© Francis Carlo Abelar | Earth Science Reviewer (STEM)

EARTH SCIENCE REVIEWER

STRUCTURE OF THE HYDROSPHERE
Oceans

 96.5 % of water is salt water and is found in oceans.

 The largest bodies of water on Earth which only contains salt water.
 Examples/ Major Oceans of the World: Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, Pacific Ocean and
Arctic Ocean.
Fresh Water

 The remaining 3% of the Earth’s water is Fresh water.

 Fresh water distribution:
 Ice: 1.762%
 Groundwater: 1.7%
 Surface Fresh water: 0.014%
 Atmosphere and soil: 0.002%
Salinity: Saltiness of salt water. Measure of the concentration of salt in seawater.
Halocline: a well-defined rapid change in salinity with depth.
Salt Water Reservoir

 Surface current flow at the northern hemisphere is clockwise and counter-clockwise in

the southern hemisphere.
 Thermohaline circulation.
 Sinking of cold, salty and denser water.
 Purpose: Marine food source, transportation and recreation and regulates climate.
What drives the circulation of the ocean?

ATMOSPHERE OCEANS
Wind driven (Surface)
Wind stress Momentum circulation
Radiation from the Sun

Heating and
Temp. Thermohaline (deep)
cooling
Density circulation
Evaporation and Salinity
Precipitation
Why is the ocean salty?
Salt in the ocean comes from rocks on land. The rain that falls on the land contains some
dissolved carbon dioxide from the surrounding air. This causes the rainwater to be slightly acidic
due to carbonic acid.
Sea Level

 Elevation at the surface of the ocean.

 Assumed to be 0 meters.
Bathymetry: The measurement of the depth to the ocean floor, and the mapping of its features.
Fresh Water Reservoir

 Glaciers: any large mass of ice that moves slowly over land.
 Antarctica, Green land and mountain glaciers.
 Permafrost: soil, rock or sediment that is frozen for more than 2 consecutive years.
 Threats
 Melting of Antarctic ice sheets will cause sea level increase of 60 m.
 Ice sheet in Greenland will cause 6 meters increase in sea level.
 Icebergs: a large piece of freshwater ice floating in open waters.
Surface Water Reservoir

 Stream: A small channel along which water is continually flowing down a slope – made
of small gullies. Carries flowing water through a single channel or through a number of
interconnected channels.
 Channels: clear defined passageway.
 Drainage basin or watershed.
 Land forms such as mountain or hills divides streams.
 Interfluve: are narrow elongated landforms that separate individual streams.
 Overland flows: becomes stream flows.
 Tributaries: smaller streams.
 River: a large channel along which water is continually flowing down a slope. A slope is
made of many streams that come together.
 Lake
 A body of water of considerable size contained on a body of land.
 Ponds
 67% of surface and atmospheric water.

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  Wetland
 An area where the water table is at, near or above the land surface long enough
during the year to support adapted plant growth.
 8.5% of the total land surface and atmospheric water.
Types of Wetlands

 Swamp: a wetland dominated by trees. (i.e. Mangrove forest)

 Bogs: a wetland dominated by peat moss.
 Marshes: a wetland dominated by grasses.
 Estuaries: Where freshwater and saltwater meets.
Artesian Well: a well in which water rises because of pressure within aquifer.
Reservoir: a lake that stores water for human use.
Tributary: a stream feeding a larger stream or a lake.
Floods: a natural phenomenon. When more water enters the system that can be held within the
natural confines of the channel.

 Types of Floods:
 Fluvial or riverine flood: excessive rainfall over an extended period of time causes
a river to exceed its capacity.
 Flash flood: rapid flooding of low-lying areas (washes, rivers, dry-lakes and basins)
 Coastal flood: occurs when normally dry, low-lying land is flooded by sea water.
 Pluvial or Surface water flood: occurs when extremely heavy downpour of rain
saturates drainage systems and the excess water cannot be absorbed.
Groundwater

 The water found in cracks and pores in sand, gravel and rocks below the Earth’s surface.
 30% of total freshwater in the planet.
Aquifer

 A rock layer that stores water and allows water to flow through it.
 Ground water within the aquifer is controlled by permeability.
 Clay and mud are porous but with low permeability.
 Sandstone, conglomerate, limestone loose sand with moderate to high permeability.
Groundwater Profile

 Zone of aeration or unsaturated zone

 Zone of saturation
 Water table

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  Capillary fringe – Capillary action
WATER RESOURCES AND WATER POLLUTION

Water
 Earth’s surface is covered by 71% water.
 Essential for life – can survive only a few days without water.
Distribution of Water on Earth

Nonoceam Component (% of
Hydrosphere
total hydrosphere) Freshwater
lakes (0.009%)
Saline lakes
and inland seas
(0.008%)
Soil Moisture
(0.005%)
Stream
channels

Oceans 97.2% Glaciers 2.15% (0.0001%)

Atmosphere
(0.001%)

Supply of Water Resources

Small fraction (0.14%) if readily available for human use.

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Water Cycle: continuously collected, purified, recycled and distributed.

Watershed

 Describes the total area contributing drainage to a stream or river.

 May be applied to many scales.
 A large watershed is made up of many small watersheds.
 Ex: La Mesa Watershed
Zone of Saturation: Spaces completely filled with water.
Surface Runoff: 2/3 lost to floods and hot available for human use.
Reliable Runoff: 1/3. Amount of runoff that we can count on year to year.
Groundwater

 Zone of Saturation
 Water Table – top zone of saturation
 Aquifer – water saturated layers of sand, gravel or bedrock through which groundwater
flows.
 Recharges slowly (1 meter per year)
Use of Water Resources
Humans directly or indirectly use about 54% of reliable runoff. We withdraw 34% of reliable
runoff for: Agriculture (70%), Industry (20%), Domestic (10%)
We leave 20% runoff in streams for human use: transport goods, dilute pollution, sustain
fisheries. We could use up to 70-90% of the reliable run off by 2025.

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Problems We Experience due to the Shortage of Water
 Dry Climate
 Drought
 Desiccation
Most serious problems are flooding, pollution, occasional urban shortages.
Problems We Experience due to the overflow of Water

 Floods: A natural phenomena

 Aggravated by human activities
 Rain on snow
 Impervious surfaces
 Removal of vegetation
 Draining wetlands
 Living on floodplains
 Deforestation

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Using Dams and Reservoirs to Supply More Water: The Trade-offs

Wells and Springs

 Ordinary Well: A hole dug or drilled down below the water table where the water is
required to be pumped out.
 Spring: A place where the water table is at the surface.
 Artesian Well: A well that is pressurized (The water is not required to be pumped out)
Aquifers: Are permeable materials that contain and carry groundwater. (i.e. Sand, gravel, and
porous sandstone)
Tapping Groundwater

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Year-round use Water table lowering: too much use
No evaporation losses Depletion
Often less expensive Saltwater intrusion near coastal areas
Chemical contamination
Reduced stream flows

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Reducing Water Waste
 Not depleting Aquifers
 Preserving ecological health of aquatic systems
 Preserving water quality
 Integrated watershed management
 Agreements among regions and countries sharing surface water resources
 Outside party mediation of water disputes between nations
 Marketing of water rights
 Raising water prices
 Wasting less water
 Decreasing government subsidies for supplying water
 Increasing government subsidies for reducing water waste
 Slowing population growth
Pollution Source

 Point Source: Pollution comes from single, fixed, often large identifiable sources (i.e.
Smoke stacks, discharge drains, tanker spills)
 Non-Point Source: Pollution comes from dispersed sources (Agricultural runoff, street
runoff)
Types of Water Pollution

 Sediment: logging, roadbuilding, erosion

 Oxygen-demanding wastes: Human waste, storm sewers, runoff from agriculture, gazing
and logging, many others
 Nutrient enrichment (Eutrophication): N, P from fertilizers, detergents. Leads to
increased growth in aquatic systems, ultimately more nob-living organic matter.
 Disease-causing organisms: from untreated sewage, runoff from feed lots
 Toxic Chemicals: pesticides, fertilizers, industrial chemicals
 Heavy metals: lead, mercury
 Acids
 Elevated temperatures (Thermal Pollution): Water is used for cooling purposes, then
heated water is returned to its original source. Any increase in temperature, even a few
degrees, may significantly alter some aquatic ecosystems.
Water Problems

 Depletion of Water Table: Too much pumping

 Sea water intrusions: Due to the lowness of the water table which is fresh, salt tends to
sip in.
 Land Subsidence: Due to the lowering of land, we’ll have a hard time to get water.

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  Water Scarcity
 Flood plain
Indicators of Water Quality

 Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

 Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)
 As microorganisms decompose (through respiration) organic matter, they use up
all the available oxygen.
 BOD amount of oxygen required to decay a certain amount of organic matter.
 If too much organic matter is added, the available oxygen supplies will be used up.
 Total Suspended Solids (TSS)
 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
 Heavy Metals
 Fecal Coliforms

Eutrophication: Enrichment of a water body with nutrients

 Eutrophic: well-fed, high nutrient levels present in a lake or river.

 Oligotrophic: poorly-fed, low nutrient levels
 Water bodies can be naturally eutrophic or oligotrophic, but can also be human-caused.

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Groundwater Pollution

 Agricultural  Underground  Septic tanks

products storage tanks  Surface
 Landfills impoundments
Oil Spills

 Most marine oil pollution comes from non-point sources:

 Runoff from streets
 Improper disposal of used oil
 Discharge of oil-contaminated ballast water from tanks
Growth of Population

 Supply and demand are in growing conflict – supply is finite – water management is
driven by values and needs
 Increases demand/use of water
 Increased land use and changes vegetation and permeability
 Increases demand for instream values – instream flows are for people
The construction of dams have slowed the once flowing River into a series of lakes. Agriculture
uses approximately 70% of the water withdrawn from our streams and rivers. Changing land
use changes vegetation and needs of water. Change in land use also changes permeability.
We should avoid headwater disturbance and leave vegetation. Allow floodplains to function
as floodplains.
SOIL AND LAND RESOURCES
Soil: are complex mixtures of minerals, water, air, organic matter, and countless organisms that
are the decaying remains of once-living things. It forms at the surface of land – commonly known
as the “Skin of the Earth”. Soil is capable of supporting plant life and is vital to life on Earth.
Soil also works as…
 Arable land for agriculture  Nutrient cycling
 Regulating water and filtering  Foundation and support
potential pollutants  Mineral deposits
Soil is part of the regolith that supports the growth of plants.
 Regolith: is the layer of rock and mineral fragments that covers most of Earth’s land
surface.

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Soil Composition
Soil has four major components: mineral matter, or broken down rock; humus (decayed
remains of organisms); water; and air.
Composition by Volume of Good-Quality Soil

Organic Matter
Air

Mineral Matter

Water

Soil Texture

 Texture refers to the proportions of different particle sizes.

 Sand (Large size)
 Silt
 Clay (Small size)
 Loam (a mixture of all three sizes) is best suited for plant life.
 Mineral Material only
 Sand – Gritty, Silt – Smooth,velvety, Clay – slick, sticky
 Material > 2mm are coarse fragments
 Material < 2 mm only
 Sand (2.0 – 0.05 mm)
 Silt (0.05 – 0.002 mm)
 Clay (< 0.002 mm)
Soil Textural Classes (12)

 Sand  Silt Loam  Clay Loam

 Loamy Sand  Silt  Sandy Clay
 Sandy Loam  Sandy Clay Loam  Silty Clay
 Loam  Silty Clay Loam  Clay

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Field Determination of Texture

 Soil must be moist, not saturated; moist enough to mold like putty when you try to form
a ball in your hand.
 Soil does NOT form a cast; Textural class is SAND
 Forms a cast of moist soil material. Textural class is LOAMY SAND.
 If the soil form a ribbon that extends past the forefinger, note the length of the ribbon.
 Next, excessively wet a small sample in the palm and rub with the forefinger.
 If the ribbon > 2 inches long when it broke and the excessively wet sample feels:
 Gritty, the texture is SAND CLAY;
 Smooth, the texture is SILTY CLAY;
 Neither gritty nor smooth, the texture is CLAY.
 If the ribbon was < 1 inch long when it broke and the excessively wet sample feels:
 Gritty, the texture is SANDY LOAM;
 Smooth, the texture is SILT LOAM;
 Neither gritty nor smooth, the texture is LOAM.
 If the ribbon was between 1 and 2 inches long when it broke and the excessively wet
sample feels:
 Gritty, the texture is SANDLY CLAY LOAM;
 Smooth, the texture is SILTY CLAY LOAM;
 Neither gritty nor smooth, the texture is CLAY LOAM.
Soil Structure

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Factors of Soil Formation
 Climate
 Temperature and precipitation
 Indirect controls (e.g. types of plants)
 Weathering rates
 The greater the rainfall amount, the more rapid the rate of both weathering and
erosion.
 Organisms
 Types of native vegetation
 Weathering is dependent of plant growth
 Plant and animal activity produces humid acids that are powerful weathering
agents.
 Plants can physically as well as chemically break down rocks.
 Plants stabilize soil profiles, Animals (including humans) tend to increase
erosion.
 Parental Material
 Residual oil – parent material is the bedrock
 Transported soil – parent material has been carried from elsewhere and
deposited.
 Depends on: Chemistry, Mineralogy, Grain Size
 Topography
 Ground slope
 Elevation
 Downslope transport of soil is a function slope: the steeper the slope, the more
likely any eroded material is to be transported out of the system.
 Time
 Important in all geologic processes.
 The longer a soil has been forming, the thicker it becomes.

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Soil Development

Additions to Soil

 Inputs from outside Ecosystem

 Atmospheric inputs
 Precipitation, dust, deposition
 Horizontal inputs
 Floods, tidal exchange, erosion, land-water movement
 Inputs from within ecosystem
 Litterfall and root turnover
Soil Horizons and Profiles

 Soil Horizons
 Layers in Soil
 Not deposited, but zones of chemical action
 Soil Profile
 Suite of Horizons at a given locality

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Soil Profiles
Over time, different levels of a soil can differentiate into distinct horizons that create soil profile.

 Chemical reactions and formation of secondary minerals (clays)

 Leaching by infiltrating water.
 Deposition and accumulation of material leached from higher levels in the soil.

Human Activities that degrade Soil Activity

 Soil Erosion
 Soil Compaction
 Desertification
 Intensive Agriculture
 Urbanization
Soil

 Water erodes soil

 Rates of Erosion
 Human activities that remove natural vegetation, such as farming, logging, and
construction, have greatly accelerated erosion.
 Sediment Deposition
 Reservoirs fill with sediment
 Sediments are contaminated by pesticides and fertilizers

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  Controlling Erosion
 Planting rows of trees called windbreaks
 Terracing hillsides
 Plowing along the contours of hills
 Rotating crops
Conservation of Soil Resources

 Increasing soil organic matter

 Keeping the soil covered and vegetated
 Avoiding excessive tillage
 Manage pests and nutrient deficiency
 Crop rotation
 Reducing erosion and preventing soil compaction
Conserving Land and Soil

 3 uses that change the land are agriculture, development and mining.
 Less than 1/3 of Earth can be farmed. New farmland must be created for the growing
populations.
 Development is the construction of buildings, roads, bridges, dams and other
structures.
Mining: is the removal of non-renewable resources such as iron, copper, and coal from the land.
Soil Protection - Poor soil management can result in 3 problems: erosion, nutrient depletion, and
desertification.
Erosion: is the process by which water, wind, or ice moves particles of rocks or soil.
Nutrient Depletion: When farmers plant the same crops in a field year after year. As a result, the
plants use more nutrients than the decomposers can replace. The soil becomes less fertile.
Desertification: the advance of desert like conditions into areas that previously were fertile.
Restoring the Land

 Land Reclamation: the process of restoring an area of land to a more natural, productive
state.
 Smooth and replace strip mines with new topsoil.
 Plant grass.

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