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Monitoring Land Use/Land Cover Change and Its Impact on Variations of Land
Surface Temperature Rapidy Urbanizing Island Using Google Earth
Engine(GEE) -A Case Study of Delhi, India
Research · January 2022

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.14495.84641
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Planning Insights Research Paper
Monitoring Land Use/Land Cover Change and Its Impact

on Variations of Land Surface Temperature Rapidy
Urbanizing Island Using Google Earth Engine(GEE) – A
Case Study of Delhi, India
O. Mohammed Faizan
Institute of Remote Sensing, College of Engineering Guindy, Anna University, Chennai, India
faizan1675273@gmail.com
Abstract
Climate change and human activities have a notable influence on ecosystems. Land use and land cover change
(LULC) has a significant influence on ecosystems, and there is an essential need for a free and open-source tool
for identifying land cover variations and geographical distribution. This study uses Google Earth Engine (GEE)
to investigate LULC pattern, as well as the land surface temperature (LST) in Delhi, India (from 2000 to 2020 at
10-year intervals). The study then used correlation analysis to examine the relationship between LULC, LST, and
other vital spectral indices such as NDVI, NDWI, and NDBI for both the summer and winter seasons. The random
forest supervised technique was used to classify LULC utilizing various spectral bands (RGB, NIR, SWIR) of
Landsat images. The significant LULC conversion methods (transfer to and from) between 2000 and 2020 were
clearly identified for the years 2000, 2010, and 2020, as well as a total of five common LULC classes. Overall
accuracy assessment of 92% in 2000, 89% in 2010 and 91% in 2020, with Kappa coefficients ranging from 86%
to 90%. Water bodies, agricultural land, and bare land decreased by 6.32%, 50.54%, and 38.09% from 2000 to
2020 respectively, while built-up land and forest land increased by 42.18% and 50.65% of study area, respectively.
Maximum LST increases from 34.86°C in 2000 to 51.54°C in 2020 and 23.25°C in 2000 to 25.58 in 2020 during
summer and winter seasons respectively and with substantial LST differences seen among different LULC classes.
In all selected phases, the built-up region preserves the greatest amount of LST. The study shows that LST with
NDVI and NDWI are negative correlation and on the other hand, LST with NDBI are positive correlation. These
findings not only show a change in LULC, but also the benefit of using Google Earth Engine and the open archive
database in its platform to monitor and control this change over the years. This study can help urban planners,
environmental engineers and agricultural officers establish successful policy efforts to adopt sustainable land-use
plans and management in the city.
Keywords: Google Earth Engine (GEE), Land use/Land Cover (LULC), Land Surface Temperature (LST),
Normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), Normalized difference water index (NDWI), Normalized
difference build-up index (NDBI), Urban heat island (UHI)
1. Introduction
Urban areas are growing rapidly, because of the increased need for commercial, residential, and
industrial area [44]. Population expansion and industrialization have also worked as a stimulant in the
process of urban in-migration. In 1950, 30 percent of the world's population lived in cities [45], a rate
that increased to 54 percent in 2014 and is predicted to rise to 66 percent by 2050 [46]. India's urban
population was 217 million in 1991, but it increased to 377 million in 2011 [47]. According to Census
of India 2011 statistics, India's urban population has grown considerably during the previous two
decades. According to a United Nations assessment, India's urban population would grow by
approximately 500 million during 2010 and 2050 (United Nations 2012). The fast growth in urban
population, urbanisation, and urban land development results in an increase in built-up area and a loss
in green cover in cities [48,49,50]. Urbanisation refers to the conversion of green belts of metropolitan
areas into built-up areas, as well as agriculture land, which is primarily on the periphery of town, into
built-up areas. It is also observed that changes in land use/cover lead to the loss of farming land, the
loss of forest lands, a rise in barren areas, an increase in impervious surface cover due to built-up areas,
©2021 The Authors. Published by Planning Insights. This is an open access paper under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
and so on [51]. The land surface temperature (LST) is most likely to rise as a result of these physical
changes, which mostly include a loss in green cover and an expansion in built-up area. Green space is
a basic necessity in all cities since it helps to a healthy suburban environment and also healthy lifestyle
while also preserving the visual and environmental beauty of urban areas [52].
The natural environment of the city is influenced by green cover, which aids in the selected reflection
and absorption of incident radiation while also regulating the interchange of implicit and apparent heat.
Green space, among other physical components, is an essential component of the environment with
multi-dimensional functions; it helps to improve air quality, conserve biodiversity, and reduce the urban
heat island (UHI) impact, and it is also an indication of ecological sustainability [52]. Reduced green
cover and increased built-up area (impervious surface) lead to a rise in the phenomenon of urban heat
island (UHI) in cities, resulting in a worsening of the health of the environment in the urban region [53].
Use of remote sensing and Geographical Information Systems has long been seen as a useful tool in
urban climatic research aimed at establishing sustainable cities. It offers a cost-effective technique of
measuring numerous spatiotemporal changes and indices that is precise, fast, and accurate [54]. The
utilization of satellite datasets results in a medium to high-resolution satellite imager capable of
constantly monitoring the surface of the earth and atmosphere. Satellite-derived images are frequently
used for inventorying and monitoring LULC changes. The continuous presence of different satellite
sensors such as Landsat 5 (TM), Landsat 7 (ETM+), and Landsat 8 (OLI) has frequently been used to
provide required information for monitoring latest changes in LULC and their impact on surface UHI
[55].
Remote sensing data spectral indices often provide a thorough knowledge of the connection between
LST, which is critical in assessing surface UHI, and LULC parameters. The NDVI, NDWI, and NDBI
are the most often used satellite-derived indices for assessing spatiotemporal changes in land surface
temperature (LST). These indices are indications of changes in the connection between LULC and LST
[56]. Scatter plots and regression analysis can be used to obtain the correlation. Previous research has
been conducted at the many relationships between LULC, LST, NDVI, NDWI, and NDBI. A negative
correlation was obtained between NDVI and LST in Shenzhen, China's Pearl River Delta, whereas a
positive correlation was found between LST and NDBI. Similar research in Sivas, Turkey [57], Egypt's
greater Cairo region [58], and some southern Asian megacities such as Bangkok (Thailand), Manila
(Philippines), and Jakarta (Indonesia) [59] reported similar interactions, more clearly a negative
correlation, between land surface temperature and NDVI and NDWI, as well as a positive correlation
between LST and NDBI. These findings were ascribed mostly to cities' ongoing growth and extension
as a consequence of urbanization and socioeconomic advancements, which affected land-use and local
climatic changes. Modifications in LULC and surface UHIs assist reduce the negative consequences of
climate change by evaluating the ramifications of diverse human activities and offering adaptive
solutions targeted at sustainable land-use management, therefore considerably improving city
liveability.
Although numerous studies on LULC scenarios of urban areas in developing nations like as Delhi exist
[60], complete studies on the spatiotemporal assessment of LULC variations and their impact on the
surface UHI of Delhi's fast rising cities are still restricted to non-existent. Due to increasing urbanization
and population expansion, Delhi, India's capital and one of its major cities, has been under enormous
strain over the last several decades. The metropolis, like many other expanding megacities, has seen
significant LULC changes, namely an increase in built-up area and a decrease in vegetation. Through
increasing UHI, the continual changing of land-uses for residential, commercial, and industrial activity
frequently leads to climate change, notably global warming. To significantly minimize surface UHI in
Delhi Metropolis, it is critical to investigate the LULC changing situation and its interaction with LST.
Google Earth Engine (GEE), a new technology released by Google in December 2010. This geospatial
analytic platform made almost four decades of satellite images available online, allowing scientists and
academics to examine real-time changes to the Surface of the earth [42]. GEE includes several examples
to help with imagery categorization, such as simple cloud score, filter image collection and cloud
masking Landsat simple composite. These examples assist users in more effectively and simply
classifying LULC. Google Earth Engine consists of millions of servers all over the world, allowing the
science community to examine trillions of images using parallel computation [43].
The study makes use the advantage of the innovative geospatial technologies of GEE and the historical
record of Landsat Satellite imagery data to analyse land use change in Delhi, India. The objectives of
this study to (i) Map and examine the different changes in Delhi's LULC pattern during the past 20
years (i.e., 2000–2020); (ii) analyse the distribution of LST, NDVI, NDWI, and NDBI in the city; (iii)
LST is correlated and analysed using satellite-derived indices such as NDVI, NDWI, and NDBI.
2. Study Area
The study area which is national capital Delhi is one of India's largest metropolitan areas, located in the
country's northwest region [8]. It is at 28° 23′ 17′′–28° 53′ 00′′ N latitude and 76° 50′ 24′′–77° 20′ 37′′
E longitude (Fig.1). The elevation ranges from 213 to 305 meters, and the area is approximately 1483
𝑘𝑚 2 . The overall population of Delhi City is 16.75 million (Census of India 2011), and according to
Census of India predictions, the population of Delhi would exceed 28 million by 2026 (Department of
Urban Development, Govt. of Delhi). The population density is 11,297 P/𝑘𝑚 2 , the highest in the nation.
Delhi is located on the banks of the Yamuna River (a tributary of the Ganga River) and is surrounded
in the east by the state of Uttar Pradesh and in the north, west, and south by the state of Haryana [9].
The forest covers around 111 km2 (27.49 percent) of Delhi's total area. The rest of Delhi is classified
as plain. Delhi is spread on 148,689 hectares of land, with green space accounting for 20% of the total
area (Forest Survey of India and Ministry of Environment and Forests 2015). Delhi has a tropical
monsoon climate and is characterized by severe weather. As a result, summer in Delhi is extremely hot
in summer, with severe heat waves; the daytime temperature of summer typically fluctuates between
25 and 46 °C. With the advent of the monsoon towards the end of July, the temperature drops by roughly
5°C, providing comfort after the long summer months. The monsoon season lasts until early September,
with an average rainfall of 28 inches. Winter in Delhi is bitterly cold, with regular cold waves, fog, and
pollution. Temperatures drop beginning in November and can reach 2°C in January [8,9].
Figure 1. Location Map of the Study Area
3. Materials and Methods

3.1 Satellite Data Collection using Google Earth Engine (GEE)
Google Earth Engine offers fast analysis by utilizing Google's computer infrastructure, which provides
online data in near-real time [1]. Landsat imagery that had been pre-processed and made accessible
through GEE was utilized to assess the variance in LULC and LST in the study area. As part of the
USGS database, Google Earth Engine gives online access to cataloging Landsat data. The GEE
platform's web service was used to analyze all of the Landsat data. In this study, Landsat images scenes
from the years 2000, 2010, and 2020 were chosen for the study region in GEE (Table 1). To improve
the repeatability of the classification, two satellite images were selected for each year's summer and
winter seasons. Landsat images from March to May were collected in order to predict the summer
season LST of the study area for the mentioned years. Landsat images from December to February were
used for winter season LST. A maximum of 10% cloud coverage was considered in the satellite images
to maintain accuracy in classifying and predicting the surface temperature.
Table 1: Datasets used in this study
Year Season Satellite Spatial Date Path Row Source
Resolution
2000 Summer Landsat 5 30 m 2000-05-09 146 40 GEE
Dataset
Winter Landsat 5 30 m 2000-02-03 146 40 (USGS)

Dataset

Dataset
3.2 Image pre-processing

Several steps were taken during this pre-processing. First, the study area was established and imported
as "Assets" into GEE, where it was then utilized as the principal geometry across the procedure.
Following that, the Image Collection tool in GEE was used to generate the images for the study, which
included four images from 2000 (Landsat 5 images), four images from 2010, and four images from
2020 (Landsat 8 images). Second, the spectral bands of Landsat images were chosen for classification,
including red, green, and blue bands (RGB), near-infrared (NIR), and short-wave infrared (SWIR). The
LST was calculated using the derived thermal band (band 6 for Landsat 5 and band 10 for Landsat 8).
The Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) [2], Normalized Difference Built-up Index
(NDBI) [3], and Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI) [4] were also estimated in GEE and added
to the bands, which are useful for LST and LULC classification. GEE Code Editor was used for all of
the processing. (https://code.earthengine.google.com/)
3.3 Method for calculating NDVI, NDWI, NDBI and Statistical Assessment
To demonstrate the relationship between Land surface temperature with built-up area, vegetation,
Waterbodies and built-up area three different indices were calculated using Landsat data with the help
of GEE such as NDVI (Normalized Differences Vegetation Index), NDWI (Normalized Differences
Water Index) and NDBI (Normalized Differences Built-up Index) respectively.
3.3.1 NDVI
The Normal Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) is an essential measure of urban climate [5]. The
NDVI value ranges from -1 (negative) to +1 (positive). Values ranging from 0 to +1 (positive) indicate
vegetation cover, whereas values near to 1 indicate dense vegetation. It defines the amount of
vegetation, as well as its phenology and health [6]. The following equation 1 is used to calculate NDVI
(Townshend and Justice, 1986).
NIR − RED
NDVI = NIRBand + REDBand (1)
Band Band
Where, in Landsat 5 TM, the NIR band indicates Band 4 (0.76–0.90 µm) and the red band indicates
Band 3 (0.63–0.69 µm); in Landsat 8 OLI, the NIR band indicates Band 5 (0.85–0.88 µm) and the red
band indicates Band 4 (0.64–0.67 µm).
3.3.2 NDWI
The Normal Difference Water Index (NDWI) is an another significant of urban climate. The NDWI
value ranges from -1 (negative) to +1 (positive). Water bodies are represented by values ranging from
0 to +1 (positive), with values near to 1 indicating a high density of water bodies. It represents
information about water with in landscape [6], and NDWI is calculated using the following equation 2
(McFeeters, 1996)
GreenBand − NIRBand
NDWI = (2)
GreenBand + NIRBand
Where, in Landsat 5 TM, the Green band indicates Band 2 (0.525 – 0.605 µm) and the NIR band
indicates Band 4 (0.76–0.90 µm); in Landsat 8 OLI, the Green band indicates Band 3 (0.525 – 0.600
µm) and the NIR band indicates Band 5 (0.85–0.88 µm).
3.3.3 NDBI
The Normal Difference Built-up Index (NDBI) is an another important of urban climate. It ranges from
-1 to +1, with negative values indicating water bodies and vegetation, positive values indicating built-
up areas, and low positive values indicating barren soil types. It provides information on the landscape's
imperviousness [6], and NDBI is calculated using the following equation 3 (Zha et al., 2003).
MIR − NIR
NDBI = MIRBand + NIRBand (3)
Band Band
Where, in Landsat 5 TM, the MIR band indicates Band 5 (1.55–1.75µm) and the NIR band indicates
Band 4 (0.76–0.90 µm); in Landsat 8 OLI, the MIR band indicates Band 6 (1.57–1.65 µm) and the NIR
band indicates Band 5 (0.85–0.88 µm).
3.3.4 Statistical Assessment

In this study scatter plots were created using regression analysis with all time-points (2000, 2010, and
2020) to show the impacts of the NDVI, NDWI, and NDBI on LST intensification. This was
accomplished by transforming the pixels throughout the study area into point data [5,7]. The parameter
values of these points were then extracted from the generated maps of the various periods utilizing
sample points for each period under analysis. Pearson's correlation coefficient ('r') was used to calculate
the relationship between LST v/s NDVI, LST v/s NDWI, and LST v/s NDBI, where LST was the
dependent variable and NDVI/NDWI/NDBI were the independent variables. Pearson's ‘r’ was
computed using Equation 4.
∑n
i=1(xi −x
̅ )× (yi −y
̅)
r= (4)
√∑n ̅ )2 × √∑n
i=1(xi −x ̅ )2
i=1(yi −y
where ‘r’ indicates Pearson's correlation coefficients, 𝑥 is the NDVI/NDWI/NDBI measuring value of
𝑥𝑖 , and 𝑦 indicates the LST measurement value of 𝑦𝑖 . 𝑥𝑖 and 𝑦𝑖 are single test indices with 𝑖. whereas
𝑥̅ and 𝑦̅ indicates the sample means.
3.4 Estimation of seasonal LST

LST was estimated using the Digital Number (DN) of a thermal band. Thermal band 6 was taken into
account for Landsat 5 TM and for Landsat 8 OLI utilizing bands 10 during the summer and winter
seasons. The DNs in the downloaded data were transformed to LST. However, the extraction of LST
from Landsat TM and OLI is slightly different in terms of calculating spectral radiance (𝐿λ ). The
complete method is divided into 4 steps, which are represented in Figure 2 using Equation 1, 2, 3,4,5,6
& 7 (Maduako et al., 2016; Connors et al., 2013, Asgarian et al., 2014; Abu Qdais, 2019, Govind and
Ramesh,2019).
Figure 2: Process of estimating seasonal LST using Landsat TM and OLI thermal bands.
3.5 LULC Classification

In this study, LULC types were classified into five categories in the years of 2000, 2010 and 2020
respectively (Urban/Built-up land, water body, Agricultural land, Forest land and Bare land). The
Description of each class as shows in table 2. The Random Forest (RF) algorithm in GEE was used for
the classification process. Many researches observed that employing the RF classifier method resulted
in better accuracy [3,10]. The RF algorithm is an aggregation learning approach comprised of several
independent decision trees [11]. Each decision tree contains multiple nodes, and the ultimate outcome
is chosen by a majority vote. The benefit of RF is that it can provide a highly accurate classifier while
handling hundreds of input variables [12]. To create the LULC maps, 50-60 training samples were
collected for each LULC class. The categorized maps were validated using random sample ground truth
data from 100 Google Earth images. For accuracy assessment, the overall accuracy, user accuracy,
producer accuracy, and kappa statistics were computed, and one of the best quantitative techniques for
image classification accuracy was used [13].
Table 2: The description of LULC classes on Delhi, India
Class Name Description
Urban/Built-up land Residential areas, transportation, industrial, utilities, functional areas,
other built-up or urban land
water body Rivers, lakes, reservoir and Streams
Agricultural Land healthy vegetation, fallow farmland, Cultivated land, Cropland and
other agricultural land
Forest land Grassland, urban greening land, forest land and mixed forest land
Bare land fallow land, landfill sites, playground, Unused or difficult-to-use
terrain, such as rocks and barren soil
3.6 Method for determining the accuracy of LULC classification

A confusion or error matrix was used to assess the accuracy of the LULC classifications. A confusion
matrix includes information about it as a classification system's expected and unexpected
classifications. The image pixel that has been classified is matched to the same location in the field. An
accuracy evaluation generally offers users including an overall accuracy of the map as well as accuracy
for each class on the map. The following formula was used to estimate the percentage of overall
accuracy (OA):
Total Number of correctly classified pixcels (Diagonal)
Overall Accuracy = × 100
Total Number of reference pixcels
A total of 300 Google Earth sample sites have been chosen for accuracy assessment. In addition to
overall accuracy, classification performance of specific classes is determined in a similar way. There
are two approaches: user accuracy and producer accuracy. The accuracy of the producer is calculated
by dividing the number of accurate pixels in one classification by the total number of pixels obtained
from the reference data. The accuracy of the producer determines how effectively a certain region has
been categorized. It contains the omission error, which is the fraction of observed data on the ground
that are not categorized in the map [14]. Meantime, the user's accuracy is calculated by dividing the
number of properly identified pixels in each class by the total number of pixels classified in that class.
The accuracy of the user assesses the commission error and shows the likelihood that a pixel categorized
into a particular category represents that class on the ground. The following formula is used to calculate
the accuracy of the user and the producer:
Number of correctly classified pixcels in each class

User Accuracy = × 100
Total Number of classified pixcels in that class (The Row Total)
Number of correctly classified pixcels in each class

Producer Accuracy = × 100
Total Number of classified pixcels in that class (The Column Total)
Another parameter utilized in this study is the Kappa coefficient (K)[15]. It is determined by multiplying
the total number of pixels across all ground validation classes by the sum of a confusion matrix
diagonals, subtracting by the sum of the total column and total row, dividing by the total number of
pixels squared minus the sum of the ground verification pixels in that class multiplied by the sum of the
classified pixels in that class. Kappa has a value between 0 and 1, with 0 representing agreement due
purely to chance. A value of 1 denotes perfect agreement between the two data sets. Negative values
can exist, but they are incorrect. It is most commonly represented as a percentage (%). The Kappa
statistic is a more complex measure of classifier agreement that provides better interclass discriminating
than overall accuracy. The Kappa coefficient k is calculated as follows:
(Total sample−Total corrected sample)− ∑(𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ×𝑅𝑜𝑤 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙)
Kappa coefficient (k) = × 100
Total sample2 − ∑(𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ×𝑅𝑜𝑤 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙)
As a result, kappa always takes a value ranging from 0 to 1. The value 1 represents complete accuracy,
and as it decreases toward 0, it loses its perfectness. The value of the kappa coefficient has been
interpreted differently by different researchers. It is suggested that kappa values less than 0.40 show
very poor accuracy, that values from 0.40 to 0.55 represent fair accuracy, that values from 0.55 to 0.70
show good accuracy, that values from 0.70 to 0.85 show very good accuracy, and that values greater
than 0.85 represent highest accuracy among two images [16].
Figure 3. Methodological Flow chart of the study
4.Results
The results of the study are discussed in this section. It analyses the historical trend of LULC patterns
as well as the distributions of LST, NDVI, NDWI, and NDBI. The part also examines LULC changes
and their impact on surface UHI by correlating the city's LST fluctuations with LULC classes, NDVI,
NDWI, and NDBI.
4.1 Variation in LULC patterns and Accuracy Assessments

The LULC classification maps for the years 2000, 2010, and 2020 are shown in Figure 4, which is
prepared with random forest supervised classification. The RF classifier showed good overall
accuracies for Delhi, with evaluations of 92 percent (2000), 89 percent (2010) and 91 percent (2020),
respectively, and Kappa accuracies of 90% (1990), 86% (2007), and 88% (2020) is shown in Table 3.
The accuracy study showed that the verification rates for all years were more than 85%, suggesting an
excellent accuracy match [16]. Water showed high classification accuracies for each year since its
reflectance is easy to differentiate from other categories, but forest land had little lower classification
accuracies. The table depicts the land cover area and change in Delhi during the last 20 years. There
have been major changes in the built-up area and agricultural land. The built-up area in 2000 was 591.73
𝑘𝑚 2 (39.38%), but it increased significantly to 842.03 𝑘𝑚 2 (55.99%) in 2020, resulting in an overall
gain of +42.18 percent during the time period. Likewise, agricultural land area was 582.99 𝑘𝑚 2
(38.80%) in 2000 but decreased to 288.48 𝑘𝑚 2 (19.19%) in 2020, resulting in an overall change of -
50.54 percent over the 20 years. There were also notable changes in bare land and forest areas. In 2000,
bare land occupied 127.37 𝑘𝑚 2 (8.48 percent) of the land area, but by 2020, it had reduced to 78.90 km
(5.25 percent), resulting in an overall change of -38.09 percent. Forest land occupied 186.26 𝑘𝑚 2 (12.40
percent) of land in 2000, but rose considerably to 79.66 𝑘𝑚 2 (18.68 percent) in 2020, resulting in an
overall change of +50.65 percent during the period of time. While, Water bodies covered 14.26
𝑘𝑚 𝟐 (0.95%) of land in 2000 but reduced to 13.35 𝑘𝑚 2 (0.89%) in 2020, resulting in an overall change
of -6.32 percent.
Figure 4: Land use land cover map of a)2000, b)2010, c)2020
Table 3: LULC change statistics for 2000,2010 & 2020 in Delhi, India
LULC 2000 Area 2010 Area 2020 Area Change Change Overall
( 𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒎𝟐) in % (𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒎𝟐) in % (𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒎𝟐) in % in % in % change in %
(2000– (2010– (2000–2010)
2010) 2020)
Urban/Built- 591.73 39.38 725.93 48.31 842.03 55.99 +22.68 +15.90 +42.18
up land
Water body 14.26 0.95 10.42 0.69 13.35 0.89 -27.37 +28.98 -6.32
Agricultural 582.99 38.80 398.28 26.51 288.48 19.19 -31.68 -27.61 -50.54
Land
Forest land 186.26 12.40 271.07 18.04 280.89 18.68 +45.48 +3.55 +50.65
Bare land 127.37 8.48 96.90 6.45 78.90 5.25 -23.94 -18.60 -38.09
It has been found that fallow land has a significant strong inﬂuence on LST [16]. Throughout the study
area, the highest LST was recorded in South-West and North-West Delhi, leading to a decline in
agricultural activities. Furthermore, the rise of new built-up regions in South and South-West Delhi
results in a huge decrease of the ‘Delhi ridge’, which is a biodiversity-rich zone regarded as the city's
‘natural lounges’. Other factors include deforestation, the degradation of biodiversity geomorphological
streams, unlawful encroachment, and the huge expansion of built-up territory. Urban vegetation serves
as an important sink zone for surface and air temperature. In generally, Delhi's urban vegetation has
grown at a positive rate, with the exception of a few districts such as New Delhi and South Delhi. During
the period 2000–2020, for example, green space was expanded from 12.40 percent to 18.68 percent. It
is due to the availability and management of green city parks (Aravalli BioDiversity Park, Asola
Wildlife Sanctuary, Central Ridge Park, Hauz Khas Deer Park, and so on) in the New Delhi region, as
well as limited administrative area and roadside plantings. Active or green crops or farmland can also
function as a sink zone or a terminator for urban heat islands. Because of the presence of vegetation and
moisture in the soil, it has a high capacity to absorb heat [19]. Cropland was decreased, with a high
percentage in Delhi's South-West and North-West districts. This indicates a loss in green space and
conversion of present farmland to either fallow land or built-up area.
Spatial and Temporal Distribution of LULC

60
50
40
Area (in %)
30
20
10
0
2000 2010 2020
Urban/Built-up land Water body Agricultural Land Forest land Bare land
Figure 5: Distribution of LULC in Delhi from 2000 - 2020
Table 4: Accuracy assessments of LULC classes
Year LULC Urban/Built- Water Agricultural Forest Bare Total User’s Kappa
classes up land body Land land land Accuracy co-
efficient
Urban/Built- 29 0 1 1 0 31 94%
up land
Water body 0 15 0 0 0 15 100%
Agricultural 1 0 21 2 1 25 84% 90%

Land
2000 Forest land 0 0 1 13 0 14 93%
Bare land 0 0 0 1 14 15 93%
Total 30 15 23 17 15 100
Producer’s 97% 100% 91% 76% 93%

Accuracy
Overall 92%
Accuracy
Urban/Built- 32 0 1 0 1 34 94%
up land
Water body 0 12 0 0 0 12 100%
Agricultural 0 0 25 3 2 30 83%
Land
2010 Forest land 0 0 2 10 0 12 83% 86%
Bare land 0 0 1 1 10 12 83%
Total 32 12 29 14 12 100
Producer’s 100% 100% 86% 71% 83%

Accuracy
Overall 89%
Accuracy
Urban/Built- 34 0 0 2 0 36 94%
up land
Water body 0 20 0 0 0 20 100%
Agricultural 2 0 12 1 1 16 75%
Land
2020 Forest land 0 0 0 11 1 12 92% 88%
Bare land 0 0 0 2 14 16 87%
Total 36 20 12 16 16 100
Producer’s 94% 100% 100% 69% 87%

Accuracy
Overall 91%
Accuracy
Computed by author
4.2 Changing pattern of seasonal LST

From 2000 to 2020, there has been a change in LST for both the summer and winter seasons (Fig.6 &
7). For the summer seasons of 2000, 2010, and 2020, the maximum and minimum LST values were
34.86°C, 39.39°C, 51.54°C, and 21.94°C, 23.68°C, 28.45°C, respectively. In compared to the maximum
LST of the year 2000, the year 2020 found a significant rise from 34.86°C to 51.54°C. A significant
rise in the minimum LST from 21.94°C to 28.45°C was also seen between 2000 and 2020, showed an
increase in high temperatures in the study area. According to the study, the general summer surface
temperature in the study area has grown significantly over the previous 20 years.
Figure 6: Spatial distribution of summer LST a)2000, b)2010, c)2020
Figure 7: Spatial distribution of winter LST a)2000, b)2010, c)2020
Table 5: Season wise estimated of LST
Season Year Minimum Maximum Mean Standard

Deviation
Summer 2000 21.94 34.86 29.04 1.39
2010 23.68 39.39 31.63 2.24
2020 28.45 51.54 39.80 2.84
Winter 2000 9.47 23.25 16.98 1.25
2010 13.31 24.97 18.26 1.46
2020 12.97 25.58 16.69 1.04
During the research period, there were also significant variations in the distribution of LST during the
winter season (Fig.7). For the years 2000, 2010, and 2020, the maximum and minimum winter LST
values were 23.25°C, 24.97°C, 25.58°C, and 9.47°C, 13.31°C, 12.97°C, respectively. In comparison
to the maximum LST in 2000, there was a considerable increase to 25.58°C in 2020. A significant
difference of 12.97°C in the minimum LST was also observed between 2000 and 2020, indicating that
the average temperature was raised. The maximum land surface temperature is depicted by a dark red
tone on all maps, while the minimum land surface temperature is depicted by a blue tone. With
significant land use/land cover change, the temporal change of land surface temperature has changed.
During all seasons, the highest temperatures are concentrated around urban/built-up land, fallow land,
and bare land.
4.3 NDVI and Its Relationship with LST
The resulting maps of the NDVI of Delhi for both the summer and winter seasons are shown in Figure
8 & 9, which shows three different study periods, i.e., 2000, 2010 and 2020. Table 6 summarizes and
quantifies the study results. According to the literature, a greater degree of LST is related with a lower
NDVI in this study. For the summer seasons of 2000, 2010, and 2020, the maximum and minimum
NDVI values were 0.66, 0.75, 0.89 and -0.08, -0.34, -0.46 respectively. For the years 2000, 2010,
and 2020, the maximum and minimum winter NDVI values were 0.74, 0.68, 0.92 and -0.28, -0.25, -
0.26 respectively. The lowest NDVI is observed in built-up areas that dominate the residential areas in
Delhi's. We prepared 20 randomly selected points for each period's dispersed plots to investigate the
connection between LST and NDVI (i.e., 2000, 2010, and 2020).
Figure 8: Spatial distribution of Summer NDVI a)2000, b)2010, c)2020
Figure 9: Spatial distribution of winter NDVI a)2000, b)2010, c)2020
Table 6: Statistics of NDVI in Delhi for the period of 2000,2010 & 2020

Deviation
Summer 2000 -0.08 0.66 0.17 0.09
2010 -0.34 0.75 0.18 0.11
2020 -0.46 0.89 0.29 0.16
Winter 2000 -0.28 0.74 0.27 0.17
2010 -0.25 0.68 0.23 0.16
2020 -0.26 0.92 0.35 0.20
Figure 10 depicts the results, which demonstrate a negative correlation between LST and NDVI values
in both the summer and winter seasons. This would have a value (R2) of around 0.97 in 2000, 0.97 in
2010, and it is raised to 0.99 in 2020 for the summer season, and 0.98 in 2000, 0.98 in 2010, and it is
little fall to 0.95 in 2020 for the winter season. The results reveal that NDVI values are increasing over
the summer and winter seasons in the study region. It can also be noted that the study region has the
least vegetation in 2000, but the maximum intensity of vegetation in 2020. This shift in vegetation is
mostly due to several aforestation programs initiated by the Government of the NCT of Delhi. The
Delhi Forest Department has been running programs such as the Green Delhi Action Plan since 1997[9].
Figure 10: Relationship between LST and NDVI a) Summer season, b) Winter season using scattered plots
4.4 NDWI and Its Relationship with LST

The derived maps of the NDWI of Delhi for both the summer and winter seasons are shown in Figure
11 & 12. Water has a lower temperature than other patterns of land usage [21]. For the summer seasons
of 2000, 2010, and 2020, the maximum and minimum NDWI values were 0.09, 0.35, 0.52 and -0.61,
-0.70, - 0.80 respectively. For the years 2000, 2010, and 2020, the maximum and minimum winter
NDWI values were 0.35, 0.23, 0.31 and -0.66, -0.57, -0.80 respectively. As a result, the NDWI
increased in both the summer and winter months.
Figure 11: Spatial distribution of summer NDWI a)2000, b)2010, c)2020
Figure 12: Spatial distribution of winter NDWI a)2000, b)2010, c)2020
Table 7: Statistics of NDWI in Delhi for the period of 2000,2010 & 2020

Deviation
Summer 2000 -0.61 0.09 -0.23 0.07
2010 -0.70 0.35 -0.23 0.09
2020 -0.80 0.52 -0.34 0.13
Winter 2000 -0.66 0.35 -0.28 0.14
2010 -0.57 0.23 -0.20 0.13
2020 -0.80 0.31 -0.35 0.15
The figure 13 depicts the measure of influence of NDWI on LST over time. In all situations, NDWI is
found to be a negative regulator of LST. Between 2000 and 2020, the R2 value raised in the summer
season (R2 = 0.95 in 2000, 0.96 in 2010, and 0.97 in 2020), suggesting that the regulating power of
water bodies on LST has grown. But in the winter season, inverse situation is seen (R2 = 0.97 in 2000,
0.98 in 2010, and 0.94 in 2020). One of the primary causes of such inversion is the penetrating of
radiation to the maximum depth of the water bodies as a result of their shallowing. If such water body
alteration continues, this tendency will undoubtedly accelerate.
Figure 13: Relationship between LST and NDWI a) Summer season, b) Winter season using scattered plots
4.5 NDBI and Its Relationship with LST

The spatial-temporal maps of the Delhi for both the summer and winter seasons are shown in Figure 14
& 15. High LST found in Built-up areas, heavily populated zones, and densely industrialized areas [22].
As per the study, there seems to be an increase with in area under build-up from 2000 to 2020, in both
the summer and winter seasons. For the summer seasons NDBI values ranges from -0.24 to 0.47 in
2000, -0.11 to 0.53 in 2010 and it increased -0.87 to 0.52 in 2020 respectively. For the years 2000, 2010,
and 2020, the maximum and minimum winter NDBI values were 0.41, 0.37, 0.42 and -0.64, -0.71, -
0.79 respectively. A significant NDBI value was observed in the central, eastern, and southern sections
of the area of study in 2000. A high NDBI level is generally reported in areas with a high concentration
of built-up and open area.
Figure 14: Spatial distribution of summer NDBI a)2000, b)2010, c)2020
Figure 15: Spatial distribution of winter NDBI a)2000, b)2010, c)2020
Table 8: Statistics of NDBI in Delhi for the period of 2000,2010 & 2020

Deviation
Summer 2000 -0.24 0.47 0.21 0.07
2010 -0.11 0.53 0.19 0.06
2020 -0.87 0.52 -0.02 0.11
Winter 2000 -0.64 0.41 -0.06 0.16
2010 -0.71 0.37 -20.09 0.15
2020 -0.79 0.42 -0.10 0.14
Small patches with high NDBI value may be found in the state's northern and western parts. The value
of NDBI improved in 2010 as a result of the decentralisation strategy for urban development in Delhi's
suburbs. A maximum value of NDBI is found in the southern and southwestern sections of the research
area in 2020. Figure 16 depicts the graphical relationship between LST and NDBI. It demonstrates a
positive relationship between LST and built-up regions. This would have a value (R2) of around 0.88
in 2000, 0.91 in 2010, and it is raised to 0.97 in 2020 for the summer season, and 0.96 in 2000, 0.97 in
2010, and 0.96 in 2020 for the winter season. According to the results, lower LST values associated
with lower NDBI, whereas higher LST values correlated to densely built-up regions.
Figure 16: Relationship between LST and NDWI a) Summer season, b) Winter season using scattered plots
5. Discussion
Based on the results, it is clear that urbanization, in association with socio - economic activities in the
Delhi metropolitan, may have significantly supported in the transformation of natural surfaces into built
regions. The outcomes are consistent with previous research, which indicates an increase in the
geographical extent of built-up/urban regions in developing nations such as Nigeria, Sri Lanka, Egypt,
Bangladesh, and many more [24,25,28,31]. These are the results of increasing urbanization and the need
for improved living circumstances. The growth of urban areas has had a detrimental impact on both the
natural and constructed environments, contributing considerably to the rise in city land surface
temperatures [29].
The study found that the built-up region of Delhi had the greatest rise in mean LST during the last 20
years, followed by bare land, agricultural land, forest, and water bodies. The North-West, South-West,
North-East, East, Central, and West districts of Delhi had the highest LST between 2000 and 2020, with
such regions correlating to built-up areas and bare land. The western regions of the city have the lowest
LST, with these regions belonging to Cropland. Low LST values can be attributed to increased
evapotranspiration in plants, which lowers land surface temperatures [26,27]. The research, on the other
hand, attributed the higher LST values in most sections of the city to urban growth and the replacing of
vegetation cover with non-evaporative and non-transpiring surfaces that constitute building sites for
residential, commercial, and industrial purposes. As shown in comparable research, the implications of
these land use/land cover changes play a substantial influence in the increasing LST of the urban and
lead to the creation of Urban Heat Island [27,30,32].
According to the NDVI results for the study region, the vegetation cover of Delhi metropolitan tends to
rise in certain parts with an increase in the modification of the natural environment into various land
uses, as seen in most fast developing cities [33,35]. However, because of their similarity, it is sometimes
difficult to utilize the NDVI to distinguish between LULC classifications such as barren terrain and
built-up regions [36,37]. As a result, our research defined the city's vegetation cover as regions with
high NDVI and lower LST. The results reveal that NDVI values are increasing in some part of the delhi
over the summer and winter seasons in the study region and it show negative correlation between LST
and NDVI values in both the summer and winter seasons. This shift in vegetation is mostly due to
several aforestation programs initiated by the Government of the NCT of Delhi. Their studies revealed
that, due to the cool-island effect, plant cover such as forest regions, grasslands, green areas, and
surfaces typically had lower LST within cities and urban center. As a result, a rise in NDVI causes a
decrease in LST.As a result, the NDWI increased in both the summer and winter months. In all
situations, NDWI is found to be a negative regulator of LST, suggesting that the regulating power of
water bodies on LST has grown.
The research also discovered a progressive increase in the city's NDBI, or built-up areas, which may be
attributed mostly to urban development, which has led to the city's reduced vegetation cover. This is
consistent with earlier research that found positive NDBI to indicate built-up areas and negative NDBI
to show vegetation cover [34,38]. The positive association between LST and built-up regions is
consistent with previous research that found more variance in the LST of impermeable surfaces, i.e.,
primarily built-up regions and bare land, than in vegetated areas [38]. This suggests that urbanization
and land-use changes have significantly led to the problem of vegetation, raising surface UHI through
increased LST [27,29]. The growth of surface UHI has an impact on the environment and its people by
increasing energy consumption, which has a negative impact on living quality and health impacts [41].
As a result, it is critical for government authorities to undertake the following land-use policies to
minimize the growing surface Urban Heat Island. Among all these strategies are:
I. Growing urban greenery and green space: an increase in shrubs, trees, vines, grasses and other
smaller plants may dramatically reduce the city's surface temperature by sheltering and cooling
the urban environment by evaporative cooling. Other possible benefits of using this method
include lower energy consumption, reduced energy consumption, and lower air pollution.
II. Increasing the use of eco - friendly and cooling roofs: the use of botanical layers on roofing
such as plants, trees, shrubs, and grasses offers shade and heat removal through evaporative
cooling. Cool roofs also aid in the reflection of heat and sunshine. As a result, by lowering the
temperature change of the city's rooftops, this technique will help to reduce the city's heat island
effect. This will also make a major contribution to determining the environmental aspect of the
urban area by lowering energy consumption.
III. Going to adopt cool sidewalks as an alternative to the traditional impermeable surfaces: Using
cool sidewalks on parking lots, pavements, and streetways has the possibility not just to process
less heat than regular flooring materials, but also to reduce the metro's temperature change by
expressing more solar energy and improving water evaporation.
IV. Adopting smart growth plans: Smart growth strategies can decrease the impact of urban heat
via the design of urban areas. This approach encompasses a broad range of conservative as well
as developmental initiatives aimed at environmental protection and making the city more
habitable. It entails developing walkable, transit-oriented, bike-friendly and mixed-use
communities.
V. All new projects must place services such as hospitals, schools, and nursing homes away from
the high traffic routes.
VI. Green Development on the City Periphery: A Green Development Area policy has been
proposed for green belt communities, which allows for limited development while requiring a
significant amount of land to be preserved as forested area and green cover.
VII. Buildings must be orientated to approach green and blue assets and have active surfaces such
as balconies, windows, pedestrian entrances, commercial or communal frontages on the ground
surface, and so on. Any obligatory public space requirements that must be satisfied as part of
developments may be given in the form of public walkways or parks along the water body.
The proposed techniques are consistent with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's UHI cooling
strategies and Delhi Development Authority (MPD-2041). As a result, via the intentional
implementation of zoning and other planning laws, the city's planning authority may successfully
execute these efforts.
6. Conclusion
Every day, a significant number of people migrate to Delhi, India's capital city, in search of higher
education, jobs, better infrastructure, better public services and amenities, and so on. As a result, the
city becomes increasingly congested over time. As a result, the built-up area for residential, industrial
and commercial uses will expand. It will result in large loss of agricultural, scrub, and forest area, as
well as gains in high-density built-up region. Furthermore, as a result of Delhi's increasing urbanisation,
agricultural land becomes industrialized, and farmers sell their property to building corporations in
search of large profits. The finding suggests that fast urbanisation causes a constant shift in the ratio of
vegetation and built-up area, resulting in a shift in land use pattern. As a result of the clearance of
vegetation for the development of residential complexes industrial and commercial areas, the land
surface temperature rises, resulting in the phenomenon known as the UHI effect.
From 2000 to 2020, Google Earth Engine has been used to analyze Landsat satellite images in able to
identify land cover change in Delhi. GEE's data collection and cloud services environment, which gives
free access to advanced computing for non-profit purposes, made a multi-temporal, remote sensing
database readily available. We studied the spatial distribution of LST, NDVI, NDWI, and NDBI to
accomplish the study's aims using GEE. We also investigated the relationship between LST and the
various LULC classes, as well as the relationship between LST with indices such as NDVI, NDWI, and
NDBI. The changing patterns were mapped and evaluated using GEE for three periods (2000, 2010,
and 2020) and three different LULC classes (Urban/Built-up land, water body, Agricultural land, Forest
land, and Bare land). For the classified images, user and producer accuracies were consistently more
than 85%. According to the results, during the last 20 years (2000–2020), Delhi has seen an increase in
built-up land (42.18 percent), forest land (50.65 percent), and a decrease in agricultural land (50.54
percent), water bodies (6.32 percent), and bare land (38.09 percent) in the research region. In general,
LULC changed significantly, which may be attributed to socioeconomic reasons (e.g., anthropogenic
activities, population increase), policy decisions (rapidly growing economy and reforestation), and
physiological characteristics. Despite growing urbanization, the gains in forest area demonstrate that
reforestation initiatives have been successful. The LST research indicated that barren terrain and forest
were the LULC classifications with the highest and lowest LST throughout the study period,
respectively. Summer season LST increased from 34.86°C in 2000 to 51.54°C in 2020, whereas winter
season LST also increased from 23.25°C in 2000 to 25.58°C in 2020. This implies that the city' LST
changed in parallel with changes in LULC. The study also found a negative relationship between LST
and NDVI, as well as a negative relationship between LST and NDWI, while establishing a positive
relationship between LST and NDBI over the various time periods. The results of this study suggest
that LULC variations in Delhi city have significantly affected the city's growth in LST, therefore
contributing to the development of surface UHI. This analysis only investigated at the historical period
from 2000 to 2020. Regular testing of island ecosystems and viability in the face of climate crisis and
human pressures using GEE and satellite image categorization aids regionally based land-use policy-
making and serves as a model for other island ecosystems that may hold significant challenges. As a
result, more study is required to explore the city's future LULC change dynamics and probable LST
changes using various geospatial-modeling approaches. The research concluded by suggesting a variety
of solutions for mitigating the negative impact of LULC changes through sustainable land-use practices.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to express their gratitude to the Google Earth Engine (GEE)
team for providing reliable, free and open source access to GEE.
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Monitoring Land Use/Land Cover Change and Its Impact

Figure 1. Location Map of the Study Area

3. Materials and Methods

2010 Summer Landsat 5 30 m 2010-05-05 146 40 GEE

2020 Summer Landsat 8 30 m 2020-05-16 146 40 GEE

3.2 Image pre-processing

3.3.4 Statistical Assessment

3.4 Estimation of seasonal LST

3.5 LULC Classification

3.6 Method for determining the accuracy of LULC classification

Number of correctly classified pixcels in each class

Number of correctly classified pixcels in each class

Figure 3. Methodological Flow chart of the study

4.1 Variation in LULC patterns and Accuracy Assessments

Figure 4: Land use land cover map of a)2000, b)2010, c)2020

Spatial and Temporal Distribution of LULC

Figure 5: Distribution of LULC in Delhi from 2000 - 2020

Table 4: Accuracy assessments of LULC classes

Agricultural 1 0 21 2 1 25 84% 90%

Bare land 0 0 0 1 14 15 93%

Producer’s 97% 100% 91% 76% 93%

Bare land 0 0 1 1 10 12 83%

Producer’s 100% 100% 86% 71% 83%

Bare land 0 0 0 2 14 16 87%

Producer’s 94% 100% 100% 69% 87%

4.2 Changing pattern of seasonal LST

Figure 6: Spatial distribution of summer LST a)2000, b)2010, c)2020

Figure 7: Spatial distribution of winter LST a)2000, b)2010, c)2020

Table 5: Season wise estimated of LST

Season Year Minimum Maximum Mean Standard

Figure 8: Spatial distribution of Summer NDVI a)2000, b)2010, c)2020

Figure 9: Spatial distribution of winter NDVI a)2000, b)2010, c)2020

Season Year Minimum Maximum Mean Standard

4.4 NDWI and Its Relationship with LST

Figure 11: Spatial distribution of summer NDWI a)2000, b)2010, c)2020

Figure 12: Spatial distribution of winter NDWI a)2000, b)2010, c)2020

Season Year Minimum Maximum Mean Standard

4.5 NDBI and Its Relationship with LST

Figure 14: Spatial distribution of summer NDBI a)2000, b)2010, c)2020

Figure 15: Spatial distribution of winter NDBI a)2000, b)2010, c)2020

Season Year Minimum Maximum Mean Standard

20.Bindi M, Brandani G, Dessì A, Dibari C, Ferrise R, Moriondo M, Trombi G, Impact of Climate

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