoided. It is common for vehicles
that are sliding sideways or slipping to overturn
upon impact with curbs. If a curb must be used
along high-speed highways where a barrier is
present, it is preferable to place it flush with the
barrier or behind it.
Cross-Drains
 Cross-drain structures, which are designed to
carry water underneath the roadway
embankment, are varied in size and design.
Care should be taken to ensure that cross-
drains do not become a hazard, either as a
protruding fixed object or as an opening into
which a vehicle can drop.
Longitudinal Barriers
 Longitudinal Barriers are used to prevent
vehicles from leaving the roadway and crashing
into roadside obstacles, overturning, or crossing
into the path of vehicles traveling in the
opposite direction.
 The three main classes of longitudinal barriers:
roadside barriers, median barriers & bridge
railings.
 Before they are placed into service, longitudinal
barriers and related energy absorbing terminals
and transitions are usually tested and evaluated
by full-scale vehicle crash tests.
leaving the roadway and striking a fixed object
or traversing a terrain feature that is considered
more hazardous than the barrier itself.
 Various types of roadside barrier systems are
flexible, semirigid, and rigid systems. Flexible
and semirigid barriers are commonly referred to
as guardrails. Some agencies have successfully
used the so-called weak post system where the
post collapse when struck, and the rail deflects
and absorbs the energy of impact.
Median Barriers
 Median Barriers are used primarily to prevent
vehicles from crossing the median and
encroaching into opposing lanes.
Bridge Railings
 Bridge railings are special types of longitudinal
barriers designed to prevent vehicles from
running off the edge of bridges or culverts. They
differ from roadside barriers in that they are
connected to the structure and are usually
designed to have little or no deflection.
Crash Cushions
 Crash Cushions are used to decelerate errant
vehicles to a stop, greatly reducing the severity
of head-on impact with a fixed object by
spreading the energy of impact over time and
space. A variety of crash cushions have been
proposed and tested, including rows of barrels,
entrapment nets, and arrays of containers filled
with sand or water.

Roadside Barriers
 Used to shield motorists from hazards located
along each side of a roadway. They are intended
to redirect errant vehicles away from a hazard
rather than to protect or prevent damage to a
sign or other highway appurtenances. Their
primary purpose is to prevent a vehicle from
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN FOR HIGHWAYS
INTRODUCTION: The alignment of a highway or street
produces a great impact on the environment. The
alignment consists of a variety of design elements that
combine to create a facility that serves traffic safely and
efficiently, consistent with the facility’s intended
function. Each alignment element should complement
others to achieve a consistent, safe, and efficient
design.
I. DESIGN SPEEDS
⚫ Design speed is defined by the AASHTO Green Book
as: ...the maximum safe speed that can be maintained
over a specified section of highway when conditions
are so favorable that the design features of the
highway govern.
⚫ Design Speed should:
1) “…be consistent with the speed the driver is likely to
expect.” and
2) “. . .fit the travel desires and habits of nearly all drivers.”
⚫ Not posted speed and not operating speed (but
ALWAYS higher than both.
 Values represent the minimum acceptable
design speeds for the various conditions of
terrain and traffic volumes associated with new
or reconstructed highway facilities
II. Horizontal alignment
 Horizontal alignment for linear
transportation facilities such as highways
and railways consist of Horizontal tangent.
Circular curves and possibly transition
curves. In the case of highways. Transition
curves are not always used. The figure
illustrates horizontal alignments with and
without transition curves.
Horizontal Tangents
 are describes in terms of their lengths (as
expressed in the stationing of the job) and
their directions.

Design Speed Considerations

 Functional classification of the highway
 Character of the terrain
 Density and character of adjacent land uses
 Traffic volumes expected to use the highway
 Economic and environmental considerations

Design Speed (suggested minimum design speed) Circular Curves

 Circular curves horizontal curves are normally
Rural Arterials circular. horizontal curves are described by Radius
⚫ 60 – 120 kph (40-75 mph) (R) Central Angle ()( which is equal to deflection
⚫ Depends on … angle between the tangent) Length (L) Semitangent
distance (T). Middle ordinate (M). External distance
⚫Terrain
(E ) and Chord (C ). The curve begins at the Tangent-
⚫Driver expectancy to-curve point (TC) and ends at the curve-to-tangent
⚫Alignment (reconstruction) point (CT).

Urban
 Locals 20-30 mph
 Collectors 30 mph+
 Arterials 30-60 mph
 Transition Curve Important Components of Simple Circular Curve:
 Transition cures are used to connect tangents to
circular curves. Several forms of curve have
been used for this purpose. The most logical
choice from a theoreticals and point. And the
only one discussed here is the clothoid spiral.
For which theradius of curvature varies as the
inverse of the distance along the curve from its
beginning.

III. Superelevation
 Superelevation is the transverse slope provided
to counteract the effect of centrifugal force and
reduce the tendency of vehicle to overturn and
Design of Horizontal Alignment to skid laterally outwards by raising the
DETERMINATION OF : pavement outer edge with respect to inner
1. Minimum Radius edge. superelevation is represented by “ e ”.
2. Length of the curve
3. Computation offset from the tangent of the
curve to facilitate the setting of the curve.

Horizontal Curve Design

 Design a based on appropriate relationship
between design speed and curvature and their
relationship with side friction and
superelevation.
 Turning the front wheels. Side friction and
superelevation generate an acceleration toward
center of curvature ( centripetal acceleration)

Horizontal Curve Calculations: