09 Digital Signal Processing r17 PDF

Power System Protection for Engineers – PROT 401
Section 9 - Digital Signal Processing
Power System Protection

for Engineers
Digital Signal Processing

Overview
Copyright © SEL 2005
Digital Signal Processing_r17 1


Objectives
z Review Digital Signal Processing
Techniques and Digital Filters
z Explain Why Digital Relays Require
Anti-Aliasing Filters
z Determine What Delays a
Microprocessor-Based Relay
z Explain Why a Cosine Filter is Better
than a Fourier Filter

z DSP is the Representation,

Transformation, and Manipulation of
Signals and the Information that They
Contain, Using Numerical Algorithms
Many Applications
Digital Relaying is One of These
Applications
We use signals to communicate between humans or between humans and machines. We

use signals to probe our environment and to control and use energy and information.
Signal processing is related to the representation, transformation, and manipulation of
signals and the information they contain. Digital signal processing uses numerical
algorithms to that end. There are many fields of application of digital signal processing in
the present-day world, mainly related to on-line applications of digital computers.

Input/Output Scheme of a Digital Relay
Auxiliary Input
(AC or DC)
Dry contacts
Analog Inputs Computer-Based Outputs
(trip, alarm,
Relay etc.)
Discrete Inputs (Digital Relay)
“Live” outputs
Computer
Communications

Line Fault Transients: Voltages

Phase A-to-Ground Fault
5
x 10
1.5
Voltages (V) 1
0.5
-0.5
-1
va
-1.5
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
Time (s)
This slide shows how the current and voltages behave in the substation during a single-
phase-to-ground fault. From this figure, it is possible to conclude that the fault was a
single-phase-to-ground fault. The detailed analysis of fault transients is out of the scope
of this section of the course, but the graph is presented to give an idea of the
instantaneous evolution of the phase quantities during the fault.

Line Fault Transients: Currents

Phase A-to-Ground Fault
4
x 10
2
1.5
1
Currents (A)
0.5
-0.5
-1
ia
-1.5
-2
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
Time (s)
This graph shows the fault current.

Review of Simple Frequency

Sinusoidal Signal
v(t) = VC1 cos(ω t) +VS1 sin(ω t) = V1 cos(ω t + φ1)
Where VC1 = Cosine
Component
VS1 =
v(t) Sine Component
V1 1
f=
T
t ω = 2πf = 2π
T
T
Period
A simple frequency sinusoidal signal can always be represented as the sum of a cosine
and a sine component.

Phasor Components
v(t) = VC1 cos(ω t) +VS1 sin(ω t) = V1 cos(ω t +φ1)
1 V1 jφ1
V = [VC1 + jVS1] = e
2 2
There is a phasor associated with the sinusoidal signal. The cosine and sine components
of the signal are directly related to the real and imaginary parts of the phasor.

A Signal With Several Frequencies
v(t) = 1.0 ⋅ cos(ω t) + 0.7 ⋅ cos(2ω t) + 0.3⋅ cos(3ω t)
When there is more than one frequency present, the periodic signal does not appear as a
pure sinusoid.

General Periodic Signal

z Fourier Representation:
∞ ∞
v(t) = ∑(VCn cos(nωt) +VSn sin(nωt)) = ∑Vn cos(nωt + φVn )
n=0 n=0
z Many Relay Applications Use

Fundamental Component Only:
v (1) (t ) = VC1 cos(ω t ) + VS 1 sin(ω t ) = V1 cos(ω t + φV 1 )
z Cosine and Sine Components for

Phasor Calculations:
VC1, VS1, IC1, I S1

Signal Component
Fundamental 0
-2
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
2
0
-2
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
2
DC 0
-2
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
2
0
-2
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
2
0
-2
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
cycle
Shown above are examples of various waveforms that might be found on any power
system.
Top waveform - example of a 60 hertz signal
Second waveform - example of non-60 hertz signal or harmonics
Third waveform - example of DC offset
Fourth waveform - example of high frequency white noise
Last waveform - combined waveforms of all of the above
The last waveform is one that a digital relay might have to deal with on any given power
system. This waveform is the perfect example of why filtering is required. Digital relays
do not operate directly from the sampled values of the original waveform but rather from
the filtered components of the sampled values of the original waveforms. It is the job of
the filter to extract the signals of interest. In most applications, the fundamental portion
(or 60 hertz) of the sampled waveform is the quantity of interest.

Filtering Requirements
z Depend on Relay Type

Traveling-wave relays
Harmonic-restraint relays
Distance relays
Overcurrent relays
Filtering requirements depend on the relay purpose. Traveling-wave relays do not need
the fundamental (60Hz) portion of the signal. These relays need to extract and operate
from the high frequency portion of the waveform. Transformer differential relays need
several waveform quantities. In this type of relay, the fundamental portion of the
waveform is used to calculate the operating or difference quantity. The transformer
differential relay must also extract the second and fourth harmonics to detect transformer
energizing in-rush.
Additionally, the presence of the fifth harmonic can be used to determine transformer
over-excitation. Distance and overcurrent relays need to extract and develop operating
quantities only from the fundamental portion of the waveform.

Filtering for Distance Relays
z Pass 50 or 60 Hz Only
z Attenuate High Frequencies
z Eliminate DC-Offset
z Null Out Harmonics
z Minimize Transient Response
z Must be Practical
Above are the design goals of a good filter. All fault study impedances are based on
system impedances calculated at the operating frequency of the power system.
Therefore, the fundamental component of the input signal waveform is the value that
relays need to extract in order to calculate accurate fault values.

Signal Path for Microprocessor Relays
Analog to
CT Analog Digital Magnitude
Digital
Lowpass Cosine Filter &
Conversion
Filter and Phasor Impedance
PT (A/D)
The signal path for voltage and current input signals are shown above. After the currents
and voltages are reduced to acceptable levels by the instrument transformers, the signals
are filtered with an analog filter, then digitized and re-filtered with a digital filter. Each
filter has a specific purpose that complements the other filter and will be discussed in the
following slides. Numerical operating quantities are then calculated from the processed
waveforms.

Digital Relay Architecture
Analog Discrete Tripping

M Input A/D Output M Outputs
Subsystem Subsystem
Operation
Discrete Microprocessor Signalling
M Input
} Communications
Subsystem
M Ports
RAM ROM / PROM EEPROM

Analog Input Subsystem
z Surge Suppression
z Signal Conditioning
z Galvanic Isolation
z Low-Pass (Anti-Aliasing)
Filtering

Analog Input System
Analog filter
Output
Input

Frequency Response of a
Simple Analog Low-Pass Filter
Magnitude
Frequency

Sampling of Analog Signals
S/H
Input Output
Continuous Signal Sampled Signal

Sampled Signal Sequence
Present
k Sample
k-1
Sampling
Frequency:
1
fs =
∆T = Sampling Rate
∆t
These are important definitions for a sampled (discrete) signal sequence.

Simple Representation of Aliasing

Improper Sampling Frequency
ω0 ωs − ω0
This figure shows the original signal with frequency ω0 and its aliased signal of
frequency ωs - ω0.

Analog to Digital (A/D) Conversion
Input Output
A/D
00000001
00000101
00001001
00100100
10010000
:
Analog Signal Digital Signal

Digital Relay Algorithm
READ PRESENT SAMPLE k
DIGITAL FILTERING
PHASOR CALCULATION
Modify if PROTECTION METHODS

required
RELAY LOGIC
NO-TRIP
TRIP ORDER
The relay algorithm is a set of mathematical operations implemented in a program.

These operations are performed over the last N samples of the sampled input signal.
The relay makes the decision of tripping (or not) the circuit breaker based on the result
of this algorithm. The algorithm presented in the slide is a particular example.
The routines are:
READING ROUTINES (Read last sample)

This part of the program is in charge of reading the last sample of the input signals.
ROUTINES FOR DIGITAL FILTERING

The digital filter smooth the signal, by eliminating DC and frequencies components
different than the fundamental (when required).
ROUTINES FOR PHASOR CALCULATION

These routines determine phasors V and I from the samples of the sampled signals.
ROUTINES FOR PROTECTION METHODS

These routines implement the protection function: overcurrent, directional, distance,
differential, etc.
ROUTINES FOR RELAY LOGIC

With the results of the protection methods routines, the relay logic make the final
decisions for tripping and other relay functions. In some modern relays, the logic can be
programmed by the user.
Sometimes the digital filtering routines and the phasor calculation routines are
considered the same module.

Digital Filtering
Non-Filtered Signal
(Samples)
DIGITAL FILTERING
Filtered Signal
(Samples)
The digital filter smoothes the signal by eliminating DC and frequencies components that
are different than the fundamental (when required).

Digital Filter Example

iok = ik − ik −1 − ik −2 + ik −3
ik DIGITAL io
FILTER
1 0.15
0.1
0.5
0.05
0
-0.5
-0.05
-1
-0.1
-1.5
-0.15
-2 -0.2
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05
This is an example of a 4 sample-per-cycle filter that filters the DC offset of a fault

current.
Notice the following:
1. The signal is sampled at 24 samples per cycle, however the filter uses 4 equally-
spaced samples per cycle. This is a good example to make the difference of initial
sampling frequency and processing sampling frequency. The initial sampling
frequency is 60*20 = 1200 Hz; while the processing sampling frequency is 50*4 =
240 Hz.
2. The fact that the filter uses four equally spaced samples in a cycle, means that the
data window required by the filter is an entire cycle. We say that this filter has a data
window of one cycle, although it does not use all the available samples within the
cycle, just the four spaced π/4 electrical radians.

Unit Sample (Impulse)
⎧ 0, n ≠ 0
δ[n] = ⎨
0 n ⎩ 1, n = 0
This is a useful function defined in digital signal processing to mathematically model

digital systems.

Impulse Response
ik DIGITAL io
FILTER
0 n
iok = ik − ik −1 − ik −2 + ik −3
For this type of filter, the impulse response is directly given by the filter coefficients.

Frequency Response
The frequency response tells us at which frequencies the filter attenuates the input. Note
that for the simple example, the gain is zero for f = 0 Hz. This means the filter blocks the
dc component.
The slide shows the digital filter response up to 120 Hz only.

Complete Frequency Response
This is the frequency response shown up to the sampling frequency (240 Hz). The
folding frequency is one half of the sampling frequency.

The Response is Similar for High

Frequencies
This is the frequency response shown up to 960 Hz. The frequency response repeats for
frequencies larger than the sampling frequency.

Another Example of a
Complete Response Frequency
Magnitude
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33
Frequency (Harmonics)
Folding Frequency
This is another example. Note that for high frequencies, the filter does not block the
input.

General Equation for FIR Filters

N
i ok = b1i k + b 2i k −1 + b 3i k − 2 + b 4i k −3 + L + b N i k − N +1 = ∑ b ji k − j+1
j=1
b = [b1 b 2 b 3 L b N ] is the vector with the filter coefficients
DIGITAL
i io
FILTER
(input) (output)
Examples:
1) iok = ik − ik −1 − ik − 2 + ik −3 , b = [1 − 1 − 1 1]
2) iok = ik − 0.5ik −1 + 3ik − 2 − 4ik −3 + 0.2ik − 4 , b = [1 − 0.5 3 − 4 0.2]
There are several types of digital filters. The finite impulse response filters (FIR) are the
most adequate for relay applications. The general difference equation that represents a
filter is the best way to characterize it.
Two examples are shown.

Examples of Digital Filters
z CAL
z Cosine
z Fourier
z IIR
z Kalman
Each filter has characteristics and tradeoffs that will be discussed in the following slides.

CAL Filter
Impulse Response
t
Frequency Response
The CAL filter is the simplest filter. It has filter coefficients of +/- 1, and the filtering
process uses only addition and subtraction. This eliminates time-consuming
multiplications. Therefore, it is the most computationally efficient filter. It rejects dc
and exponentially decaying dc offset. However, the filter does not reject odd harmonics.

1 Cycle Fourier Filters

Impulse Response
t
Frequency Response
sine
cosine
g
A simplistic way of improving the cosine filter is to eliminate the ¼-cycle delay
necessary to calculate the quadrature component of the sampled waveform. The Fourier
Filter uses the orthogonal sine and cosine filter combination to eliminate the ¼-cycle
filter delay by allowing the phasor components of the waveform to be extracted
simultaneously. However, this does not directly correlate into a ¼- cycle operational
speed improvement in the relay. In fact, this method can even be slower than the pure
cosine filter method. Notice the frequency response of the sine and cosine filters as
plotted above. The sine filter has better high frequency rejection but does not reject
exponentially decaying signals. Therefore, the transient response is poor. This poor
transient response is illustrated in the following slides when the filtering techniques are
studied with a model power system.

Quadrature Components
1 cycle filters
Cos Filter Real

Input
Sine Filter Imaginary
Input x
Cos Filter Real
y
1/4 Cycle
Imaginary
Delay
The figure shows two ways to extract phasor components of the voltage and current
waveforms. One method requires two filters that determine signal quantities
simultaneously in quadrature (90 electrical degrees apart). On the surface, it seems that
this method might be faster. However, it will be shown that in many cases this method
can be slower because of the poor transient nature of the filter method. In addition, this
method places a greater computational burden on the relay.
SEL relays have never used the two-filter method. Instead, SEL relays filter the voltages
and current once and use samples calculated ¼ cycle later to extract the phasor
components of the voltage and current waveforms. The advantages of this method will
be illustrated in the following slides.

Cosine Filter (1)

Impulse Response
t
Frequency Response
The cosine filter has its coefficients evenly sampled from a cosine waveform. As with
the CAL filter, this filter rejects dc and exponentially decaying signals. Additionally, the
cosine filter rejects all harmonics and, thus, has an advantage over the CAL filter.

Cosine Filter (2)
Frequency Response of 1 cycle cosine filter

with sample rate of 4 samples per cycle
Harmonics
0 1 2 3 4
Fn Fs
(folding frequency)
FIR filters do a good job of filtering out low order harmonics. However, they do not
filter all harmonics, especially higher order harmonics. Higher order harmonics,
especially those that would normally be present in fault quantities, must be removed from
the signal before entering the digital FIR filter.
The performance (or frequency response) of the FIR filter for higher order harmonics
follows a predictable pattern that is determined through use of a simple concept called
the Nyquist Folding Frequency. The Nyquist Folding Frequency predicts which
frequencies or harmonics the FIR filter will pass (or not attenuate) based upon the
folding frequency. The folding harmonic frequency is always half the sample rate. This
folding frequency technique can be used to illustrate the theoretical requirements of the
low-pass FIR filter.

Cosine Filter (3)

Frequency Response of 1-cycle cosine filter
G with a sample rate of 4 samples per cycle
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33
Folding Frequency
Above is the frequency response of the 4-sample-per-cycle one cosine filter. When the
sample rate is 4 samples per cycle, the frequency response of the 1-cycle cosine filter
folds (or visually flips over) on the even harmonics.

Cosine Filter (4)

Frequency Response of 1-cycle cosine filter
with a sample rate of 8 samples per cycle
G
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33
Folding Frequency
Above is the frequency response of the 8-sample-per-cycle, one cosine filter. When the
sample rate is 8 samples per cycle, the frequency response of the 1-cycle cosine filter folds
(or visually flips over) at the 4th,8th, 12th, 16th, 20th, 24th, 28th, and 32nd harmonics. As
illustrated above, an 8-sample-per-cycle cosine filter attenuates all harmonics but the
fundamental, 7th,9th, 15th, 17th, 23rd, 25th, and 31st.

Cosine Filter (5)

Frequency Response of 1-cycle cosine
filter with a sample rate of 16 samples
G per cycle
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33
Folding Frequency
Above is the frequency response of the 16-sample-per-cycle, one-cosine filter. When

the sample rate is 16 samples per cycle, the frequency response folds (or visually flips
over) at the 8th,16th, 24th , and 32nd harmonics. As illustrated above, a 16-sample-per-
cycle cosine filter attenuates all harmonics but the fundamental, 15th, 17th, and 31st.

Total Filtering Concept
z Analog + Digital
Analog
Low-pass Anti-aliasing
Digital
Band-pass to Reject Harmonics
and DC-offset
SEL relays use a combination of analog and digital filtering techniques to optimize the
filter design. A low-pass filter (called the anti-aliasing filter) is used on the analog signal
to filter out the high frequency content of the voltage and current signals. This design
technique allows use of a simpler digital filter without compromising the performance of
the relay. The design of the low-pass filter (or the frequencies that it has to attenuate)
will be shown in the next few slides to be dependent on the sample rate and digital filter
window. Effectively, the low-pass or anti-aliasing filter must filter out all harmonics that
the digital filter does not attenuate.

Design Analog & Digital Filtering

Together
8-sample/cycle
1
LPF Cosine
0.8
g a in 0.6
0.4
folding frequency Total
0.2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
16-sample/cycle
1
LPF Cosine
0.8
g a in
0.6
Total
0.4
folding frequency
0.2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
frequency (harmonics)
The analog low pass (anti-aliasing) filter and the digital filter complement one another
and must be designed together. Above, it can be verified that the roll off of the low-pass
filter is a function of the digital filter sample rate. The slower sample rate digital FIR
filters do not do as good a job of filtering all harmonics that might be present on the
power system. Therefore, slower digital filter sampling requires more analog low- pass
filter attenuation. More analog low-pass filter attenuation results in a slower response
from the low-pass filter and a slower relay operate speed.

Power System Model
Zs Zl
m
Source Zload
Noise
Harmonics Rf
Voltage and Current
Filters should be evaluated from two aspects: their steady-state and transient
performance. The transient period is defined as the time when the filter window includes
pre-fault and post-fault samples. The filter is said to be in a “post-fault steady state” after
the filter window includes all post-fault data. To study the transient response of the
various filters, a single-phase model of the power system can be used to simulate system
conditions similar to one above. The model power system must include a means to inject
noise and harmonics to the filter signals to challenge the various filter techniques.

Voltage and Current
DC Offset
Zero Inception Angle Harmonics
One set of voltage and current waveforms generated from the model power system
illustrated in the previous slide is shown above. The waveforms above are the result of a
fault being placed on the model system at the end of the line with no fault resistance. An
inception angle of zero gives a full dc offset. The post-fault data are corrupted with noise
and 2nd, 3rd, and 5th harmonics.

Filtered Voltage and Current
The filtered quantities should look clean without any harmonics, dc offset, or noise.
Analysis of these quantities will yield proper current and voltage phasors.

What Delays Relay Operation?
z Analog Filter
z Sampling Latency
z Digital Filter
z Processing Latency
z Output Devices
All the factors above must be considered when evaluating the speed of the relay system.

Effect of Filtering on Speed
z Analog Low-pass Filter Delay
Sample/Cycle Fc (Hz) Delay (cycle)

4 90 0.18
8 180 0.08
16 360 0.04
The analog low-pass filter is slower if it has to reject more harmonics. It was proven
earlier with the folding theorem that slower sample rates and FIR filters with less than a
1-cycle window require the low-pass filter to reject more harmonics (have a lower cutoff
frequency). Therefore, increasing the filter sample rate is a tradeoff that allows the speed
of the low-pass filter to be increased while decreasing the speed of the digital filter.

Effect of Filtering on Speed
z Digital Band-pass Filter

Fixed = Window length
The digital filter is the greatest determinant of relay operating speed. We have proven in
this presentation that the one cycle window for the cosine filter provides the optimum
performance.

Effect of Sampling Latency on

Speed
4-sample/cyc
8-sample/cyc
16-sample/cyc
time (cycle)
0 0.25
Fault Inception
Processing latency affects the overall speed of the relay because if the relay is only
processing every quarter of a cycle the relay has to wait longer to perform the impedance
calculation on the next sampled values.

What Delays Relay Operation?

Output Delay
Processing Delay
Analog Delay
Sampling Latency
Digital Delay
0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50

t
The effect of all of the timing factors are illustrated above. Notice that the digital filter is
the largest determinate of the speed of the relay.

Operating Time vs. Sampling Rate
How much does increasing the sampling rate affect the operating speed? The slide above
indicates that increasing the sampling speed above 16 samples per cycle provides little
improvement in the operating speed of the relay when all of the factors are considered.
The speed increase is realized mainly from a reduced processing latency at the higher
sample rate and low-pass filter speed increase from the higher cutoff frequency.

Relay Operating Speed vs. Fault

1
0 .9
0 .8
F a u lt In itia tio n
0 .7
m a g n itu d e
0 .6
0 .5 C lo s e -in F a u lt T rip T ime
0 .4
0 .3
0 .2 R e mo te F a u lt T rip T ime
0 .1
T h re s h o ld
0
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5
time (c yc le )
One of the major factors that affects the operate speed of the relay is the fault location. In
the slide above, the trip torque threshold is indicated by a horizontal line at 0.1 per unit
magnitude. At fault inception, it can be seen that the close-in torque trajectory is much
steeper and the fault trip time much faster for the close-in fault.
This torque trajectory is related to the size of the digital filter window and steady state fault
torque. When the steady state fault torque value is close to the trip threshold, it takes more
fault sampled data points in the filter to reach the calculated trip threshold. However, when
the steady state fault torque value greatly exceeds the trip threshold, it may take only a few
samples of data in the filter to reach the calculated trip threshold. Below is a simple
example to illustrate this point.
Simple Filter Example - remote fault:
Pre-fault torque sample value =0.05, fault torque sample value = 0.11
If the torque threshold to trip is 0.1 this simple example shows that it would take seven
samples of fault of data in the filter for the torque to reach the trip value.
Sample 1 torque = (0.05+0.05+0.05+0.05+0.05+0.05+0.05+0.11)/8 = 0.057
Sample 2 torque = (0.05+0.05+0.05+0.05+0.05+0.05+0.11+0.11)/8 = 0.065
Sample 3 torque = (0.05+0.05+0.05+0.05+0.05+0.11+0.11+0.11)/8 = 0.073
Sample 4 torque = (0.05+0.05+0.05+0.05+0.11+0.11+0.11+0.11)/8 = 0.080
Sample 5 torque = (0.05+0.05+0.05+0.11+0.11+0.11+0.11+0.11)/8 = 0.086
Sample 6 torque = (0.05+0.05+0.11+0.11+0.11+0.11+0.11+0.11)/8 = 0.095
Sample 7 torque = (0.05+0.11+0.11+0.11+0.11+0.11+0.11+0.11)/8 = 0.103 TRIP POINT
In the example it becomes obvious that if the fault torque sample values are large with
respect to the trip threshold, it does not take as many fault samples in the filter to exceed the
trip threshold.

Short Window Implies More Speed

and Less Digital Filtering
0.5 1.5
1
0
0.5
-0.5 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 2 4 6 8
0.2 1.5
1
0
0.5
-0.2 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 2 4 6 8
0.1 1.5
1
0
0.5
-0.1 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 2 4 6 8
The previous example is proof that the cosine filter is preferred over the Fourier because
of superior transient response. The slide above illustrates that the 1-cycle cosine filter is
also preferred over the ½-cycle and 2-cycle cosine filters. The cosine FIR filter with less
than a 1-cycle window cannot reject all harmonics, and it is the even harmonics that are
not fully rejected. It can also be seen in the above illustration that the 2-cycle cosine
filter does not add much filter benefit.
The accuracy lost with the ½-cycle filter is critical for some faults that fall just over the
relay’s threshold. These error can be compensated by different means.

Quadrature Components
1 cycle
Input x
Cos Filter
Very fast, ultra secure, y

ultra accurate 1/4 Cycle
Delay
Ultra fast, very secure, ½ cycle

very accurate x’
Cos Filter
Input
DC Offset
Filter ½ cycle
y’
Sine Filter
The figure shows the block diagrams of two digital schemes.
The first scheme has 1-cycle cosine filter, for maximum security and accuracy; however,
for certain faults the relay can operate in about 1.25 cycles. This is not a slow algorithm;
however, it is not the fastest one.
The second scheme has ½-cycle cosine and sine filters with a previous DC offset filter. A
relay with a filtering scheme like this may have tripping times of less than 1 cycle. This
scheme allows the even harmonics pass (when they are present), producing an error that
may be intolerable in some cases.
What is suggested by some manufacturers is to use both schemes, as shown in the next
slide.

Combined Scheme
x, y
Accurate Phasor calculation
and protection
1-Cycle Cosine algorithms
Filter Scheme (21, 32, 67, etc.)
Input
OR
Ultra Fast Phasor Calculation

and protection
1/2-Cycle Cosine algorithms
Filter Scheme (21, 32, 67, etc.)
x’, y’
A possible solution to the conflict speed vs security between 1-cycle filter schemes and
½-cycle filter schemes is to use them as indicated by the simplified shown in the above
figure. The ultra fast elements can be set and employed in a conservative way or in
schemes where the relatively small error is not an issue (for example in a overreach
scheme). More over, the ultra-fast element’s operation can be blocked in case of
dangerous transient phenomenon, like line energization. In these cases the secure and not
so slow element can take the trip control without loosing the protection during the
switching operations. For most faults, this scheme will provide tripping times of less than
a cycle.

Conclusions
z Band-Pass Filtering Is Required

z Filtering (Not Sampling Rate)
Determines Speed
z Filters Must Reject DC and
Ramps
In conclusion, it has been shown that a combination of filters including a low-pass FIR
analog filter and a full cosine digital filter provide a very robust filter design.
Additionally, a sample rate of 16 samples per cycle provides an optimum balance
between relay speed, filter performance, and computational burden.

Best Filter: 1-Cycle Cosine
z Zeroes at Harmonics
z Excellent Exponential Rejection
z Combine fast filter schemes
with secure filter schemes
The 16-sample-per-cycle, 1-cosine filter is the best FIR filter because it allows the anti-
aliasing low-pass cutoff frequency to be higher and provide better speed performance of
the low-pass filter while still maintaining the rejection of exponentially decaying DC and
all harmonics.

Questions
z How does a harmonic affect

microprocessor distance relays with a
Cosine filter?
z What is the function of the analog low-
pass filter?
z How does higher sampling rate affect
relay operating speed?
z Does a relay always take filter window
time to clear a fault?

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Power System Protection for Engineers – PROT 401

Section 9 - Digital Signal Processing

Power System Protection

Digital Signal Processing

Copyright © SEL 2005

Digital Signal Processing_r17 1

Section 9 - Digital Signal Processing

Digital Signal Processing

Digital Signal Processing_r17 2

Section 9 - Digital Signal Processing

Digital Signal Processing

z DSP is the Representation,

We use signals to communicate between humans or between humans and machines. We

Digital Signal Processing_r17 3

Section 9 - Digital Signal Processing

Input/Output Scheme of a Digital Relay

Digital Signal Processing_r17 4

Section 9 - Digital Signal Processing

Line Fault Transients: Voltages

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Section 9 - Digital Signal Processing

Line Fault Transients: Currents

This graph shows the fault current.

Digital Signal Processing_r17 6

Section 9 - Digital Signal Processing

Review of Simple Frequency

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Section 9 - Digital Signal Processing

v(t) = VC1 cos(ω t) +VS1 sin(ω t) = V1 cos(ω t +φ1)

Digital Signal Processing_r17 8

Section 9 - Digital Signal Processing

A Signal With Several Frequencies

v(t) = 1.0 ⋅ cos(ω t) + 0.7 ⋅ cos(2ω t) + 0.3⋅ cos(3ω t)

Digital Signal Processing_r17 9

Section 9 - Digital Signal Processing

General Periodic Signal

z Many Relay Applications Use

z Cosine and Sine Components for

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Section 9 - Digital Signal Processing

Top waveform - example of a 60 hertz signal

Second waveform - example of non-60 hertz signal or harmonics

Third waveform - example of DC offset

Fourth waveform - example of high frequency white noise

Last waveform - combined waveforms of all of the above

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Section 9 - Digital Signal Processing

z Depend on Relay Type

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Section 9 - Digital Signal Processing

Filtering for Distance Relays

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Section 9 - Digital Signal Processing

Signal Path for Microprocessor Relays

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Section 9 - Digital Signal Processing

Digital Relay Architecture

Analog Discrete Tripping

RAM ROM / PROM EEPROM

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Section 9 - Digital Signal Processing

Analog Input Subsystem

Digital Signal Processing_r17 16