Academic Fraud

Introduction
There are many forms of academic fraud: purchasing degrees;
lying on CVs; cheating in examinations. The aim of this booklet
is to alert the reader to some of these malpractices.

Degree Mills

In earlier times people lied about lineage; in the meritocracy of

the 21st century, they lie about education. The manipulation of
the truth is accelerating at an exponential rate as may be
evidenced by the following, together with news stories around
the world.

Some years ago the mushrooming of the degree mill industry,

or ‘mail order Oxfords’, led Prince Charles, heir to the British
throne, to state in a public address:

‘I have been rather concerned recently to read of the growing

number of bogus degrees available in this country. It is difficult
to know just how many degree mills there are, as they tend to

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spring up overnight and disappear again, but the Department of
Education estimates there are between 70 and 80 of them.’1

In 2011 Accredibase, a global database of unlicensed rogue

universities, reported 339 entries in the UK, the highest number
in Europe. Some of the unaccredited universities attempt to
pass themselves off as genuine institutions by using names
such as ‘Cambridgeshire University’ and ‘Oxford International
University’, which are very close to those of well-known real
establishments.

Every year large numbers of people register for a fast track

degree or with an institution they believe to be a bona fide
university and duly receive a degree after parting with what can
be a substantial sum of money. These unwitting people have
been duped by operators of what are termed ‘degree mills’. So,
what constitutes a degree mill2?

1
Speaking in the Guildhall at the 5th degree conferment ceremony of the
National Academic Awards
2
For the purposes of this booklet the term will also be used to embrace
organisations offering not only degrees, but diplomas, certificates,
licentiateships, etc.

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When asked that question, an official from the Department of
Education in California (where there are many degree mills
operating), responded:

‘I am not familiar with any official definition of the term diploma

mill in any appellate court decision, opinion of the Attorney
General, or elsewhere. I think that in using the term, the writer
of the (sub-committee) report had in mind persons in
organisations selling, giving or awarding degrees and similar
documents without requiring any real academic achievement. I
do not know where one should draw the line between an
absolute sale of a diploma and the awarding of a diploma as a
result of the completion of a ridiculously inadequate course of
study.’

If money is paid, no study undertaken and a degree is awarded,

there is no problem of definition; but when study is required, the
problem of deciding an appropriate number of study or contact
hours has to be addressed. At which point are the demands
placed on the students so inadequate as to make a mockery of
the term ‘degree’? In some cases work has been submitted for
doctorate degrees, yet the standard is not equal to a GCE

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Advanced level pass3. Similarly, after a limited number of
essays have been submitted for a Bachelor’s degree, students
can be informed that their standard is already above the
qualification for which they are registered. Accordingly, they are
recommended to register for a higher degree, for example a
Master’s degree. This is an attractive opportunity for students
anxious to demonstrate their supposed ability and to increase
either their employability or social status. Yet those who award
degrees on the basis of such inadequate standards would
vigorously contest that they deserve the label ‘degree mill’. In
which case, what can be classed as a degree mill?

Today, fewer bodies sell degrees by return of post and, more

frequently, some semblance of academic accomplishment is
demanded. Often this does not involve new study, with those
offering degrees awarding them in respect of ‘life experience’.
While the legitimate use of Accreditation of Prior Learning (APL)
and Accreditation of Prior Experiential Learning (APEL) is a
valid and appropriate method of enabling students to access
higher education, due processes must be rigorously
implemented to ensure quality assurance. The concept of ‘credit
for life experience’ has much to commend it, and its use has

3
UK equivalent of a high school leaving certificate taken at the age of 18 for
entry into university

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been well documented, supporting this innovative approach.
Unfortunately, degree mills have often abused this worthwhile
development for their own ends.

The advent of the internet and increased technological

sophistication are major reasons why degree mills are thriving.
In recent years international labour mobility has accelerated.
Simultaneously, there has been an explosion in the number of
students taking bona fide degrees. Concurrent with this,
because of pressures on profit margins, many organisations
have slimmed down their staff. This reduction has frequently
resulted in fewer staff in human resource departments and
subsequently, less rigorous checking of qualifications presented
by job applicants.

There are other factors which have contributed to the growth of

degree mills. At one time a high proportion of the people
induced to buy degrees came from developing countries; this is
no longer the case. An examination of a range of publications in
which degree mills advertise shows a very wide target market.
This includes numerous advertisements in publications directed
at managers and business travellers. Many degree mills are
netting substantial fortunes from this clientele. Any suggestion
that they are a degree mill results in threats of legal action

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which, in many instances, operators are willing to pursue
because they have the money and resources to respond to any
challenge to their authenticity. Civil servants have been among
those to suffer threats. For example, a group of senior
industrialists from Italy holding a non-recognised qualification
put effective pressure on their government which, in turn,
ensured that the work of the E.U. civil servant working at the
Council of Europe on exposing degree mill operators could not
proceed as planned.

What to Look For

When trying to assess whether or not an organisation is a

degree mill, it is useful to consider the following:

Advertising

 Is the place of registration disclosed? How does one

assess an operation claiming to be British when it is
registered in another country?

 In which publications do the advertisements appear? For

example, how much credibility should be attached to

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 degrees advertised in a publication featuring
innumerable advertisements for lower priced goods,
second-hand items, cheap holidays and the like?

 Is a post office box number or e-mail address used?

Whilst this is not in itself proof that the organisation is a
degree mill, in the UK the use of box numbers is often a
cause for alarm. Although with the high costs of
advertising, even reputable organisations may use box
numbers or an e-mail address to save money.

 Do claims made with regard to recognition, prestige and

status sound credible or is there an element of
exaggeration?

 Is there a charge for the prospectus? Charging for the

prospectus does not in itself imply a degree mill; a
number of bona fide universities charge, particularly
those in the USA.

 Are the names of the academic staff listed in the

prospectus along with their qualifications? If so, how
many feature in Who’s Who or similar publications?

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 Check if you can find reference to these staff in other
sources.

 Do staff members have the qualifications they are shown

to possess?

 Some degree mills seek to attract titled personages,

politicians and academics to join their advisory teams, in
order to portray an image of respectability and
credibility. Don’t be fooled by renowned names alone.

 Is there an emphasis on obtaining a degree without

attendance at the university? Today a lot of reputable
institutions (e.g. New York University and Heriot Watt
University, to name two) have off-campus degree
programmes, therefore this must be checked carefully
as it may not necessarily indicate a bogus qualification.

 How high are the fees? How do these compare with

other awards of a similar level and mode of delivery in
the same country?

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  Are scholarships offered which are, in reality, merely
discounts?

 What system of refunds is in place?

 Are such accoutrements as degree certificates on

goatskin parchment with Latin wording available at
special rates? This is not usually the case in bona fide
institutions.

 Can a student’s name be inscribed on a special ‘Roll of

Honour’ for an additional sum of money?

Academic Standards

 Is admission solely on the basis of

professional/vocational experience and not the
traditional university entrance requirements, such as
GCE Advanced levels, Baccalaureate, etc.?

 Where persons are accepted with non-traditional

qualifications, is a Curriculum Vitae (CV) required and

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 what is the system to ensure detailed checking of
previous experience?

 Does the university have State or government approval:

e.g. Royal Charter, Act of Parliament? If not, further
checking is necessary; for example, whether the
degrees are recognised by State authorities or by other
well-known universities or validated by some national
body.

 Does the qualification have national quality assurance

recognition?

 Is the time and effort required to complete a course

adequate? An example of this would be where a
distance learning qualification of a very short course
duration is offered which elsewhere takes two or three
years to obtain.

 Are the standards of the examinations so low they do

not merit recognition?

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  Are esoteric and off-beat subjects offered which you
would not expect to be the subject of a higher education
award?

 It is often a good idea to study the qualifications and

academic or business track record of the founder of the
university. Is it registered as a company or some other
form of organisation? What is the capital structure? How
many people are employed? What proportion of the
income is spent on administration?

The Campus

 Is the campus address a post office box number, a

website, etc.?

 Are the library facilities adequate for the courses on

offer?

 Does the university operate from the country in which it

is registered, or from some other part of the world?

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  Does the university seek to attract students from other
parts of the world, mainly those from developing
countries?

These are by no means exhaustive checklists.

Until such time as this area is resolved in court and potential

students are adequately protected by legislation, there is a need
for extreme caution. Once the issue is properly considered then
it may be that a more suitable terminology can be found to
describe the practice other than pejorative. It is time to put
pressure on governments to be proactive in outlawing the sale
of degrees.

In the meantime, it is wise to remember: caveat emptor4.

4
‘Let the buyer beware’

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Lies, Damned Lies and Creative CVs

In an age in which there are ever more sophisticated and

objective assessment and selection techniques available, in
most cases, the CV remains the standard introduction from job
seeker to potential employer. Yet, in a high percentage of cases
it is no longer an accurate summary of academic qualifications
and relevant work experience. Some believe that one reason
behind this is the US tendency to ‘talk up’ personal
achievements, whilst CV consultants are involved with
‘impression management’; put more simply, attempting to
change or shape the impressions which others receive.

In a credential-orientated society, inflated qualifications and

fictitious degrees are commonplace, particularly amongst
would-be chief executives, managing directors and senior
managers. Recently, for example the Chief Executive of
Intercontinental Hotel Group’s Asia Pacific Region announced
his resignation following a review of his academic qualifications
as previously presented to the company. He had claimed to
have degrees from three universities, but had only attended the
classes without graduating. In the same year, the Chief
Executive of Radio Shack, the US electronic retailer, resigned
after admitting he had not received a BSc from Pacific Coast

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Bible College. Similarly, the son of a Hong Kong billionaire
admitted that he did not complete the degree at Stanford
University cited in publicity material produced by his company,
Pacific Century Cyberworks. There are many more cases which
could be given as examples of this increasing fraud. Witness
the resignation of a senior minister from Angela Merkel’s
German government because of a plagiarised doctoral thesis.

False claims in curricula vitae, whether they relate to bogus

qualifications or other accomplishments, are more common
than is generally recognised. The factors which have led to job
applicants enhancing the truth include those below.

The Impact of Legislation

Equal employment and human rights laws, notably in the USA

and the UK, mean that the questions which may be asked of job
applicants are limited. Further, in the UK, the Privacy Act, 1974
restricted the way in which employers can carry out reference
checking and background investigations. Consequently some
job applicants have been quick to take advantage of the
situation.

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Increased Competition for Jobs

Many recruitment organisations argue that integrity declines as

job markets tighten.

Digital media allow job seekers to reach more potential

employers with little expense. Linked with this is the manner in
which legislation is regulated so that it is increasingly difficult to
target individuals precisely. As a result the quantity of
applications increases substantially, but the quality does not
necessarily follow suit.

Increased Difficulty of Checking Claims

Formerly, checking academic qualifications was comparatively

easy; a telephone call to a university or professional body was,
in many cases, sufficient. With the rapid acceleration in
international mobility, the growth of new establishments of
higher education, and new routes of study and modes of
learning, this is more difficult.

The likelihood of detection is less if a country’s economy is

facing difficulties. Because of redundancies, the number of
applicants for each vacancy increases dramatically. Concurrent

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with this, the number of personnel with the responsibility of
interviewing staff may have been reduced; hence less time is
spent in checking applications. This is usually even more
common in the case of recruitment for lower level jobs.

Other problems can arise when checking basic factual

information. A phone call to a previous employer asking how
long a candidate worked there will not be possible if the
company is one of many which went into liquidation during a
world economic crisis. It is also common for job applicants to
give the name of a non-existent firm where they claim to have
worked.

Another factor which makes the verification process more

difficult is the growth of degree mills, coupled with the use of the
internet for the sale of bogus qualifications. A large number of
people that claim to have academic qualifications have obtained
them from degree mills. Many acquire the qualifications
knowing them to be worthless. They are willing to pay money
and, in exchange, the degree mill sends them a document
purporting to prove that they have been awarded a doctorate or
some other degree. In other cases, the degree mill operator
may require the submission of some work, but the standard and
requirements are of a very low level. Some people are not

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aware that such organisations are not valid, or they can be so
desperate to acquire a degree or so naïve that they convince
themselves that the qualification is authentic.

Greater Reluctance to Provide True Information

There have always been problems in assessing subjective

opinions, for example, information on interpersonal skills.
Nowadays, for a variety of reasons, it may be even harder to
elicit this information. Some employers may feel sorry for ex-
colleagues who have been made redundant and provide a
better reference than their performance warranted; whilst others
are more reluctant to tell the truth because of the fear of
litigation or bad publicity.

Types of Untruths

Factually untrue or misleading statements may take many

forms, including:

Untrue Claims

Improving the truth takes a variety of forms such as claiming to:

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  have been educated at a certain school;
 hold an award or honour;
 have held a commission in the armed forces;
 have had books or articles published;
 hold a degree, or have a higher grade than that actually
awarded.

Witness the case of a woman who was appointed to a six-figure

salary post as Head of Communications at Manchester United.
Among the embellishments were a first class degree from
Cambridge University, a distinction in her common professional
examination and a forged reference.

False claims over qualifications are sometimes made solely to

boost the ego of the claimant. Many of those making false
academic statements claim to have been educated at the most
prestigious educational establishments. Often the MBA or PhD
is the most questionable credential in a résumé, although these
are more likely to be checked when the awarding establishment
is prestigious.

The ingenuity of those making false claims never ceases to

amaze. For example, one applicant is said to have written on

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his CV “I studied geography at Oxford”. In reality he had been to
Oxford on holiday and purchased a street map to find his way
around.

Distortion

An applicant may have attended a short programme at a

particular university. Thereafter, by careful wording on the CV it
can be made to appear that attendance had been for full-time
study over an extended period. Often such lying involves self-
deception; some people convince themselves that the short
course was really a degree course.

Exaggeration

An associated problem with the false statement is that of

exaggeration, and the difficulty in distinguishing between the
two. For example, regarding salary – is the figure quoted in the
application the actual salary or a total remuneration package,
which might also include expenses payments and anticipated
increases?

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It is difficult to assess and verify claims such as:
 ‘I was personally responsible for turning around the
entire operation in the North West’
 ‘I was in the top five per cent of the class’

Similarly:
 ‘I saved the organisation more than £100m’
 ‘I increased market share by over 100 per cent’

Examples similar to the above can signal exaggeration and

misrepresentation. For example, in one case a salesman
claimed that he had outperformed his quota by more than 80
per cent. In reality, he had been part of a team, and more senior
staff closed the sales.

Clearly related to the exaggeration of job responsibilities is the

inflation of job titles. A senior group research leader may well
have been the laboratory technician. Embellishing work history
is generally easier after the age of 30. Further, once
embellishing starts it may keep growing and become more than
just statements.

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Omissions

The ‘lost time’ syndrome is a common deception – the missing

few months or longer that a job seeker tries to conceal. A job or
period of unemployment may be completely eliminated. This is
comparatively easy where applicants report their work
experience in years instead of months. It is also easier for the
self employed, or those who have worked for a family company,
to disguise the facts. Where there are chronological gaps, does
it indicate an inability to find suitable employment after leaving
one job? Is it an attempt to conceal several job changes in rapid
succession? Or is it a sign of something more sinister such a
period in prison?

When reviewing a CV it is important to remember that job

stability on employment records may be important. Personality
conflicts, poor job performance and attitude problems can be
linked to relatively short periods of employment. So take care to
investigate and check; there may be perfectly sound
explanations, but then there is always a risk that this is not the
case.

Look for consistency in employment and salaries. If there is no

consistency, it may reflect the fact that the applicants have not

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found what they like to do best; if a person has taken a
reduction in salary, ascertain why.

An unusual case of omissions occurred some years ago when a

group of people, all holding bona fide degrees and post-school
qualifications sought unskilled work with a UK car company.
The omissions in this case were, in the opinion of the company,
politically motivated and the job applicants were thought to be
subversive left-wingers who hoped to implement political
resistance throughout the organisation. Another case is that of a
trade union activist on the staff of a London university, whose
CV omits any reference to the two years he was in the police
force.

Methods of Detection

Ways of detecting doctored résumés include:

More rigorous checking

When there is full employment, standards often drop in order to

ensure availability of staff. There is a battle against a rising
number of résumé cheats in India’s outsourcing industry. One

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outcome has been high staff turnover in some large outsourcing
groups, arising from the weeding out of those who lied on their
CVs.

There are many examples of poor checking. For example, the

Los Angeles Police recruited one man, Nigel Stankey, believing
him to be an anti-terrorism specialist. This was in spite of one of
his testimonials (purporting to be from an Assistant
Commissioner at Scotland Yard) having six typing corrections,
the date written in by hand and an illegible signature. In reality,
he had been a police constable on ordinary duties at West
Hendon Police Station.

In a war for talent, standards are lowered to ensure that jobs

are filled. One way in which this occurs is that successful
applicants are not even required to produce evidence of their
academic qualifications, or claims to have worked for various
companies. It could be argued that this is due to the level of
competition between the top firms which can preclude the
sharing of data.

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Use of standard printed forms

Many US corporations have a standard printed form for

checking applicants’ credentials; this is necessary where there
are high volumes of applications, as is the case at Harvard
Graduate Business School, which receives several thousand
applications per year. Yale University, which is also rigorous in
its checks, has accumulated a file of several thousand bogus
‘Old Boys’.

Recruiters should heed the advice of the former Registrar at

Stanford University who commented that one should always:

‘Verify applicant’s degree with the college or university they say

they attended.’

Training those making appointments in how to spot the false

applications and references

Training is particularly important. Staff must know what they are

looking for, and how to find it. When interviewing they should
know how to probe dubious information.

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Using a specialist checking agency

A growing number of organisations are turning to specialist

agencies that use a range of technology to investigate the
backgrounds of potential employees. A range of services is
offered, including verifying employment and education records,
checking with credit bureaux, consulting court and arrest
records, noting indications of drug or alcohol related problems.
One service on offer is the data on ‘the quarter lifetime’; if an
applicant is over 40 years of age, the investigators report on
their past ten years.

When James Kennedy, then publisher of Executive Recruiter

News (a newsletter for head-hunters), checked the head-
hunters’ CVs he reported a number of cases of ‘error’ and lies.
For example, the then managing director of Korn/Ferry
International’s practice, had claimed a bogus degree in one of
his biographies. Similarly, the person who was running
www.CVValidation.com, an online vetting service, used the
name Castle in company publicity to avoid recognition as a
person who had spent 15 months in prison for fraud.

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To Sum Up

Careful scrutiny of CVs may be expensive, but it is less so in

terms of cost and time than interviewing, particularly now that
employees are more protected and is becoming increasingly
costly to deal with unsatisfactory appointments. Further, one
who has successfully lied once to get a job will often lie again,
and a dishonest recruit is more susceptible to bribery and
corruption. So the need to improve selection procedures
assumes growing importance.

Organisations must have a clear policy on fraud and

misrepresentation on job application forms. The policy should
accompany all correspondence with job applicants. Such policy
should be clearly stated on the application form indicating that
all shortlisted job applicants will be rigorously vetted.

No matter how improved systems are, some errors will still

occur. When that happens help may come from an outside
source. For example, an insurance company may decline to
bond the person. Should this arise, it is a bonus; review
systems with a view to improving them further.

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An interesting dilemma is that of an employee asking to correct
information on his or her CV; this problem is not at all
uncommon. Dealing with such matters can be simplified if all
selected personnel have been required to sign a statement that
any falsification on their CV or job applications may result in
termination of employment. This may deter the use of false
information or exaggeration.

Employers must be clear on action that will be taken if it is

discovered that a person has been appointed on the basis of
false claims. Unless this is the case some may hesitate to
dismiss a person if they are performing to a high standard
despite the absence of the necessary qualifications or
experience.

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Academic Fraud and Examinations

Academic fraud is more widespread than is generally

recognised and is a growth industry. New technology has
accelerated this growth. A few examples will illustrate:

 A pen that writes in ink visible only under ultra-violet

light, so what appears as a blank sheet of paper can
actually contain valuable notes.

 Today, it is possible to copy certificates more effectively

and detecting fraudulent copies is difficult. In one African
country it is believed that between 20 and 30 percent of
the school certificates of education currently in use are
fakes. Fake English language certificates are frequently
bought by students from some Asian countries who are
seeking to enter overseas universities, notably in
Australia.

 Where coursework marks count towards the sought

qualification, there are specialist writing agencies that
can produce the required material for submission, which
can be purchased via the internet. It is also difficult to
control the contribution from parents or friends. Students

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 could also attempt to bribe lecturers. In Russia when
there was an anti-corruption drive by a central
government to end this, a more sophisticated approach
was developed. A student would be encouraged to pay
an outside company for private tutoring and this would
be owned by the lecturer or their partner.

 Mobile phones and hidden notes can sometimes

challenge the rigour of a seemingly correctly conducted
examination. Great creativity and ingenuity is frequently
shown; an example is the ‘revision guides’ in tiny print
produced by ‘educational’ publishers which can be
slipped in to a belt or up one’s sleeve.

 Another variation is the use of a ‘stand in’ or

impersonator to take the examination. This has led to
the GMAT Council stepping up security to prevent this
type of fraud by using digital photographic biometrics.

 There is another alternative to the many forms of

academic fraud which are found today – using hacking
skills to break into the records kept by universities and
examining bodies to either alter the grades achieved or

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 add names to the list of those graduating or passing
examinations.

 Academic fraud by students is not surprising given that

some teachers and lecturers are poor role models. For
example:
 Because of government pressure to ensure high
percentage pass rates some teachers help
students to cheat in coursework contributing to
the final examination mark.
 Senior academics are known to have committed
academic fraud, including one who became Vice-
Chancellor of an Australian university.
 Concern has been expressed that some
universities in Australia have encouraged ‘soft’
marking of fee-paying foreign students’ scripts.

 There is a question over whether taking ‘smart pills’

(such as Ritalin and Modafinil) before an academic
examination constitutes fraud. These drugs are usually
prescribed for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and
Alzheimer’s disease. They make a person more alert by
boosting acetylcholine in the brain. Studies in the US

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 indicate that one in six university students has tried
smart pills.

As an after thought – for medical doctors the examination pass

mark is generally 50%, prompting the question whether patients
should seek to ascertain in which aspects of the exam their
doctor failed to get that 50%? If they failed in the area for which
the patient is seeking treatment, perhaps they would be better
off seeing someone else!

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