Building and Environment xxx (xxxx) xxx

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Building and Environment

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/buildenv

Impact of urbanization on land surface temperature and surface urban heat

Island using optical remote sensing data: A case study of Jeju Island,
Republic of Korea
Muhammad Farhan Ul Moazzam a, Yang Hoi Doh b, Byung Gul Lee a, *
a
Department of Civil Engineering, College of Ocean Science, Jeju National University, 102 jejudaehakro, Jeju, 63243, Republic of Korea
b
Department of Electronic Engineering, Jeju National University, 102 jejudaehakro, Jeju, 63243, Republic of Korea

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Urbanization changes the existing form of land use and cover (LULC) which can influence the land surface
Remote sensing temperature (LST). Therefore, it is important to present the causes of urban heat island (UHI) which is usually
LULC linked with anthropogenic activities. There are very few studies on thermal behavior of Korean cities in litera­
Urbanization
ture. Hence, in this study we have estimated the LULC of Jeju island and analyzed LST using Landsat (TM/
LST
Surface urban heat Island
ETM+/OLI) images for the last two decades. The supervised image classification method employed with
maximum likelihood classifier algorithm was used to classify the images and thermal band was used to calculate
the LST. We have used simplified urban extent (SUE) algorithm to calculate the surface urban heat island (SUHI)
and eventually we have correlated the SUHI with mean wind speed of Jeju Island. The results of LULC revealed
that urban area increased from 8.69% in 2002 to 20.81% in 2021 and in this period barren land decreased by
34.88% due to urban expansion. Interestingly forest region has been slightly increased which is influenced by
decreasing barren land. The accuracy was assessed using confusion matrix for the classified images and results
revealed an overall accuracy of 0.87, 0.85 and 0.92 with kappa coefficient of 79.02%, 76.45% and 88.05% for
the years of 2002, 2011, and 2021 respectively. The LST of all LULC classes were calculated which revealed the
highest temperature for urban class which is followed by barren land. However, the forest cover and water body
have the lowest temperature in the island. The intensity of surface urban heat island (SUHI) was increased from
2.47 ◦ C (2002) to 3.10 ◦ C (2021). We have correlated the wind speed and SUHI which revealed that SUHI and
wind speed has inverse relationship. The outcome of this research can be utilized by the policymakers, urban
planners, architects, and climatologist to develop policy related to climate-resilient cities.

1. Introduction urbanization and population growth, which has caused significant

Global population is increasing and people are migrating from rural
to urban areas lead to increase in urbanization [1]. More than half of the
world population is living in urban area and it is expected that by mid of
21st century this number will reach to 70% [2], with substantial
contribution from Africa and Asia [3,4] which will lead to extensive
urbanization [5]. Many countries are facing remarkable changes in
LULC with large consequences e.g., increasing urban population in­
crease the demand of luxuries, facilities, road infrastructure and con­
struction of new buildings [6,7] which is one of the fundamental reasons
of changing LULC [8]. In last few decades the green spaces are signifi­
cantly decreased in and around the cities globally [9] at a cost of
changes to urban thermal environment (UTE) [10]. Green spaces are
very important to maintain the balance between land surface tempera­
ture and atmospheric parameters [11]. Therefore, altering the LULC
categories particularly urban space at a cost of vegetation can effectively
influence the urban environment [12] because rapid urban growth has
increased the amount of impervious surfaces (high rise building, glass
facades, roads, metal fabricated surfaces, and concrete) in cities which
can extensively change the surface temperature of metropolitan cities.
Impervious surfaces in dense urban areas can absorb high amount of
solar radiations; though, decreasing sky view in urban areas can cause
the storage of heat in building structures [13]. High amount of heat
emission can influence the surface energy balance, and emission of toxic

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: leebg@jejunu.ac.kr (B.G. Lee).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2022.109368
Received 14 April 2022; Received in revised form 13 June 2022; Accepted 2 July 2022
Available online 10 July 2022
0360-1323/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: Muhammad Farhan Ul Moazzam, Building and Environment, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2022.109368
M.F.U. Moazzam et al.
gases can bring lots of environmental problems i.e., air pollution [14],
water pollution [15] and impact of SUHI [12,16]. The impact of SUHI
can be observe due to the loss of natural landscape to built-up land
(urban area) [12,17] which can make the urban area warmer as
compared to rural area [18]. In thermal imageries it can be easily
observed that urban centers are hotter as compared to natural landscape
[19]. The adverse impact of SUHI includes greenhouse gases, high
consumption of energy, and health risk [20]. IPCC report has also
mentioned that heat strokes is increasing and uncomfortable sleep due
to high temperature in summer has increased the cardiovascular disease
[21].
Urban heat island (UHI) effect can be quantified using atmospheric
temperature or satellite derived temperature using thermal band [22].
The air temperature difference between urban and rural areas refer to
atmospheric UHI (AUHI) [23]; however, lack of enough meteorological
stations in rural and urban area makes it difficult to estimate the AUHI.
Tian et al. [24] has highlighted that AUHI measurement need lots of
financial resources, manpower, material, and time [24]. Satellites pro­
vide an effective way to calculate and monitor the LST from local to
global scale [23,25] because LST indicate the local climate change
which can influence the climate in urban environment [26]. Therefore,
many researchers have successfully used satellite based thermal band to
derive land surface temperature (LST) and calculated SUHI [16,27].
Hence, it is of a great significance to derive the LST from thermal band of
various satellites i.e., Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer
(MODIS), Landsat (5–8), Advance Very High-Resolution Radiometer
(AVHRR), Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflectance
Radiometer (ASTER) with spatial resolution ranges between 30 m to 1
Km and temporal resolution ranges from day to weeks or month. The
low spatial and high temporal resolution (MODIS, AVHRR) thermal
bands are good to study the large area; however, a spatial resolution
greater than 50 m is not good to correctly estimate the SUHI at a regional
scale [28]. Landsat (Landsat 5–8) thermal band has a fine resolution
range between 30 and 120 m with 16 days revisit time, to study LST and
SUHI accurately and comprehensively. Therefore, many researchers
have utilized thermal band of Landsat to monitor surface temperature,
and SUHI [29–31].
Luke Howard has first studied the urban climatology in 1833;
although, the impact of urbanization on UHI has been first studied by
Nieuwolt in early 1960 but now there has been extensive research on it.
Ullah et al. [30] used Landsat data from 1987 to 2018 to observe the
LULC changes and its impact on LST in Himalayan region (Abbottabad)
of Pakistan. The author concluded that urban area increased by 4.43%;
however, agriculture and baren land shrunk by 2.74 and 4.42%
respectively between 1987 and 2017. The author projected the LULC
and LST for the year of 2032, 2047 and revealed that urban land will be
increased by 2.27% and 4.13% with 42% and 60% of the land will be
exposed to 27 ◦ C temperature in the year of 2032 and 2047 respectively
[30]. Tariq et al. [32] conducted study on correlation of surface tem­
perature with various satellite-based indices to evaluate the changes in
winter and summer temperature. The author revealed the average
winter and summer temperature with 25 ◦ C and 40 ◦ C respectively and
observed that built-up land has comparatively low surface temperature
to barren land during drought period [32]. Mathew et al. [18] conducted
study on surface UHI on two Indian cities (Jaipur and Ahmedabad).
Author unveiled the strong UHI effect at nighttime in both cities while
there was moderate UHI impact at daytime for Jaipur and Ahmedabad
cities respectively [18]. Srivanit et al. [33] assessed the impact of ur­
banization of Bangkok with LST and inferred that mean LST changed
from 26 ◦ C to 39 ◦ C from 1994 to 2009. Author also showed a close
relationship of LULC classes with LST and NDVI [33]. Aslam et al. [31]
evaluated the dynamics of urbanization with climate change and
implied the direct relationship between normalized difference built-up
index (NDBI) and LST but found a negative relationship between LST
and NDVI and suggested that urbanization has adverse impacts on local
climate [31]. [29] conducted study on UHI impact on relationship of LST
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and LULC and showed that land cover and LST has close relationship.
The results of the study also indicated that vegetation covers are the
coolest place while barren land and impervious surface are the hottest
places with 48 ◦ C and 46 ◦ C temperature respectively [29]. Therefore,
vegetation cover or green spaces have a significant positive role for
improving the urban environment.
Though there have been many studies on the relationship between
urbanization and temperature changes in land development areas but
urbanization impact on an island environment surrounded by the ocean
has been very few and there is not a single study conducted on impact of
urbanization on SUHI for Jeju island. Since island surrounded by ocean
has different environment as compared to continental area because sea
breeze can reduce the SUHI intensity [34]. Therefore, for this study we
have chosen Jeju island to fulfil this gap and understand the impact of
urbanization on island’s temperature distribution because it is the very
first step to understand the pattern of urban warming and its causative
factors for urban sustainable development. And at the moment it is
lacking in the literature for Jeju Island. Therefore, to complete this study
we have acquired Landsat data of last two decades with aim to evaluate
the (1) spatio-temporal changes in LULC of Jeju Island (2) to assess the
impact of urbanization on LST distribution (3) to explore the relation­
ship between LULC and LST and (4) to quantify the SUHI with reference
to urban and rural area using simplified urban extent (SUE).
1.1. Study area
Jeju island self-governing province, South Korea is selected for this
study, it is the largest island in South Korea with an area of 1850 km2
and it is located 85 km to south of the Korean Peninsula (Fig. 1). The
population of Jeju island is over 660,000 with density of 366 persons/
Sq.km [35]. Jeju island is stretched between 33◦ 11′ 40′′ N to 33◦ 33′ 54′′ N
latitude and 126◦ 09′ 36′′ E to 126◦ 56′ 45′′ E longitude. The study area is
elliptical shape with its longer axis of 73 km (East-West) and shorter axis
is of 31 km (North-South). The island is flat but, in the middle, it is
elevated and Hallasan mountain is also located in mid of the island
(Fig. 1).
Island has mild oceanic climate, and the rain pours in summer season
(June–September). The mean annual temperature is 15 ◦ C and annually
humidity varies between 70 and 80%. The southern part of the island
receive more than 1900 mm and western part received 1000 mm annual
rainfall [36]. Most of the area in island is composed of volcanic rocks
and island belong to Aspite volcano [37,38].
Climate change can have a huge impact on environment of any area i.
e., seasonal shift, intense or no precipitation (flood or drought), rising
sea level, and species related to a particular area are also at risk due to
climate change. Therefore, to understand the impact of changing climate
on the island we have acquired the temperature, rainfall, and humidity
data of four-gauge stations from Korean Meteorological Administration
(KMA) for the period of 2000–2020 on September 20, 2021. Tempera­
ture, precipitation, and humidity data of four met stations (Fig. 1) was
used in this study to analyze the mean annual and monthly variations
(Fig. 2a; Fig. 2b).
It has been observed that there is a strong variation in annual and
monthly temperature for the period of 2000–2020 (Fig. 2). It can be
observed that from 2000 to 2010 the temperature has a strong fluctua­
tion but afterwards the temperature started rising and did not drop
below 16 ◦ C (Fig. 2b). It is notable that mean monthly temperature start
dropping from October and reach to its minimum in January (Novem­
ber–March winter season) and in summer season (May–October) the
temperature increasing and reaches to its maximum in the month of
August. It can also be assumed that humidity touches the peak of 90% in
summer season; in addition, most of the annual precipitation falls in
island in summer season (Fig. 2a). It is very important to understand the
LULC changes with temperature to observe the impact of anthropogenic
activities.
M.F.U. Moazzam et al. Building and Environment xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 1. Location map of the study area.

Fig. 2. Temperature, humidity, and rainfall of study area from 2000 to 2020 (a) mean monthly rainfall, temperature, and humidity (b) mean annual temperature
variation. Seasons referred in the figure are defined by Korean Meteorological Administration (KMA).

2. Material and methods

Table 1
Detail of satellite images used in this study.
In this study we have used Landsat data for land use land cover
(LULC) classification and estimated land surface temperature of Jeju Satellite Sensor Path/ Month/Year Resolution Cloud Cover
Row
Island using satellite thermal band. The Landsat satellite images were
acquired for the year of 2002 (ETM+), 2011 (TM), and 2021 (OLI) for Landsat 7 ETM+ 115/37 11, March 2002 30 m 0%
the month of March. We have selected the Landsat images for the Landsat 5 TM 115/37 29, March 2011 30 m 5%
Landsat 8 OLI 115/37 23, March 2021 30 m 0.78%
particular date/year due to its quality in terms of very low or no cloud
cover (Table 1). Because it was observed that month of March has one of
the clearest images throughout the year. As summer season is usually
cloudy due to Jangma (monsoon) and in winter season the fog and snow

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M.F.U. Moazzam et al.
cover makes it difficult to classify the images. The Landsat data was
download from United States of Geological Survey (USGS) (https://eart
hexplorer.usgs.gov/). Landsat satellite produces images with 30 × 30 m
spatial resolution and on average it completes its circle around the earth
in 16 days (temporal resolution). The acquired Landsat images were
projected to WGS (World Geodetic System) 1984 UTM (Universal
Transverse Mercator) Zone 52 N. The study area was extracted from all
the Landsat images and the atmospheric corrections were performed
using semi-automated classification (SCA) plugin tool in QGIS to avoid
the erroneous classification of land [39]. We have used the
post-processed band red, green, blue, near infrared (NIR), and
short-wave infrared (SWIR) to get the multispectral bands by using layer
stacking method and thermal band was utilized for LST calculation.
Details of satellite images, sensor, and resolution are presented in
Table 1. The administrative boundary of Jeju Island was acquired from
Natural Earth website (https://www.naturalearthdata.com/features/).
The detailed methodological framework of this study is presented below
in Fig. 3.
LULC classification was performed using maximum likelihood clas­
sifier algorithm in ArcGIS software (version 10.5) and then accuracy
assessment was executed using random sample points from google earth
image and field visit. However, the field data was not available for the
year of 2002 and 2011 therefore we have used random sample points
from google earth image to assess the accuracy of classified images for
year of 2002 and 2021. Furthermore, the field data points were collected
for the year of 2021 to assess its classification accuracy. The LST was
calculated using thermal band of Landsat dataset for respective year to
further evaluate the surface urban heat island which is one of the main
objectives of this study because previously in the literature no one has
Fig. 3. Research methodology.
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worked on the specific area. Eventually the relationship between SUHI
and wind speed was calculated to assess the influence of wind on SUHI.
2.1. Supervised image classification
Landsat is composed of several bands and were stacked into a mul­
tispectral image with QGIS software and extraction tool was used to
extract the study area. The supervised image classification method was
used in this study and applied to images for the year of 2002, 2011, and
2021 with maximum likelihood classifier because of its robust and easy
process [40]. If the distribution of pixel to a corresponding class is
enough and valid to train the classifier the results will much better and
accurate [41]. Initially the classifier was trained with training samples
which were obtained for each class, the spectral signatures of various
LULC classes were noted with enclosed polygons and then maximum
likelihood classifier was applied to classify the image. The classified
images were categorized into five classes: Urban, Forest, Water, Barren
and Cloud.
2.2. Accuracy assessment
Accuracy assessment is an important part of image classification.
Error matrix method was used to assess the accuracy of the classified
images [42–44]. A total of 400 random points were taken with 100 for
each class of LULC and checked with google earth image to obtain the
accurate results. The overall, user’s and producer’s accuracy was
calculated using following equation.
M.F.U. Moazzam et al.
P(a)
Accuracy = × 100 (1)
P(b)
Here, P(a) is number of correctly classified sample points and P(b) is
total number of sample points.
P(c) − P(d)
Kappa co − efficient = (2)
(1 − P(d))
“K” Kappa co-efficient measure how well the satellite image is clas­
sified with its referenced (google earth or ground truth) data. It can be
calculated using equation (2) where P(c) is observed accuracy, and P(d)
is chance of agreement. The obtained values of Kappa Co-efficient range
between 0 and 1. Value near to 0 indicate the that classified image is not
better than its reference and values close to 1 indicate significantly
better classification.
2.3. Land surface temperature (LST)
The surface temperature obtained from satellite thermal bands are
already corrected radiometrically and geometrically. In this study the
thermal band of Landsat 5, Landsat 7 and Landsat 8 was used to extract
the surface temperature. Landsat 5 and Landsat 7 has only one thermal
band (band 6); however, Landsat 8 obtain thermal image in two bands
(band 10 and band 11) but band 11 was avoided for LST calculation due
to substantial calibration issues identified by USGS [39,45,46]. Landsat
obtain thermal band in digital number (DN). Therefore, we need to
convert the DN values to surface temperature.
The process described by Artis and Carnahan (1982) was applied in
this study to extract the LST from Landsat thermal bands. In the first step
we have converted the DN values to spectral radiance and in second step
the spectral radiance was converted to surface temperature.
The conversion of DN values to radiance in Landsat 5, 7 and Landsat
8 is different. equation (3) below is explaining the conversion of DN
values to spectral radiance from Landsat 5 TM and Landsat 7 ETM+.
LMAXλ − LMINλ
Lλ = ∗ (QCAL − QCALMIN) + LMINλ (3)
QCALMAX − QCALMIN
Here.
LMAXλ is Maximum radiance, LMINλ is Minimum radiance,
QCALMAX is Quantized maximum, QCALMIN is Quantized minimum,
Lλ is Spectral radiance and QCAL correspond to thermal band 6. The
thermal band in Landsat 5 TM and Land 7 ETM+ is band 6 and values
can be obtained from the metadata file of Landsat image. Equation (4) is
explaining the conversion of DN values to spectral radiance in Landsat 8.
L = ML ∗ QCAL + AL (4)
Here.
ML is Multiplicative band 10, QCAL is Thermal band 10, and AL is
additive band 10, In Landsat 8 thermal band correspond to band 10.
( / ( ) relative change. In contrast, barren land has decreased from 2002
K1
T = K2 Ln + 1 – 273.15 (5)
Lλ
Here.
Equation (5) used to convert the spectral radiance into surface
temperature in degree Celsius. K1 and K2 are constant values and their
values can be obtained from metadata file. Lλ is spectral radiance and T.
T urban expansion was mostly done on barren land. There are various
LST = ( ) (6)
1 + λ ∗ Tρ ∗ ln(ε)
Land surface temperature (LST), T is satellite brightness temperature
in calculated in degree Celsius λ is the wavelength of Band 6 (11.5 μm)
and Band 10 (10.8 μm) of Landsat 5 TM and Landsat 8 OLI respectively
[6,47]. Land surface emissivity (ε) is calculated using equation (7).
ε = 0.004 ∗ Pv + 0.986 (7)
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Proportion of vegetation Pv calculated using NDVI values. Therefore,
first we have calculated NDVI (Equation (7)) and then we have
computed proportion of vegetation using equation (8).
NDVI =
NIR − RED
(8)
NIR + RED
( )2
NDVI − NDVImin
Pv = (9)
NDVImax − NDVImin
2.4. Surface urban heat island (SUHI)
In the present study we have calculated SUHI using simplified urban
extent (SUE) algorithm (T. [17]. Fig. 4 is showing the steps followed to
calculate the SUHI. From LULC data we have extracted we have created
two subsets, one for urban area and second for other LULC classes
excluding urban area and water bodies. Water bodies removed from
non-urban subset because water has the high heat capacity which can
over and underestimate the SUHI at daytime and nighttime respectively
[9]. Now the LST has been calculated for urban and non-urban area and
the difference between mean LST of urban area and non-urban area
resulted in SUHI.
2.5. Wind speed
We have acquired the wind speed and wind direction data from
Korean Meteorological Administration (KMA) for the year of 2002, 2011
and 2021 for the month of March because we have calculated SUHI and
classified the LULC for the month of March. We have calculated the
monthly average of wind speed for four stations in Jeju island and
interpolated the values using IDW.
3. Results
In the present research work LULC change analysis was carried out
using maximum likelihood classification algorithm and then it was
correlated with LST and eventually the impact of urbanization was
assessed using simplified urban extent for surface urban heat island.
3.1. Land use land cover change (LULC)
LULC classified images were derived from the supervised image
classification method using maximum likelihood algorithm. The classi­
fied images were categorized into five classes i.e., water, forest, urban,
clouds, and barren land (Fig. 5 a-c). From the classification results it was
revealed that urban land has increased two times from 2002 to 2021,
which grew from 8.69% in 2002, to 16.92% in 2011, leveling out in
2021 to 20.81% of the whole area (Fig. 5). In Table 2 it can also be
observed that urban land increased by (58.2%) which is the highest
(35.7%), 2011 (27.24%), and 2021 (23.41%) respectively. It was also
evident between 2002 and 2011, when barren land shrunk by 156.40
km2 or about 23.68%, and from 2011 to 2021 further shrunk by 71 km2
or 14.08%. Forest area showed a slight increase with 1.16% and 0.12%
for the years of 2011 and 2021 respectively.
Water bodies were decreased from 6.33 km2 or 0.34% in 2002 to 4
2
km (0.22%) in 2021. From the above results we can examine that the
reasons for change in LULC i.e., anthropogenic activities, population
growth and urbanization [10,31,48]. The detailed statistics of the clas­
sified images are shown in Table 2. It can be seen from Table 2 and Fig. 5
that urban expansion resulted from conversion of barren land.
3.2. Accuracy assessment of LULC
The accuracy assessment (user, producer, and overall accuracy) was
M.F.U. Moazzam et al. Building and Environment xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 4. Steps for calculation of SUHI [17].

Fig. 5. LULC maps for the years of (a) 2002, (b) 2011, (c) 2021. Red color is showing the Urban area, green color is showing forest cover, blue color is showing water
body, brown color is barren and white spots are clouds. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of
this article.)

Table 2
LULC change in Jeju Island for the years of 2002, 2011, 2021.
Classes 2002 2011 2021 Changes
2 2 2
Area (km ) % Area (km ) % Area (km ) % 2002–2011 2011–2021 2002–2021

Forest 1022.73 55.28 1024.00 55.35 1024 55.35 9.35 (1.16%) 1.27 (0.12%) 1.27 (0.12%)
Urban 160.69 8.69 313.00 16.92 385 20.81 152.31 (48.66%) 72 (18.70%) 224.31 (58.26%)
Water 6.33 0.34 5.45 0.29 4 0.22 0.88 (13.90%) 1.45 (21.01%) 0.57 (8.26%)
Barren Land 660.40 35.70 504.00 27.24 433 23.41 156.40 (23.68%) 71 (14.08%) 227.40 (34.43%)
Cloud 0.22 0.01 3.60 0.19 4.99 0.27

produced using error matrix for all the classified images. The overall
accuracy was 0.87%, 0.85%, and 0.92% for the years of 2002, 2011, and
2021 respectively (Table 3).The accuracy achieved in this study is
comparable to the Anderson’s standard accuracy [49]. While kappa
co-efficient was 79.02%, 76.45%, and 88.05% for the years of 2002,
2011, and 2021 respectively.
3.3. Relationship between LST and LULC
The present study used Landsat thermal band to measure the
magnitude of land surface temperature (LST) in Jeju island. Three
Landsat images were acquired i.e., Landsat 7 ETM + on March 2002,
Landsat 5 TM on March 2011, and Landsat 8 OLI on March 2021. From
Fig. 5 we can observe that LST spatially increased in the study area. The

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M.F.U. Moazzam et al. Building and Environment xxx (xxxx) xxx

Table 3 LST above 24 ◦ C has a few dots in south-west part of the study area;
Accuracy of classified images. however, in 2011 most of the study area has experienced temperature
Land cover PA UA PA UA PA UA between 18 and 24 ◦ C. In 2021, the previously regions (2011) experi­
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) enced the temperature between 18 and 24 ◦ C become more hotter and
2002 2011 2021 temperature of those areas reached to 30 ◦ C due to expansion of ur­
banization. The lower temperature under 18 ◦ C in center of the study is
FC 80.5 94.73 84.09 90.24 90.69 95.12
W 100 100 100 100 100 100
due to forest region. The changes in LST indicated the influence of land
BL 94.87 77.8 75.94 75 84 91.3 changes on thermal environment [33]. Constant growth in urban area
C 100 100 100 100 100 100 with increase in LST implies the effect of urbanization on LST.
UL 100 100 97.29 81.82 100 87.88
Overall accuracy 0.87 0.85 0.92
(%) Table 4
Kappa Coefficient 79.02 76.45 88.05 LST distribution in each class (area in percentage).
(%)
Year/LST (%) <6 6–12 12–18 18–24 24–30 >30
FC = Forest cover, W = Water body, BL = Barren land, C = Clouds, UL = Urban
2002 0.24 5.36 49.87 44.2 0.35 0.003
land, PA = Producer’s accuracy, UA = User’s accuracy.
2011 0.25 9.16 36.88 32.29 21.44 0
2021 0 0.48 17.98 54.85 26.4 0.31
LST map was divided into six classes. From Fig. 6 we can see that high

Fig. 6. Spatial distribution of LST (a) 2002, (b) 2011, (c) 2021. The dark color is showing the high temperature and light color is showing low temperature. (For
interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

7
M.F.U. Moazzam et al.
From Table 4 we can see the distribution of temperature in Jeju is­
land from 2002 to 2020. The average LST of the study area increased
significantly from 17.13 ◦ C in 2002 to 21.65 ◦ C in 2021. In 2002 the
temperature was concentrated in two classes 12–18 ◦ C (49.87%) and
18–24 ◦ C (44.20%). In 2011 21.44% of the study area has experienced
above 24 ◦ C temperature but 68% of the area has temperature range
between 12 and 24 ◦ C. However, in 2021 about 80% of the area expe­
rienced temperature between 18 and 30 ◦ C and only 0.31% area has
above 30 ◦ C temperature. From these results we can say that highest LST
in 19 years study period reached to 34 ◦ C which is comparatively low to
inland cities due to impact of sea breeze [34].
We assume that LULC transformation has adverse impact on spatial
distribution of LST in an urbanized area because urban and barren land
has major contribution to increase LST [29], thus, for the purpose we
have compared the LST with area of urban land. In 2002 when the urban
land has 8.69% of the portion in island the urban temperature was
19.40 ◦ C which increased to 24.16 ◦ C when the urban area reached to
20.81% of the island in 2021 which revealed that urbanization has
direct impact on LST [30] (Fig. 7). Findings of this research is consistent
with a study conducted by Xiong et al. [10] who explained the direct
relationship of LST and built-up land.
Mean LST change of LULC classes for the period of 2002, 2011, and
2021 and the mean LST of three years (2002, 2011, 2021) has been
examined and presented below in Fig. 8a and b. It has been observed
that mean LST of urban area was 19.40 ◦ C in 2002 which ultimately
increased to 24.16 ◦ C in 2021 (Fig. 8a) because urban area increases by
12% from 2002 to 2021 (Fig. 5; Table 2). Average LST of all the years
was 20.92 ◦ C for urban land (Fig. 8b). Similarly, the barren land surface
temperature was increased by 4.71 ◦ C (Fig. 8a) from 2002 to 2021;
however, the area was shrunk by 230.4 km2 (Fig. 5; Table 2).
The mean LST of water and forest cover was increased by 2.69 ◦ C and
4.34 ◦ C respectively (Fig. 8a). The lowest average LST of all the years
was recorded for the water class (13.64 ◦ C) and comparatively forest
cover has also depicted low surface temperature (17.06 ◦ C) which
indicate the impact of forest cover on LST. The average LST of barren
land was 20.23 ◦ C which is second highest after built-up land (Fig. 8b).
The surface temperature of urban land ranges between 19 and 24 ◦ C
because impervious surfaces influence the surface temperature. Ac­
cording to environmental protection agency (EPA) the city temperature
can be 1–3 ◦ C higher as compared to the surroundings, because
anthropogenic materials i.e., roads, concrete, and buildings gets heated
rapidly but it is also warmer even in absence of solar radiation at night
time [18].
In this study we have found that urban land has higher temperature
than barren land (Fig. 9). Mathew et al. [18] has also discussed about the
Fig. 7. Trend of land surface temperature (LST) with increasing urbanization.
8
Building and Environment xxx (xxxx) xxx
properties of soil and LST, the author revealed that soil gets heated
instantly in sunshine but it also cools down quickly at nighttime.
Therefore, the surface temperature difference of urban and barren land
ranges between 0.5 and 0.7 ◦ C for all the years in this study (Fig. 9). The
difference between the temperature of urban land and forest cover
ranges between 3.6 and 3.99 ◦ C for the period of 2002–2021 (Fig. 9).
The highest surface temperature difference was observed for water class
(Fig. 9).
3.4. Distribution of SUHI
We have calculated the surface urban heat island intensity (SUHI)
using Chakraborty and Lee [17] methodology. The results revealed that
average surface temperature of urban extent in Jeju Island was 19.40 ±
2.43 ◦ C in 2002, but it slightly decreased to 19.21 ± 1.77 ◦ C in 2011;
however, it raised to 24.16 ± 3.19 ◦ C in 2021 (Table 5). The non-urban
LST was 16.93 ± 2.95 ◦ C in 2002 which was also decreased in 2011 by
0.38 ◦ C; although, raised again in 2021 by 4.51 ◦ C (Table 5). The dif­
ference between mean surface temperature of urban extent to that of
non-urban extent is called surface urban heat island (SUHI). SUHI was
calculated for three years, and details are listed in Table 5. The differ­
ence between mean LST of urban and non-urban extent was 2.47 ◦ C in
2002, which was increased to 2.66 ◦ C and 3.10 ◦ C, in 2011 and 2021
respectively. The relative changes were 0.19 ◦ C and 0.44 ◦ C for
2002–2011 and 2011–2021 respectively.
3.5. Relationship between wind speed and SUHI
We have evaluated the correlation between wind speed and SUHI.
The mean wind speed for the month of March in 2002 was 4.36 m/s
which is decreased to 4.21 and 3.36 m/s in 2011 and 2021 respectively
(Fig. 10); although, interestingly it is observed that mean SUHI
increased while the wind speed decreased over the time (Fig. 10) which
reveal a significant negative correlation between these two variables
which is accepted by many researchers earlier [50–52]. It has also re­
ported that wind speed can significantly reduce the intensity of SUHI
[53].
3.6. Discussion
In the present study we have analyzed the influence of urbanization
on LST and SUHI. Landsat images were used to classify the LULC using
supervised image classification method which has provided good re­
sults. The Jeju island urban area increased from 8.69% (2002) to
20.81% (2021) and change in land cover from barren to urban land has
influenced the urban thermal environment and resulted in SUHI effect.
Urbanization and population growth are considered as a significant
factors for temperature changes [54]. It is expected that heat stroke
related mortality rate will increase in future due to global warming and
rapid urbanization [55]. The LST distribution in Jeju island was exam­
ined and it was observed that LST increased with time. It was also proved
from the analysis that urban land and LST has direct relationship, as the
urban area increase, the LST increased in parallel (Figs. 7 and 8) which is
consistent with previous studies in different parts of the world i.e.,
Guangzhou/China [10], Seoul/South Korea [56], Beijing/China [57],
Kolkata/India [19], Lahore/Pakistan [58], South Asian cities [16],
Rajshahi/Bangladesh [59] and so on. We have evaluated LST for every
LULC class separately to examine its thermal contribution and we have
revealed that urban land has the highest contribution [25]. The similar
results were also examined by Ref. [60] in six urban centers of Pakistan.
The mean LST of the urban land consistently increased from 2002 to
2021; however, it was also observed that LST of other classes (vegeta­
tion, water body and barren land) also increased which is in line with
other studies [57,60–62]. Liu et al. [57] has emphasized that changes in
LULC contribute to increase in LST particularly urban land contribute
extensively. Thus, it is sufficient to say that the present study has
M.F.U. Moazzam et al. Building and Environment xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 8. Comparison of LULC and LST (a) LULC classes and LST for the years of 2002, 2011, and 2021 (b) LULC classes for the years of 2002, 2011, 2021 and mean
temperature of (2002, 2011, 2021). UL = Urban land, BL = Barren land, FC = Forest cover, and W = Water.

Fig. 10. Correlation between mean wind speed and SUHI.

Fig. 9. Comparison of urban mean temperature with mean temperature of

other LULC classes for the year of 2002, 2011, & 2021 U = Urban land, B =
increase the SUHI [63]. Although, SUHI phenomena can be reduced by
Barren land, F = Forest cover, and W = Water. replacing low albedo to high albedo materials which can make the
surface cooler in solar radiation [64]. There is a great agreement that
high albedo materials can reduce the intensity of SUHI [65], reflective
Table 5 materials can also help to decrease the intensity [66], rooftops with
Surface Urban heat island intensity. green surface can have significant impact on reducing SUHI effect.
Temp (oC) 2002 Temp (oC) 2011 Temp (oC) 2021 Green rooftops can reduce the temperature by 0.3–3 ◦ C [67]. Evident
results has been examined with green infrastructure on reducing the
Urban LST 19.40 19.21 24.16
Non-Urban 16.93 16.55 21.06 impact of SUHI in urban environment, e.g., Stuttgart/Germany [68],
LST London/UK, Shanghai, and Suzhou (China), Paris/France, Milan/Italy,
SUHI 2.47 2.66 3.10 New Delhi and Ahmedabad (India) [69] and Peshawar/Pakistan [27].
Wind Speed (m/s) Wind Speed (m/s) Wind Speed (m/s) Green spaces/vegetation cover produce cooling effect in the urban areas
2002 2011 2021
which can play an important role for leading the eco-friendly and sus­
Mean Wind 4.36 4.21 3.36
Speed tainable environment [6]. Previously many studies has found that
magnitude of wind speed has inverse relationship with intensity of SUHI
therefore, in the present study we have also evaluated the impact of
provided enough information on the influence of urbanization to LST. wind speed and observed that when the mean wind speed decreased the
The influence of SUHI can be observed by absorption of heat and the SUHI increased which is also found previously [51,52,70].Wind can
difference of surface energy budget between urban and rural area [54]. bring cooling effects and mitigate the adverse impact of SUHI in urban
The extensive SUHI influence can be observe in urban center [25]. In climatology [70]. Hu and Xue [71]. also observed that sea breeze play an
this study we have also observed the phenomena of SUHI due to the important role in reducing the impact of SUHI [71]. It has been observed
urbanization which is consistent with previous studies [16,17,25,60]. 5 K SUHI intensity in calm condition with 2 m/s wind speed in Adelaide
Temporally the SUHI indicated the increasing trend of warming in­ but the intensity was reduced to 2 K in higher wind speed [50]. A sig­
tensity in Jeju Island. Several studies have proved and observed the nificant decrease in UHI intensity was examined in five Korean cities due
similar phenomena of SUHI due to anthropogenic activities [8,39,52, to stronger wind conditions [72].
54]. Process of urbanization, increasing development and dense infra­ This is the first study to report the increasing SUHI in Island over
structure in the cities trap huge amount of solar radiation which can time. This research has provided a proof that changes in LULC help us to

9
M.F.U. Moazzam et al.
clearly understand and investigate the urban climate. The present study
is a benchmark and provide guidance to understand the urban thermal
environment of Jeju island. However, still various other factors should
be considered (i.e., wind speed and direction, clear sky, impact of cloud,
population, landscape pattern, and city size) to analyze the SUHI with
various other parameters because urban expansion and urban infra­
structure is not the only factor for rise in temperature and intensity of
SUHI. Therefore, in future we will study the annual, seasonal, and
monthly SUHI in depth with high temporal resolution satellite (MODIS,
AVHRR) to easily incorporate the climate data (wind speed, cloud, and
solar radiation data).
4. Conclusion
In the present study LULC was classified using maximum likelihood
classifier algorithm. We have revealed the transformation of LULC in
Jeju island from 2002 to 2021 and urban area expanded in from 8.69 to
20.81% and barren land shrunk by 12% which could be a factor of
increasing LST. The overall accuracy and kappa coefficient was in the
range of 0.85–0.92, and 76–88% respectively, for all the years. We have
assessed the correlation of LST and LULC and found that urban and
barren land has high temperature as compared to water and forest cover.
We have observed that on average urban land has 0.62 ◦ C higher tem­
perature as compared to barren land; moreover, the temperature dif­
ference of urban lands was increased by 3.78 ◦ C, and 7.20 ◦ C with forest
cover and water body respectively from 2002 to 2011. We have assumed
that due to the urban expansion the island is experiencing high surface
temperature which is also observed in the results that urban expansion
has direct relationship with LST and contributing majorly for rise in LST.
In this study it was also observed that intensity of SUHI is increased by
0.63 ◦ C from 2002 to 2021. We have compared the wind speed with
SUHI and found an inverse relationship between these two variables.
Thus, the island surrounded by the ocean strongly impacted by the
urban expansion and it is also the reason of increasing temperature of
the island.
Author’s contributions
M.F.M and B.G.L Conceptualization, Design the study, M.F.M ac­
quired the data, formal analysis, methodology, validation, visualization,
writing original draft, Y.H.D helped in image processing and discussion,
B.G.L acquire funding, supervision, project administration, resources,
writing, review, and editing.
Funding
This research was supported by the 2022 scientific promotion pro­
gram funded by Jeju National University.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Muhammad Farhan Ul Moazzam: Writing – review & editing,
Visualization, Validation, Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptuali­
zation. Yang Hoi Doh: Visualization, Validation, Formal analysis.
Byung Gul Lee: Writing – original draft, Supervision, Project adminis­
tration, Methodology, Funding acquisition, Conceptualization.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
10
Building and Environment xxx (xxxx) xxx
Acknowledgment
The author acknowledges the United States Geological Survey
(USGS) and National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) for
providing the Landsat data free of cost. Author acknowledges Mr. She­
nawar Ali Khan (Department of Electronics Engineering, Jeju National
University) for his assistance in field visit.
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