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THE SUNDERBANS BIOSPHERE: A STUDY ON UNCERTAINTIES AND IMPACTS

IN ACTIVE DELTA REGION

Article · January 2004

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 THE SUNDERBANS BIOSPHERE: A STUDY ON
UNCERTAINTIES AND IMPACTS IN ACTIVE DELTA REGION

SHIVASHISH BOSE
Architect, Conservationist, Researcher
Centre for Built Environment
2/5, Sarat Bose Road, Kolkata – 700020, India

Sunderbans in India on the coast of Bay of Bengal is part of the world’s largest Active
Delta having a network of tidal rivers, channels, creeks, islands, mudflats, coastal dunes
with hydrodynamic uncertainties, changing geomorphology and climatic hazards, a vast
area of mangrove forest with rich variety of flora and diverse fauna in a unique
ecosystem. Unscientific and excessive human interferences and exploitation of natural
resources have caused physical disaster to the natural environment and ecosystem.
Conservation and environmental management plan for safeguarding this declared
‘Biosphere Reserve’ including coastal area is urgently required.

INTRODUCTION

The Sunderbans Delta in West Bengal state in India is the western part of the largest
Active Delta of the world, the (Himalayan) Ganges-Brahmaputra river Delta at the mouth
of Bay of Bengal, falling south of Tropic of Cancer between latitude 21°31’-22°40’
North and longitude 88°05’-89°06’ East [1] with its network of tidal rivers, channels,
mudflats, creeks, dunes, archipelago of around 54 islands and numerous distributaries,
geologically being still under formation, providing a great diversity in the eco-system
[see Figure 1]. This low flat country would be completely submerged if the sea level rises
by only a few metres [1]. The Sunderbans tidal estuary comprises an area of 4266.6 sq.
km, of which the tidal and inter-tidal mangrove forest area is estimated of 2300 sq. km,
water area is 1750 sq. km and the rest are river banks, beach areas or naked forest floors
[2,3]. There are eight blocks having rural settlements at the tidal mangrove forest area
with wildlife, prone to environmental and natural disaster.

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT, GEOLOGY, TECTONICITY, CLIMATE – ITS

CHARACTER AND UNCERTAINTIES

Eco-geography
The eco-geography of this area is totally dependent on the tidal effect. There are two flow
tides (inflow) and two ebb tides (outflow) within 24 hours and tidal range varies from 3m
to 5m rising up to 8m in normal spring tide [1, 2]. The tidal action of the sea inundates
the whole of Sunderbans in varying depths. Due to the tidal action, the silts carried down
to the sea are pushed back to the channels and get deposited there. The bed of the channel
thus gets steadily raised ultimately blocking the flow of water and gradually evolving a

1
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small island. This is the basic geographical history about the origin of innumerable
islands of the region [6].
There is a great natural depression called “Swatch of No Ground” in the Bay of
Bengal, south of the Raimangal Estuary between 21º to 21º22’ latitude. The surrounding
waters, which are around 20m, change almost suddenly to 500m in depth. Fergusson’s
theory (1863) [2, 9] is that the sediments are carried away from the spot and deposition is
prevented by strong currents produced by a meeting of tides from the East and West
coasts of Bay of Bengal. The silts thus carried away are diverted to the south of
Sunderbans or are being pushed forward further eastward and new islands are formed.
Geo-technologists opine that the unsettled condition of Sunderbans with periodic
subsidence, natural hazards, etc, is solely due to this sub-marine hollow called “Swatch of
No Ground”, the origin of which is still shrouded in mystery [6].

Figure 1. Map of Sunderbans Active Delta in India

Mudflats
The Sunderbans Mudflats [1] [see Figure 2] are found at the estuaries and on the deltaic
islands where low velocity of river and tidal current occurs. The flats are exposed in low
tides and submerged in high tides, and thus the unstable mudflat changes
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morphologically even in one tidal cycle. The interior parts of the mudflats are the
magnificent home of luxuriant mangroves. The morphology of the swamps is
characterized by the occurrence of saltpans, ditches and banks with a thick mud
substratum of decomposed organic matters [1, 7]. The spring tides submerge the swamp
floor and the ebb tides affect the slope of the floor with lateral erosion and gradually form
a new creek, which is further lengthened by the quick flow of the splitting tides. The
Sunderbans mudflats control the food chain in the estuarine ecosystem.

Figure 2. Location of Mudflats and Sand flats in the Sunderbans Delta

(Source : Paul and Bandyopadhyay, [1])
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Coastal dune systems

Coastal dune systems, product of sea deposition on the coast, in the Sunderbans comprise
a system of low ridges parallel to the coast, separated by large dry and wet sand flats [1].
A variety of dune landscape types provide protection of hinterland, water storage, biotic
resources and recreation. However, coastal dunes of the western islands are now being
engulfed by the encroaching sea waves with the activities of cyclones. The rate of coastal
erosion is high on the coast of Fraserganj, Bakkhali and Sagar. The Fraserganj coast is
almost destroyed by the long-shore current attack from the west.

Rivers, watercourses and islands

The main rivers of this region, including the estuarine and all having a southward course
towards the sea are the Hugli, Piyali – Bidyadhari, Muri Ganga, Saptamukhi, Thakuran,
Matla, Gosaba and Harinbhanga [see Figure 1]. They are separated from one another by
numerous islands and the important ones from west to east are Sagar, Fraserganj,
Lothian, Bulcherry and Halliday island. Between the large estuaries and rivers, there are
innumerable watercourses called “Khals” (canals) forming a perfect network of channels,
drawing water from every block of land [1]. Each block is like a saucer with high ground
and one or more depressions and is drained off by the hierarchy of surrounding creeks
and khals into the rivers.

Soil types
The Active Delta bears the soil types of silty clay loams, sandy clays and loams, soil with
organic and peaty deposits, swampy and marshy soil also called as ‘mangrove soil’ [1, 2].
The salinity of the surface soil and the adjoining water-bodies change to a great extent
through out the year and is governed mainly by the quantity of the fresh water flow and
the monsoon rainfall.

Climate
The region has a typical tropical monsoon climate with excess of humidity. Annual
average rainfall is around 1800 mm, maximum and minimum average temperatures in
summer and winter are 29°C and 20°C [1, 2]. During pre-monsoon March to May,
violent thunderstorms and accompanying hailstorms occasionally occur. From post-
monsoon October to November, the cyclonic storm occasionally touches the area
accompanied with high waves and tides near the sea and cause great disasters.

Flora and fauna

The flora is confined only to the forested tracts of the Active Delta, popularly known as
Mangrove Tidal Forests. The mangrove [4] community of trees and shrubs has
characteristic stilt root with numerous lenticels and pnumatophores and adapt with high
salinity, submergence, fine clayey soils, tidal currents and fresh water flow. It should be
mentioned that out of the fifty mangrove species of the world, around thirty five are
found in Sunderbans in addition to 117 other halophytic mangrove associates [3]. Some
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important mangrove trees are Kala Bean, Tora, Krippa, Garjan, Jelegaran, Keora,
Sundari, Genwa, Kankra, Golepata, etc. They are used as building materials for rural
houses, for furniture, for making boats and as fuel wood. The mangrove habitat checks
the tidal thrust of surges from the funnel shaped bay and trapping sediments protect the
coastal region from erosion [10]. Mangrove functions as natural sewage treatment plant,
as well as wind-breaking barrier. It also provides shelter for large number of euryhaline /
brackish water algae, shell-fish and fin-fish species, prawns, crustaceans, estuarine crabs,
ghost shrimps, mollusks, nematodes, annelids, animals like various types of jungle cat,
the deer, rhesus monkey, wild pig, otter, water monitor, various snakes including python,
estuarine crocodiles, sharks, dolphins, large variety of local birds and migratory pelican
and the world-famous Royal Bengal Tiger [1, 2]. Fishes abound in the rivers and nutrient
enriched creeks. Some mangrove trees give shelter to migratory rock bees from the
Himalayas to build many beehives. On an average, 500 quintals of honey and 30 quintals
of wax are being collected every year by people. The food chain of Sunderbans reveals
that the Royal Bengal Tiger, adapted to swimming and even drinking honey from the
beehives, is at the apex of the hierarchy of terrestrial as well as aquatic animals [1].

Human Settlements
The active delta has semi-nucleated, moderately dispersed and highly dispersed rural
settlements. Population density figures of 1991reveal the lowest 393 persons per sq. km
in the Western Sunderbans [1]. Agriculture, fishing, forestry, honey collection, gathering,
animal husbandry, small scale commercial activities supporting tourism and pastoral
activities are the most important economic activity of the region. Transportation is
through ferry services (launch, motor boat and ‘dinghy’). There is successful use of solar
reactors at Sagar Island.

MAN’S INTERFERENCES & IMPACT ON THE BIOSPHERE

Land reclamation by people for agriculture and human settlement destructing forest area,
construction of series of irrigation and drainage canals over centuries interfering the
natural gradients, setting up of fisheries in the rivers, canals, creeks and estuaries, raising
embankments along the major river systems against insurgence of saline water, excessive
exploitation of mangrove forest wealth like timbers and fire woods, poaching of animals
of commercial importance, indiscriminate collection of prawn seedlings and excessive
fishing round the year in Sunderbans water, pose a serious threat on the natural
environmental balance, flora and fauna of the region, disturb the complex food chain and
unbalance the animal population and enhance coastal erosion [1, 3, 12]. Moreover, the
greater part of the inner estuarine zone has become more saline due to lack of required
quantity of fresh water and the Sundari, already over exploited for its valuable timber,
preferring less saline soil, do not proliferate in adequacy these days [1, 3]. The gradual
extinction of forest has given rise to less resistance of the land from the ravages of
cyclonic storm and soil erosion. Several important fish and prawn species have been
 6

declining in the region due to deterioration of the mangrove vegetations and disturbances
in the natural ecosystem. During the last two centuries, more than 5000 sq. km of the
mangrove forests in the Indian part of Sunderbans were reclaimed [3]. Actually, only the
eastern part of river Matla now exhibits the true core area of the mangrove forest.

ACTIONS TAKEN TO SAFEGUARD ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

For the ecological, environmental and economic potentialities, it has become extremely
necessary to conserve the natural ecosystem of the mangrove forests of the Sunderbans.
The Govt. of India declared on 29.03.1989 the mangrove forest area as the
“Protected Biosphere Reserve” [8]. The Sunderbans, a National Forest, has a Tiger
Reserve, where Project Tiger was launched in 1973 with the help of World Wild Life
Fund to save the tiger from extinction as well as to conserve its natural habitat in the
particular ecosystem. Killing of tiger and exporting its skin were banned during 1970-72.
The Sunderbans Tiger Reserve covers 2585 sq. km. The Crocodile Project has been taken
up to increase the number of estuarine crocodiles by raising and breeding inside the
farms. Three Sanctuaries have been set up at Sajnekhali, Lothian and Halliday Islands.
In the Active Delta, the Sunderban Development Board, a joint enterprise of the state
and central government, was formed in the 1980’s. It aims at improvement of drainage
and irrigation facilities, encouraging agriculture, agro-processing, animal husbandry,
fisheries, village industry, transportation, development of social forestry, strengthening of
embankments and providing technical help [1]. However, its objectives and actions
sometimes infringe into the issues of biosphere protection.

PROPOSALS

1. The management programme of conservation, environment and development (CED)

of Sunderbans area should be planned primarily to retain the natural ecosystem of the
mangrove forest, saving the diverse flora and fauna and providing for combating
pollution, cyclonic hazards and coastal erosion following the “Conservation
Function” prescribed by the UNESCO in its ‘Man and Biosphere Programme’ [11].
2. The Sunderbans should be divided into three territorial components – a) the core
area, which should be restored, strictly conserved and protected, b) the buffer zone
surrounding the core area, where within the framework of sustainable development,
some activities benefiting local people may be permitted and c) the outer transition
zone, where economic, tourism and recreation activities should be permitted
(Batisse, 1997) [12].
3. The conservation and management planning of the coastal areas [6,11] should be
based on proper understanding, analysis and assessment of the various complex
geomorphologic, fluvial, oceanic and natural climatic characteristics of the whole
area plus the unnatural influence by human interventions.
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4. The overall planning policy should be implemented by all sectors of the government
bodies with legislative and administrative control, strict vigilance and above all with
greater cooperation among themselves to eliminate conflict [3].
5. People should be informed, educated and trained for accepting and integrating by
actively participating into the policy-enforcing actions.
6. Monitoring over the situations and making necessary modifications in the
implementation programme are to be done constantly along with periodic review and
further assessment.
7. Social forestry [5] can be useful for eco-restoration of mangrove vegetation through
creation of employment opportunities.
8. The beauty of the Sunderbans can be explored for attracting and managing (within
tolerable limit of) tourism and associated economy. Tourism should be encouraged
in the transit zone with such a control so that the natural environment, ecology and
life style of the coastal people are not adversely affected.
9. To install cyclone warning system in the coastal and further areas and cyclone
shelters should be constructed for people as part of disaster preparedness planning.
10. Energy requirements for local people, environmental and research programmes are to
be met with the help of solar and wind energies (example – utilization of solar
energy at Sagar Island by Govt. of West Bengal).

CONCLUSION

Sunderbans is mystic. Its natural beauty with unique flora and diverse fauna,
hydrodynamic uncertainties, geomorphology still under formation and devastating
climate, has got its spellbound charm providing beauty in the ruggedness of danger in this
region. Such a unique natural biosphere, which is indeed a World Natural Heritage Site,
is under threat of physical disaster. Hence, an appropriate policy of sustainable
intervention guided by a thorough research and followed by proper implementation,
control and critical monitoring for necessary modification in action, is required to
safeguard the biosphere drawing proper and sincere concerns of local people, regional
and national governments and the world organizations.

REFERENCES

[1] Banerjee Anuradhha, “Environment, Population And Human Settlements of

Sunderban Delta”, 1st edition, Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi, (1998).
[2] Mandal A.K., Ghosh R.K., “Sunderban–A Socio Bio-Ecological Study”, 1st edition,
Bookland Pvt. Ltd., Calcutta, (1989).
[3] Naskar K.R., Ghosh A., “Mangrove Forest of the Sunderbans : Its Impact on
Estuarine Fisheries”, Proc. Coast Zone Management of West Bengal, Sea Explorers’
Institute, Calcutta, Proc. (1989), pp A47-59.
 8

[4] Chakrabarti Kalyan, “Development Perspective of Coastal Ecosystem of Sunderban

Forests”, Proc. Coast Zone Management of West Bengal, Sea Explorers’ Institute,
Calcutta, Proc. (1989), pp C4-11.
[5] Banerjee U, “Social Forestry in Sunderban : A Tool for Rural Development”, Proc.
Coast Zone Management of West Bengal, Sea Explorers’ Institute, Calcutta, Proc.
(1989), ppC12-17.
[6] Bhattacharya A.K., “Coastal geomorphology, Processes and Hazards : A Note on
Management Measures”, Proc. Coast Zone Management of West Bengal, Sea
Explorers’ Institute, Calcutta, Proc. (1989), pp D49-61.
[7] Naskar K.R., Guha Bakshi D.N., “Mangrove Swamps of The Sunderbans – An
Ecological Perspective”, 1st edition, Naya Prakash, Calcutta, (1987).
[8] Ministry of Environment & Forests “Sunderban Biosphere Reserves”, Project
Document – 10, Govt. of India, New Delhi, (1989).
[9] Fergusson J., “Delta of the Ganges”, Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of
India, Vol. XIII. Part-1, (1963).
[10] Mastaller M., “Destruction of Mangrove Wetlands – Causes and Consequences”, A
Biannual Collection titled “Natural Resources and Development – Focus :
Mangrove Forests”, Institute for Scientific Cooperation, Tubingen, Vol. 43/44,
(1996).
[11] UNCHS (Habitat), “Issues in the Integrated Planning and Management of River/lake
Basins and Coastal Areas” – A human settlement perspective, Nairobi, (1996).
[12] Ghosh Santosh, “Environmental Parameters in Agri-Aquaculture Development in
Tidal Swamps and Estuaries – Case Study: Sunderbans Deltaic Region, India”, Paper
Presented at EMECS Conference, Kobe, Japan, (2001).

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