Topic 3: Basic Theory

Lecture 4

1
Overview of topic 2: Basic Theory

Lecture 4: Nuclear physics

Lecture 5: Reactor energy removal

2
Overview of lecture 3: Nuclear Physics

3.1.1. The nucleus

3.1.2. Radioactivity
3.1.4. Nuclear reaction
3.1.5. Fission reaction and criticality
3.1.6. Neutron motion and reactor control

3
3.1.1. The Nucleus
A. Structure
B. Mass - energy scale
C. Binding energy
D. Nuclear forces

4
A. Structure

The nucleus consists of:

• Neutrons
• Protons

The nucleus along with the

surrounding electrons make
up an Atom.

5
 Classic model Quantum Model
Electrons in fixed shells
6
 Chart of Major Nuclear Particles
Particle Rest Mass Charge

Electron 9.1095 x 10-28 g -1

Proton 1.67261 x 10-24 g +1

Neutron 1.67492 x 10-24 g 0

Photon 0 0

Neutrino 0 0
7
 Atomic Number and Mass Number (1)
1. The atom as a whole is electrically neutral
• No. of protons in the nucleus = no. of orbital electrons.

2. Atomic Number - denoted by the symbol Z

• total number of protons in the nucleus or the total number of
orbital electrons.

3. Mass Number – denoted by the symbol A

• sum of the numbers of protons and neutron is called the is an
index of the mass of the atom.

8
 Atomic Number and Mass Number (2)
4. The number of neutrons in the nucleus is thus given by (A-Z).

5. Thus a nuclide is any individual atom, with its own characteristic

number of protons and neutrons

6. The nuclide of an element X of atomic number Z and mass number

A is represented by A
Z X
7. Denotes the nucleus of helium atom consisting of 2 protons and 2
neutrons 4
2 He
9
 Isotopes
1. Nuclides having the same Z but different mass number A are called
the isotopes of the element of atomic number Z.

2. The isotopes of the same element have:

• Identical chemical properties [eg: pH, reactivity, electronegativity]
• Dissimilar nuclear properties [eg: mass, spin (I), Gyromagnetic
ratio (γ)]
10
 Isotopes of Uranium-235 and Uranium-238

Both have 92 electrons, both have same chemical properties, but are
different nuclides with different nuclear properties.
11
Fissile and fertile nuclides

12
B. Mass and Energy Scales
One electron volt (eV) is the kinetic energy acquired by an electron as
it passes through a 1 V electrical potential.
1 eV = 1.602 x 10-19 J
1 keV = 103 eV
1 MeV = 106 eV = 1.602x10-13 J

The atomic mass unit (amu) is defined as 1/12 of the mass of the 12C
atom.
1 amu = 1.66 x 10-27 kg
13
 Mass-energy equivalence
Mass is equivalent to energy according to Einstein’s equation, E=mc2
1 amu = 931.5 MeV
(where c, the speed of light = 2.998 x 108 m/s2)

Conversion of 1 gram of mass releases 9 x 1014 Joules of energy

14
 Mass of Major Nuclear Particles
Particle Mass (g) Mass (amu)
Electron 9.1095 x 10-28 0.000549
Proton 1.67261 x 10-24 1.007277

Neutron 1.67492 x 10-24 1.008665

Photon 0 0
Neutrino 0 0

15
16
C. Binding Energy
12C consists of:
• 6 protons + 6 neutrons
• Atomic Mass: 12.0000000 amu

The sum of the components is:

 6(m proton)  6(mneutron)  6(melectron )
 6(1.00728 amu )  6(1.00866 amu )  6(5.48593x10 4 amu)
 12.0989 amu

Why do we have a difference?

17
 Binding Energy (2)
• The binding energy of a group of particles which are assembled into a
system is the energy required to disassemble the system into free
particles

Before Assembly After Assembly

mi
M BE (released)

i free particles at rest

18
 Binding Energy (3)
Total energy will always be conserved

m c
i
i
2
 M c  BE
2

  2
BE    m i  M c  Δmc 2

where  i 
BE is binding energy
M is the experimental mass (rest mass)
mi is the mass of the protons, neutrons, electrons
Dm is the mass defect
 mass before assembly minus mass after assembly 19
 Binding Energy (4)
Binding energy > 0
 Energy is released during assembly
 Mass is consumed

 External energy required to disassemble

=> Mass is created

Binding energy < 0

 No external energy required for disassembly
 Spontaneous decay possible
20
 Binding energy per nucleon
Usually the binding energy per nucleon is given i.e. BE/mass number

21
Stability of Atoms

22
 Binding Energy (5)
• The most notable departures from the smooth curve are the
20 4 16 12
isotopes 10 Ne , 8 O and 6 C . Each of these isotopes lies
, 2 He
above the curve, indicating that they are very strongly
bound.

• These isotopes, which have more binding energy per nucleon

than either of the isotopes that flank it, may be thought of as
containing three, four and five sub-units of 4 He respectively.
2

23
 Binding Energy (6)
• The exceptional binding energies in these nuclei, together
4
with the fact that nuclei 2 He , as alpha particles, are emitted
in certain modes of radioactive disintegration, suggest that
nucleons tend to form stable subgroups of two protons and
two neutrons within the nucleus.

• The binding energy curve shape explains why it is possible to

release energy by splitting the very heavy elements or by
fusing two very light elements.
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25
 Binding Energy (7)
Since the binding energy per nucleon is greater for nuclei in
the centre than for nuclei at both extremes, any change in
nuclear structure that drives the nucleons towards the
centre of the curve must release the energy difference
between the final and initial states

26
D. Nuclear Forces
 The Coulomb electrostatic force between charged particles exist
between protons in the nucleus, being a force of repulsion, as the
protons are all positively charged.

 The Coulomb force is therefore a force that tends to disrupt or burst

the atomic nucleus.

 The fact that the nuclei of naturally occurring isotopes are stable and
tightly bound indicates the existence of another force, which binds
the nucleus together and is stronger than the Coulomb force.

27
 Nuclear Forces (2)
 There exist a very powerful short-range force of attraction that acts
between particles that are close to each other, within 3x10-15m.

 This short range nuclear force acts with nearly equal strength
between two protons, two neutrons, or a proton and a neutron
provided the separation is less than the distance quoted above, and
it is this force which binds the atomic nucleus together.

p nuclear force n 28
Electrostatic Force vs. Separation Distance for
Oppositely-charged Particles 29
 Nuclear Forces (3)
Normally, atomic nuclei exist in an equilibrium or stable condition
known as their ground state of energy. However, as a result of nuclear
reactions (which might be caused by the bombardment of atoms by
protons, neutrons or other light particles), nuclei can be produced in
an excited or unstable condition.

Most excited nuclei exist in this state for only a very short time a
typical average lifetime being about 10-14 second and they decay or
become de-excited, by the emission of high energy electromagnetic
radiation known as gamma radiation, or particles such as neutrons or
both.

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3.1.2. Radioactivity
A. Mode of decay: Alpha, Beta, Positron, Electron Capture, Gamma, fission
B. Rate of radioactive decay
C. Decay unit and half life

31
 Conservation Principles
Radioactive decay and nuclear reaction processes adhere to
the following conservation principles:

1. Conservation of charge
2. Conservation of mass number
3. Conservation of total energy
4. Conservation of linear and angular momentum

Note: Conservation of mass number means that the number of neutrons plus the number of
protons remains constant. It does not imply conservation of mass which specifically will not
apply when there is a mass to energy conversion.

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A. Mode of Decay
1. Alpha (a or He)
2. Beta (b or e-)
3. Positron (b or e+)
4. Electron Capture
5. Gamma (g)
6. Fission

33
(1) Alpha Decay
Alpha decay can simply be described as:
1. The nucleus of an atom splits into two parts
2. One of these parts (the alpha particle) goes zooming off into space
3. The nucleus left behind has its atomic number reduced by 2 and its
mass number reduced by 4 (i.e. by 2 protons and 2 neutrons).

Note that He may also be written a .

4
2
4
2
34
35
 (2) Beta Decay
Beta decay is more complex than alpha decay:
1. A neutron inside the nucleus of an atom breaks down, changing into a
proton
2. It emits an electron and an anti-neutrino (more on this later) which go
zooming off into space.
3. The atomic number goes UP by one and mass number remains
unchanged.
Here is an example of a beta decay equation:

36
37
 (3) Positron Decay
Positron decay is like a mirror image of beta decay:
1. Something inside the nucleus of an atom breaks down, which causes
a proton to become a neutron.
2. It emits a positron and a neutrino which go zooming off into space
3. The atomic number goes DOWN by one and mass number remains
unchanged.

38
 Writing a Decay Equations
Some points about the decay equation:
1. The nuclide that decays is the one on the left-hand side of the
equation
2. The order of the nuclides on the right-hand side can be in any
order
3. The way it is written above is the usual way
4. The mass number and atomic number of the neutrino are zero
5. The neutrino symbol is the Greek letter "nu."

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(4) Electron Capture
Electron capture is not like any other decay - alpha, beta, or position.
All other decays shoot something out of the nucleus. In electron
capture, something ENTERS the nucleus.

A simplified view of what electron capture is:

1. An electron from the closest energy level falls into the nucleus,
which causes a proton to become a neutron.

2. A neutrino is emitted from the nucleus.

40
 Electron Capture (2)
3. Another electron falls into the empty energy level and so on causing a
cascade of electrons falling. One free electron, moving about in space,
falls into the outermost empty level. (Incidentally, this cascade of
electrons falling creates a characteristic cascade of lines, mostly (I think)
in the X-ray portion of the spectrum. This is the fingerprint of electron
capture)

4. The atomic number goes DOWN by one and mass number remains
unchanged.

41
Electron capture 42
 (5) Gamma Decay
• Gamma decay is simply the release of energy from an atomic nucleus
through the release of a photon.

60
28 Ni 
 Ni  γ
* 60
28
0
0

• The number of neutrons or protons in the nucleus do not change.

43
 Gamma Decay equation

Gamma Decay energy level diagram

44
 (6) Fission
• Fission is when a nucleus splits into two or more smaller nuclei.

• Fission may be induced (by a neutron) or may be spontaneous.

• Fission reactions are not standard since there are multiple possible
outcomes of fission.

1
0 n 239
94 Pu  Zr 
fission 97
40
140
54 Xe  3 n  γ1
0
0
0
45
Fission process of U-235 46
 Spontaneous
fission is
possible for
some very
heavy
radionuclides
whose nuclei
are very
unstable.

Liquid-drop Model 47
 Chart of the Nuclides

 It should be noted that for light elements, stability is achieved with

approximately N = Z
 (for example 12 and 16 ).
6 C 8 O
 As the mass increases, the locus of stable nuclei rises above a 45o line,
indicating that stability requires that N be greater than Z.
The heaviest stable nucleus is 209.
83 Bi
48
Chart of the Nuclides (source: http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/chart) 49
Radiation Penetration (extra info)

a ‘s are stopped by a piece of paper

b ‘s make it through paper but are

stopped by a sheet of lead.

g’s are attenuated by lead but a portion

make it through.
50
 Decay Constant
The decay of a radionuclide is a statistical process that it is not possible
to predict exactly when a particular nucleus will disintegrate.

However, the probability that a nucleus will decay in unit time, known
as the decay constant of the radionuclide is usually denoted by .

51
B. Rate of Radioactive Decay
The number of atoms of a radioactive substance disintegrating per
unit time, is referred to as the activity of the substance

At     λNt 
dN (t )
dt
where
A(t ) is the activity as a function of time
 is the decay constant
N(t) is the number of atoms of the
radionuclide as a function of time
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Rate of Radioactive Decay (2)
dN
 λNt   0
dt
e dN  λe Nt dt  0
λt λt

 
d e λt

Nt  dt   0 dt
e N t   C
λt

-λt
N(t)  Ce
We can solve by multiplying by eλt and then integrating
53
Rate of Radioactive Decay (3)
At time, t=0, the number of atoms is No

N t   Ce -λ t

N t  0   N 0 Recalling that A=N

λNt   λN 0 e
0
N 0  Ce -λ t

 
N t  N 0e -λ t
At   A 0e -λ t

54
Rate of Radioactive Decay (4)

A(t) A(t)
Radioactive nuclides 1.0 1.E+00

decay exponentially 0.8 1.E-01

in time
0.6 1.E-02

0.4 1.E-03

0.2 1.E-04

0.0 1.E-05
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
t t

Linear Plot Semi-Log Plot

55
C. Units of Radioactivity
The units of radioactivity are

1. Curie
1 Ci = 3.7x1010 disintegration/sec
The activity of 1 gram of Radium

2. Becquerel
1 Bq = 1 disintegration/sec
SI unit of activity

56
 Half Life
• Time interval for the activity or initial number of atoms to decrease by
a factor of 2 is known as half life, t1/2

Nt  t 1
2
  12 N 0
λt 1
1N
2 0
 N 0e 2

ln2
t  1
λ 2

57
3.1.4. Nuclear Reactions
A. Compound nucleus
B. Reaction types

58
A. Compound Nucleus
 There are many steps to a nuclear reaction.
 During an absorption, the compound nucleus temporarily contains
all of the charge and mass involved in the reaction.
 The compound nucleus typically only exists for ~ 10-14 s.
 The nucleus then release energy to reduce its excited state.

59
B. Reaction Types
1.Scattering
2.Radiative Capture
3.Multiple Neutron
4.Fission
5.Charged Particle
6.Neutron Production
60
 1. Scattering - Elastic
 Elastic scattering is when a neutron scatters
with an atom. The sum of the kinetic energy
remains the same.

 No energy conversions such as mass to

energy, or K.E. to photon and etc

 Example for neutron scattering with a 1H

nucleus (they are the same mass)

Energy and momentum are conserved.

61
 1. Scattering - Inelastic
 In an inelastic collision, some of the kinetic
energy is converted to other types of energy.
 Usually this entails the creation of a photon after
the incident particle put the nucleus in an excited
state.
 There is usually a threshold energy that the
incident particle needs to have before inelastic
scattering is possible.
 Total energy is still conserved.

Energy and momentum are conserved.

62
 2. Capture - Absorption
• Neutron absorption occurs when a neutron enters the nucleus.
• Quite often the nucleus emits something to reduce its energy state.
• Gamma-ray
• Neutron
• Proton
• Etc..
• Some neutron absorptions may cause fission.

Energy and momentum are conserved.

63
 Absorption (2)
Depends upon whether momentum and kinetic energy are conserved.
Absorption can result in three outcomes,
1. A new isotope of the same element can be created
2. A different element can be created (transmutation)
3. The nucleus can split into two or more lighter elements -fission.

64
2. Capture - Absorption (2)

(n,g) 65
3. Multiple Neutron

(n,2n)

66
4. Fission (n,fission)

67
5. Charged Particle

(n,a)
68
6. Neutron Production

(a,n)
69
3.1.5. Nuclear Fission
Fission, fission product, prompt and delayed neutron, and energy production

70
Nuclear Fission
1. Fission
2. Criticality
3. Fission Fragments
4. Prompt Neutron Production
5. Delayed Neutron Production
6. Energy Production

71
1. Fission

72
1. Fission (2)

Thermalization of neutrons increases the probability of a fission reaction. 73

 1. Fission (3)
 When a reactor is critical
(steady-state), only one
neutron from each fission
goes on to create another
fission.

 The other neutrons are

either absorbed or leak
out of the system.

74
2. Criticality

75
2. Criticality (2)

76
3. Fission Fragments
Fission usually splits atoms into
two parts.

Because of the structure of

nuclei, the split causes two
unequal mass fragments.

77
 3. Fission Fragments (2)
General equation for fission reaction can be written as
235
92 U  1
0n  A1
Z1 F1  A2
Z2 F2  0 n
1
 E
•  = average number of neutrons released per atom of 235U fissioned
• E = energy released during the fission process.
• F1 , F2 = fission fragments

Examples of fission reaction and fission fragments

235
92U  1
0n  38 Sr
94
 140
54 Xe  1
20 n  g
235
92U  1
0n  36 Kr
90
 144
56 Ba  1
20 n  g 78
3. Fission Fragments (3)
Fission fragments
are neutron rich
and consequently
below the line of
stability.

79
Most fission
products are
unstable and
decay along a
mass line.

80
2. Fission Fragments (4)

The fission
fragment yield
changes with the
fissioning nuclei
such as 235U,
239Pu, 241Pu, 253Cf

81
2. Fission Fragments (5)

Fission fragment yield is also

dependent on the energy of the
incident neutron.

82
3. Prompt Neutron Production

Neutrons from Thermal 235U Fission Median Energy ~ 2 MeV

Mode Energy ~ 1 MeV 83
2. Prompt Neutron Production (2)

Neutrons Thermal Neutrons Born

84
Neutron spectra in thermal and fast breeder reactors.
3. Delayed Neutron - Production
• Fission products decay through multiple decay mechanisms.
• Some fission products decay through neutron decay.
• For example:

These neutrons produced from fission product decay are

DELAYED NEUTRONS.
85
3. Delayed Neutron - Groups
• There are about 40 fission products that decay by neutron emission.
• Each radionuclide have different half-lives.
• The half-life will affect the time dependence of the neutron flux.

• The delayed neutrons are normally treated as six or seven delayed

neutron groups.
• Does not significantly affect the reactor kinetics results, but
significantly reduces the complexity of the solution.

86
3. Delayed Neutron - Groups

Delay Group  (1/s) T1/2 (s)

1 0.0129 53.732
2 0.0311 22.288
3 0.134 5.173
4 0.331 2.094
5 1.26 0.550
6 3.21 0.216
87
 Delayed Neutron
Yield as a Function
of Incident
Neutron Energy

88
Spriggs et al. “]CALCULATION OF GODIVA'S EFFECTIVE DELAYED NEUTRON FRACTION USING NEWLY CALCULATED DELAYED NEUTRON SPECTRA”
3. Delayed Neutron - Fraction

89
 Delayed Neutron Emission Spectrum

0.25

0.2

0.15
c

0.1

0.05

0
0.00E+00

1.00E+06

2.00E+06

3.00E+06

4.00E+06

5.00E+06

6.00E+06

7.00E+06
Energy (eV)

235U Delayed Neutron Emission Spectrum 90

 4. Energy from Fission
• Approximately 200 MeV can be recovered from the fission of U-235
Event % Range Time Frame

kinetic energy 80% 10-2 cm prompt

fast fission neutrons

3% 10-102 cm prompt
(2 to 3 per fission)
fission g’s 4% 102 cm prompt
b decay of FP 4% short delayed
neutrinos 5% ∞ delayed

non-fission neutron captures 4% 102 cm delayed91

4 - Energy from Fission - Instantaneous

92
4. Energy from Fission - Delayed

93
3.1.6. Neutron Motion and
Reactor Control
1. Cross sections
2. Moderation
3. Neutron flux distribution
4. Temperature effect
5. Reactor Poisoning
94
 1. Cross section
• The probability of a particular interaction between a neutron and a nucleus
is expressed numerically by the microscopic cross section, σ.

• The microscopic cross section can be considered to be the effective target

area of the nucleus and is expressed in units called barns, where one barn
is equivalent to 10-24 cm2

• Neutron interactions with nuclei are divided into two classes of events;
scattering and absorption. The total cross section, therefore, can be
expressed as;
σ= σs+ σa
• Scattering cross section is further sub-divided into elastic and inelastic.
• Absorption cross section is sub-divided into capture without fission and
fission processes 95
1. Cross Section (2)

96
 1. Cross Section (3)

Absorption cross sections of structural materials and fission products

97
Total cross section of uranium-238 98
1. Cross Section (3)
AVOIDING RESONANCE CAPTURE
• Loss of neutrons by absorption in the resonances of uranium-238,
means a fission chain reaction can be only achieved by thermal or fast
neutrons.
• Fission by fast neutrons, requires fuel to be densely packed to
minimize both distances and amount of non-fuel material with which
the neutrons interact.
• In a thermal reactor, the fuel must be spaced out and additional
material is added between the fuel elements to act as a “slowing
down” medium and this is known as a moderator.
99
2. Moderation

• A moderator consists of a material that contains a large proportion of

light atoms.
• Moderation works by means of elastic scattering of neutrons by the
light atoms. A hydrogen atom has a mass very close to that of a free
neutron.
• Each time a neutron collides with a hydrogen atom it can lose up to
all of its kinetic energy, depending upon the angle of impact.

100
 2. Moderation (2)
MODERATOR MATERIALS
• Most abundant hydrogenous material is light water
• Many reactor systems are water-moderated. Unfortunately, hydrogen
has a reasonably large absorption cross section (0.33 barns) so some
neutrons are lost by absorption in the moderator.

• The next lightest element is deuterium, also known as “heavy hydrogen”.

Water based on deuterium is known as “heavy water”
• Canadian CANDU reactors are the best known.
• Deuterium has a very small absorption cross section (4.6x10-4barns),
101
2. Moderation (3)

• If a solid, moderator is required for use in a gas-cooled reactor, for

example, the main element used is carbon -deployed in the form of
graphite.

• Moderators constructed from graphite are considerably larger than

those made from either light or heavy water. Carbon has a small
absorption cross section.

• Graphite moderated reactors have been deployed extensively

throughout the world. The UK Magnox and Advanced Gas Cooled
(AGR) and Russian RBMK reactors are examples of these.
102
3. Neutron flux distribution

Un-reflected core Reflected core

103
4. Temperature effect
• The reactivity of a reactor is strongly dependent upon temperature.
• Temperature influences reactivity through its influence on the fuel,
the moderator and the coolant.
• A change in the thermal power of the core accompanies a change in
reactivity that, in turn, leads to a change in core temperature.
• It is important for operational stability that, overall, the reactivity~
temperature feedback is negative; the sum of the fuel, moderator and
coolant feedback coefficients must be negative

104
5. Reactor Poisoning
• Certain fission products have large absorption cross sections, the
most notable of these are xenon and samarium.
• These fission products absorb large numbers of neutrons to the
extent that maintaining criticality may not be possible –they
effectively poison the chain reaction, hence the name poisons.
• Xenon-135 has the highest absorption cross section of any
substance at 2.75x106barnsXenon-135 builds up in the fuel of an
operating reactor by two mechanisms:
• directly, from being a fission product itself
• or, indirectly, from the decay of the fission product iodine-135.
105
THANK YOU

Courtesy:
Julia Karim
Malaysian Nuclear Agency
106