Chapter 50

Urban Heat Island of Putrajaya City

in Malaysia

Dilshan Remaz Ossen, Adeb Qaid, and Hasanuddin Bin Lamit

Abstract The administrative capital city of Malaysia, Putrajaya, is built on the

garden city concept. The Putrajaya planning guidelines for sustainable cities
suggested that 37% of the development area should be dedicated to green and
open spaces. Further, they stated that 50% of the area for car parks and open spaces
must be provided with shade trees and grass. Although the garden city concept was
applied, the city still experiences high air temperatures. The purpose of this work is
to highlight the recent trends in studies of the heat island and surface temperature
conducted in Putrajaya city. The study further highlights findings and suggested
solutions for mitigating of the heat island in the city.

Keywords Urban Heat Island · Putrajaya City · Tropical Planned City

50.1 Urban Heat Island Phenomenon

The urban heat island phenomenon is a common issue of urban environments. The
temperature within urban areas is higher than that in surrounding rural areas, causing
an uncomfortable environment for people in terms of thermal comfort. The factors
that cause urban heat islands are also a result of the intense increase in building and
infrastructure development to cater to the rising population in the cities, as well as
the use of nonporous urban surfaces. These factors increase the heat absorption and
release processes and the obstruction to air movement that will then create the urban
heat island phenomenon.
Environment-friendly designs suggest integrating green areas, buildings, pedestrians,
public spaces, urban corridors, and streets to produce an urban environment that is
conducive to use. Studies have emphasized several ways to mitigate the urban heat
island effect: the use of green spaces to lower the temperatures and thus creating cool

D. R. Ossen (*) · A. Qaid

Department of Architecture Engineering, Kingdom University, Riffa, Bahrain
H. B. Lamit
Faculty of Built Environment, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai, Johor, Malaysia

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2018 549

T. Kubota et al. (eds.), Sustainable Houses and Living in the Hot-Humid Climates
of Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-8465-2_50
550 D. R. Ossen et al.

islands in urban areas, the use of urban geometry to create cool island effects, the
utilization of light-colored urban surfaces and permeable urban surfaces, the preparation
of guidelines to increase efficiencies, and better transportation and traffic management.
In recent years, environment-friendly design methods have been actively
discussed and researched based on microclimate analyses, especially in Europe.
However, it is quite difficult to directly apply these accumulated findings and skills
to an urban development or landscape design in tropical countries, as each country
has different climates and obviously differences in cultural expressions and aspira-
tions. This section reviews and identifies the criterion that influenced the urban
microclimate analysis of Putrajaya, a planned city in the tropics.

50.2 Description of Putrajaya City

Putrajaya, the federal administrative capital of Malaysia, covers 4931 hectares. A

total of 40% of the city area is designated open space, and 552 hectares are
designated for a man-made lake. The city is located in the Klang Valley between
Kuala Lumpur, the capital city of Malaysia, and Kuala Lumpur International
airport, within Lat. 2_55
N and Long. 101_42
E. Putrajaya is a newly planned
city designed with the theme “a city in a garden.” The master plan divided the city
into 2 main areas and 20 precincts: the core (5 precincts) and the peripheral area
(15 precincts) (see Fig. 50.1). Putrajaya Boulevard, 4.2 km long and 100 m wide,
divides the core area along the main path axis, extending from the northeast to the
southwest and populated by symmetrical, large federal government buildings.
Putrajaya Boulevard is classified as a dispersed urban form, with a somewhat
lower density [11]. The peripheral area, located approximately 3–5 km from the
central precinct, includes 14 residential neighborhoods [11, 18].
The climate is typically hot and humid, with a uniform air temperature during the year,
an annual average maximum temperature of 27.5
C, a minimum average temperature of
25
C, an average humidity of 62.6%, and long hours of sunshine and solar radiation—an
average of 6 h per day and 4.39 kWhm2 of annual average solar irradiation. Winds are
generally light and variable, with speeds ranging from 0 to 7.5 m/s [17].

50.3 Putrajaya City Local Plan Area Guidelines

and Policies

The city was constructed based on guidelines, according to the local planning policies
and strategies (Official Portal of Perbadanan Putrajaya, http://www.ppj.gov.my/portal/
page?_pageid¼311,1&_dad¼portal&_schema¼PORTAL#1475 accessed on
50 Urban Heat Island of Putrajaya City in Malaysia 551

Fig. 50.1 (a) Master plan of Putrajaya (ppj), (b) the divided precincts [15], and (c) Putrajaya City
(http://abckualalumpur.com/info_guide/putrajaya2.html)

4 February 2013) [5, 12]; the lake was designed to enhance the aesthetic of the city
landscape, to present a good visual impact of the beauty of the area, and to provide
continuous lake frontage that functions as a recreation, boating, fishing, water transport,
and leisure activity resource.
552 D. R. Ossen et al.

The residential area was planned on a neighborhood planning concept with a

systematic housing program, respecting the topography of the land. The housing had
to be varied between low-density, medium-density, medium-high-density, and high-
density types. This concept leads to the creation of a different typology of urban
blocks in different urban neighborhood forms. The design concept, emphasizing the
integration of different social communities, combines pedestrian paths, bicycle
tracks, and walkways with the neighborhood, creating a hierarchy of green and
open spaces. The low-density developments face the waterfront, while higher-
density developments are located farther away, ensuring that adequate daylight,
sunlight, air, and spaces provide a feeling of openness and privacy for each building
oriented toward the public realm.
The green spaces are located on the periphery of the precinct, and shaded area
landscape buffers are provided for adjacent land. Trees and shrubs were designed to
provide screens and shade, and vegetation was used for the provision of a sense of
security and a variety of interests. Urbanscapes create interesting views, vistas and a
sense of place for the city. The landscape was designed in both hard and soft forms to
achieve the concept of “a city in a garden,” and the green space provides shade and
cools the city. Policies on the environment are mostly focused on controlling water
pollution, solid waste, and noise.
The street was designed to accommodate public utility services and a drainage
system, providing an acceptable level of safety. The design had to minimize the
negative impact of vehicular traffic. The neighborhood streets serve dual functions
and have been used as a place for parking and as a space for social activity,
interaction, and play. The road linkages are well connected to the expressway and
the main distributor roads. Streetscapes were designed to enhance the city image.
The policies and strategies above were only centered on the urban design
perspective and gave priority to accessibility, safety, image, aesthetics, amenities,
society, and privacy— visually comforting and psychological aspects. The review of
climate responsive policies was confined to buildings, while a general climate
consideration of the city’s or neighborhood’s green areas, buildings, and street
layouts that enhance the wind velocity to reduce the air temperature or avoid the
creation of the “heat island” remained overlooked.
As Putrajaya is a new planned city, it became a subject of climate research in
different fields, and the volume of research investigating urban heat islands in the city
has been ever-increasing (see Table 50.1). Shahidan et al. [17] studied the cooling
effect and the urban heat island in which the UHI was recorded at 2.6
C. Ahmed et al.
[3] found the heat island intensity to be 2
C on average at nighttime and negligible
during the daytime, using a fixed station measurement. In a field measurement study
conducted by Thani et al. [19], the maximum air temperature reached 38
C during the
day. Morris et al. [8] computationally investigated the UHI and found that it ranges
from 1.9 to 3.1
C, and the average daily intensity was 0.79
C hotter. Overall, the
50 Urban Heat Island of Putrajaya City in Malaysia 553

Table 50.1 Urban heat island intensity, layers investigated, and approaches used
Author
(s) and Type of urban heat
year Approach and techniques island investigated Layer UHII
Ahmed Filed measurement and Air temperature UCL 2
C at nighttime, neg-
et al. [3] fixed stations ligible at daytime
Shahidan Field measurement Air temperature UCL Average monthly UHII
et al. [17] and surface 2.6 _C
temperature
Morris Computational study Air temperature UBL Average daily intensity
et al. [8] WRF/Noah and surface of 0.79
C and the night
temperature hours, the UHII ranges
from 1.9–3.1
C
Morris Computational study Air temperature UBL 1.79 and 2.04
C
et al. [9] WRF/Noah/UCM and surface tem-
coupled system perature of water
body and
vegetation
Morris Using the NCAR Weather Air temperature UBL 2.1
C
et al. [10] and Research Forecasting
(WRF) model and
(NOAH LSM/UCM).

urban heat island temperature range is between 2 and 3
C. The increase in the urban
heat island effect in the city is due to the wide, impervious surfaces and the urban
construction. In contrast, Ahmad and Hashim [2] used a remote sensing thermal
infrared band method and found that although the urban coverage of the city was
increasing, the heat island phenomenon was observed to decrease, as the high moisture
content due to antecedent precipitation had a removal effect on the urban heat island
intensity. Therefore, the factors contributing to the formation of a UHI in Putrajaya
were not only caused by urbanization but also by other climate change effects Salleh
et al. [16]. However, studies of the urban heat island in Putrajaya have mostly focused
on the urban surface temperature rather than the air temperature. Further research using
different methods and considering the UCL and the UBL will clearly show the city
heat island layer. Both layers were investigated in Putrajaya City by different methods
and reflected a different urban heat island. The urban boundary layer (UBL) is a scale
above the building roughness level affected by the presence of the land use or urban
surface and reflects a variety of assemblages of processes—the so-called local or
meso-scale—while the urban canopy layer (UCL) is a scale roughly between the
ground and the roof level of the building and is known as a microscale, with site-
specific characteristics and processes [4, 13].
Different areas in Putrajaya need to be investigated using a different methodology
to extensively explore the urban heat island.
554 D. R. Ossen et al.

50.4 Urban Surface Temperature and the Heat Island

50.4.1 Landscape Design: Material, Material Properties,

Water, and Greenery

According to Thani et al. [19], the temperature distribution is strongly influenced by

the urban landscape morphology in which significant temperature differences are
observed in various urban areas. In the Putrajaya area, according to Ho Chin Siong
[6], a greenery of 420,000 trees was added (Broadleaf tree) and equally distributed to
increase the evapotranspiration process and for cooling effects. All buildings’ roofs
were painted with high-albedo products; the albedo measurement of the urban area is
between 0.15 and 0.22. The city streets and buildings were constructed using a
variety of materials. The albedo “reflectivity” is the rating of the surface’s material
ability to reflect the solar radiation incident during the daytime. Emissivity is the
ability of the material to reradiate back the absorbed heat to the atmosphere at
nighttime. A material with a high albedo and a high emissivity is the best to maintain
a cooling environment. High emissivity materials are important for reducing the
urban heat island impact. The material, albedo, and emissivity of most ground-level
and vertical facade buildings in the boulevard area are presented in Table 50.2.

50.4.2 Strategies Suggested to Mitigate the Urban Heat Island

Intensity

Several studies were conducted in Putrajaya City, investigating the landscape set-
ting, surface temperature, material textures, albedo effect on the air temperature of
the city, and the urban heat island intensity, as shown in Table 50.3. Based on these
studies, the researchers suggest several strategies to mitigate the heat intensity of the
city. For example, Shahidan et al. [17] found that higher levels of tree canopy density
(LAI 9.7) (e.g., F. benjamina species) coupled with “cool” materials (albedo of 0.8)
produced the largest urban air temperature reduction of 2.7
C. Three major physical
factors, namely, a larger quantity of trees, higher canopy density, and cool materials,
produced the best improvement in the indoor and the outdoor climate. Qaid and
Ossen [14] investigated the building height and found that aspect ratios of 0.8–2
reduce the morning microclimate and night heat islands. An aspect ratio of 2–0.8
reduces the temperature of surfaces by 10–14
C and that of the air by 4.7
C (see
Fig. 50.2). Ahmed et al. [3] found that a combination of cool material and trees can
reduce the surface temperature by 7
C. Morris et al. [9], conversely, found that a
50 Urban Heat Island of Putrajaya City in Malaysia 555

Table 50.2 Surface material, albedo, and emissivity of the ground and the Putrajaya Boulevard
buildings showing the common materials in city construction, adopted from Ahmed et al. [3]
Material in the ground and vertical surface Locations Albedo (α) Emissivity (ε)
Polished rose granite Ground and facade 0.4** 0.45**
Gray granite Ground and facade 0.3*** 0.45**
Dark granite Ground and facade 0.2 0.72*
White granite Ground and facade 0.43** 0.45**
Dark concrete Ground and facade 0.2*** 0.9*
Polished dark granite Ground and facade 0.3*** 0.72*
Polished white granite Ground and facade 0.8* 0.45**
Embossed aluminum Facade 0.85* 0.04***
White plaster Facade 0.93* 0.91*
Galvanized metal Facade 0.4 0.13***
Alucobond cladding Facade 0.65* 0.77*
Smooth glass panel Facade 0.7* 0.92~0.95*
Concrete, exposure stone Ground 0.5* 0.65**
Concrete Ground and facade 0.3*** 0.94*
Concrete tiles Ground 0.45** 0.63**
Dark concrete Ground and facade 0.2*** 0.9*
Gray concrete Ground 0.3~0.4** 63**
Brown concrete
Dark gray concrete
Yellow concrete pigment
Red concrete pigment
Soil Ground 0.45** 0.38**
Water body
Vegetations
* High (α and ε)
** Medium (α and ε)
*** Low (α and ε)

body of water and vegetation induced a daily temperature reduction of 0.14 and
0.39
C, respectively. The vegetation’s cooling effect was consistent during both
mornings and nights, while that of water occurred only during the daytime. The daily
mean temperature reductions were 0.047
C and 0.024
C per square kilometer of
vegetation and body of water, respectively. However, water body and vegetation
induced a daily reduction in temperature by 0.53
C for Putrajaya City. The effect of
the surface temperature and the albedo in Putrajaya City is well documented in the
literature, but the effects of the building form and a body of water need further
investigation.
556 D. R. Ossen et al.

Table 50.3 Physical and climatic parameters investigated and mitigation strategies
Urban heat island strategies
Parameter studied suggested Authors
Physical Material and albedo Increase the albedo of the mate- Abu Bakar [1], Ahmed
landscape of building facades rial used in the constructions et al. [3], Shahidan
setting and and the ground level Use of granite with very light et al. [17] and Morris
design color and fine texture is the best et al. [9]
Use of cool material in general
Use of high- and low-albedo
material on the street could
modify street temperature and
reduce glare during the day.
Vegetation and trees Increase the canopy of the large Abu Bakar [1], Ahmed
trees and the cover of the small et al. [3], Shahidan
shrubs et al. [17] and Morris
Use of appropriate greenery in et al. [9]
the landscape setting can create
a thermally comforting
environment
Increase the grass in the green
area in urban streets and incor-
porate the grass with trees
Using of clustered trees is better
than separated ones to reduce
the heat
Increase the vegetation more
than the water body for cooling
effects during the day and the
nighttime period
Water body Increase the water body for a Morris et al. [9]
daytime cooling effect more
than a nighttime effect
Soil Soil measure content reduce the Ahmad and Hashim
heat island [2], Salleh et al. [16]
Built form Buildings form and Increase the buildings in the Qaid and Ossen [14]
design street orientation northeast to southwest direction
An aspect ratio of 2–0.8 reduces
the temperature of the ground
surfaces
Climatic Wind velocity and Increase the wind velocity by Ahmed et al. [3], Qaid
design direction designing the building form in and Ossen [14]
both street sides
Street orientation should be
facing wind directions
Asymmetrical streets are
advised and are better than low
symmetrical streets in
(continued)
50 Urban Heat Island of Putrajaya City in Malaysia 557

Table 50.3 (continued)

Urban heat island strategies
Parameter studied suggested Authors
enhancing wind when tall
buildings confront the wind’s
direction
Solar radiation and Providing shade to the exposed Abu Bakar [1], Qaid
shading area can reduce heat and Ossen [14]
Asymmetrical streets are
advised and are better than low
symmetrical streets in blocking
solar radiation, when tall build-
ings confront solar altitudes

50.5 Conclusions

Heat islands in contemporary cities have been well documented, while the volume of
research undertaken on smaller, growing cities is comparatively small. A planned
city under construction is a fertile ground for climate research, offering the oppor-
tunity to formulate urban planning strategies to combat problems presented by urban
heat islands and a rich source of knowledge for learning how temperature behavior
changes throughout the year. There are still many gaps, and other areas and elements
need to be investigated in Putrajaya City. The available knowledge is confined to
climate zones and the urban heat island in a specific area of the boulevard. All of the
factors, including thermal comfort, climate, microclimate, or bio-meteorological and
human thermal comfort need to be investigated. There is a lack of strategies
proposed to mitigate the heat island and a lack of studies that investigate the impacts
of the heat island on outdoor and indoor thermal comfort. Bakar and Malek [5] found
that most of the research attention in Malaysia was given to building design and its
technological advancement in energy savings and conservation; very little research
is being conducted on Malaysia’s microclimate and the outdoor thermal environ-
ment, although these factors affect the energy consumption of buildings. Planners
and designers should therefore consider policies and strategies presented that miti-
gate and control the UHI effect [7].
558 D. R. Ossen et al.

Fig. 50.2 Building form strategy to reduce the heat on Putrajaya Boulevard

References

1. Abu Bakar A (2012) The effects of ground surfaces–material, color & texture towards the
adjacent thermal environment: a case study of plazas in Putrajaya, Malaysia
2. Ahmad S, Hashim NM (2007) Effects of soil moisture on urban heat island occurrences: case of
Selangor, Malaysia. Humanit Soc Sci J 2(2):132–138
50 Urban Heat Island of Putrajaya City in Malaysia 559

3. Ahmed A, Ossen D, Jamei E, Manaf N, Said I, Ahmad M (2015) Urban surface temperature
behaviour and heat island effect in a tropical planned city. Theor Appl Climatol 119
(3–4):493–514. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00704-014-1122-2
4. Arnfield AJ (2003) Two decades of urban climate research: a review of turbulence, exchanges
of energy and water, and the urban heat island. Int J Climatol 23(1):1–26. https://doi.org/10.
1002/joc.859
5. Bakar AA, Malek NA (2015) Outdoor thermal performance investigations towards a sustain-
able tropical environment. Energy Sustain V Spec Contrib 206:23
6. Ho Chin Siong YM, Hashim OB ( 2011) Putrajaya Green City 2025: baseline and preliminary
study
7. Li J-j, Wang X-r, Wang X-j, Ma W-c, Zhang H (2009) Remote sensing evaluation of urban heat
island and its spatial pattern of the Shanghai metropolitan area, China. Ecol Complex 6
(4):413–420. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecocom.2009.02.002
8. Morris KI, Aekbal Salleh S, Chan A, Ooi MCG, Abakr YA, Oozeer MY, Duda M (2015)
Computational study of urban heat island of Putrajaya, Malaysia. Sustain Cities Soc
19:359–372. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2015.04.010
9. Morris KI, Chan A, Ooi MC, Oozeer MY, Abakr YA, Morris KJK (2016a) Effect of vegetation
and waterbody on the garden city concept: an evaluation study using a newly developed city,
Putrajaya, Malaysia. Comput Environ Urban Syst 58:39–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
compenvurbsys.2016.03.005
10. Morris KI, Chan A, Salleh SA, Ooi MCG, Oozeer MY, Abakr YA (2016b) Numerical study on
the urbanisation of Putrajaya and its interaction with the local climate, over a decade. Urban
Clim 16:1–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2016.02.001
11. Moser S (2010) Putrajaya: Malaysia’s new federal administrative capital. Cities 27(4):285–297.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2009.11.002
12. Official Portal of Perbadanan Putrajaya. http://www.ppj.gov.my/portal/page?_
pageid¼311,1&_dad¼portal&_schema¼PORTAL#1475. Accessed 4 Feb 2013
13. Oke TR (1976) The distinction between canopy and boundary-layer urban heat islands. Atmos
14(4):268–277. https://doi.org/10.1080/00046973.1976.9648422
14. Qaid A, Ossen D (2015) Effect of asymmetrical street aspect ratios on microclimates in hot,
humid regions. Int J Biometeorol 59(6):657–677. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00484-014-0878-5
15. Qureshi S, Ho C (2011) Towards Putrajaya green city 2025 implementing neighbourhood
walkability in Putrajaya. Retrieved 5 Apr 2012
16. Salleh SA, Abd. Latif Z, Mohd WMNW, Chan A (2013) Factors Contributing to the Formation
of an Urban Heat Island in Putrajaya, Malaysia. Procedia Soc Behav Sci 105:840–850. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.11.086
17. Shahidan MF, Jones PJ, Gwilliam J, Salleh E (2012) An evaluation of outdoor and building
environment cooling achieved through combination modification of trees with ground mate-
rials. Build Environ 58:245–257. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2012.07.012
18. Siong HC (2006) Putrajaya – administrative Centre of Malaysia -planning concept and imple-
mentation. Paper presented at the Sustainable Urban Development and Governance Conference,
SungKyunKwan University, Seoul
19. Thani SKSO, Mohamad NHN, Abdullah SMS (2013) The influence of urban landscape
morphology on the temperature distribution of hot-humid Urban Centre. Procedia Soc Behav
Sci 85:356–367. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.08.365