IMPORTANT DISCLAIMER TO MY NOTES!

These are my first draft personal study notes taken from a combination of readings from:
1. Psychological Assessment in the SA context (2005), 2nd ed (edited Foxcroft and Roodt)
2. Dr M Mazabow’s Psyc Assessment study guide (the so called Boston Notes) – many of my
chapter notes are a direct copy of Dr Mazabow’s format and summary of his info which I
referred to extensively.
3. My notes are not intended as a substitute for either the text book or the Boston notes

The “Focus points” in the intro to my notes are from TL 104/2008 which I am personally putting a
lot of faith in!

I have done a small comparison of some past exam papers (2004, 2005, & 2007, from the
Boston Notes) and the questions appear to follow each assignment’s “Aims” (always a good
place to start since this is what the lecturers want you to come out of the course knowing). These
aims you will find in TL101/2008 at the start of each Assignment instruction and begin with the
words “The aim of this assignment is…”

I may have left entire sections out or may have misunderstood some contexts (both the
foregoing apply particularly to assignment 2 – Psychometric Properties! I had great difficulty
getting through this section.) Same applies to my understanding of the EXAM REQUIREMENT if
you feel I have misinterpreted it please follow your own understanding or check with UNISA.

1. EXAM REQUIREMENT
a. Exam Questions
i. Year Mark (20%)
ii. SECTION A: 20 X Multiple choice (assume 20%)
iii. SECTION B: 3 out of 5 essay questions (assume 20% per question)
b. Syllabus
i. Know theory as discussed in relevant sections of prescribed book
ii. Be able to answer applied questions on each field of knowledge
iii. Prescribed book, TL 101-105 (additional recommended journal articles – not in
detail just be able to apply the information
iv. Know:
1. Structure and content of different types of tests (e.g. tests for preschool
intelligence, self-report inventories, etc)
2. Discuss examples of each type of test
3. Concentrate on tests relevant to the assignments
c. RECOMMENDATION
i. Learn
1. All theory, and go over assignment 1 for SECTION A
 2. Concentrate on 3 topics for SECTION B
a. Lightly cover remaining 2 topics (limit to focus points for these
topics)
d. FOCUS POINTS
i. (02) PSYCHOMETRIC PROPERTIES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT
MEASURES
1. Technical evaluation and establishment of norms
a. TL 101/2008 – norm referenced and criterion referenced tests
and issues of reliability and validity
b. Additional material on reliability and validity in TL’s
ii. (03) CROSS-CULTURAL APPLICATION OF PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT
MEASURES
1. Issues of test bias and test fairness
2. Fair use of assessment measures
3. Factors responsible for differences in test performance in a multicultural
context
4. Use recommended reading and assignment feedback
iii. (04) DEVELOPMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN
1. Work through activities in Section C
2. View each activity as a potential question
3. Do NOT need detailed knowledge of the contents of measures
described in study material
iv. (05) ASSESSMENT OF COGNITIVE FUNCTIONING WITH PSYCHOLOGICAL
MEASURES
1. Understand difference between main theoretical approaches to
intelligence
2. Value of these approaches for SA context
v. (06) ASSESSMENT IN AN INDUSTRIAL CONTEXT
1. Focus on the role of different types of psychological measures in the
selection process.
2. (02) PSYCHOMETRIC PROPERTIES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT MEASURES
a. FOCUS
i. Technical evaluation and establishment of norms
1. TL 101/2008 – norm referenced and criterion referenced tests and
issues of reliability and validity
2. Additional material on reliability and validity in TL’s
b. NORM-REFERENCED AND CRITERION-REFERENCED TESTS
i. INTRODUCTION
1. Testing vs Assessment
a. Test results represent only one source of assessment
b. Assessment is a multi-dimensional process (tests, interviews,
background information, parent interviews, reference checking)
c. Tests are standardised procedure for
i. sampling behaviour
ii. Describing that behaviour (categories)
iii. Interpretation of test scores
iv. Sample of behaviour obtained used to predict other
non-tested behaviour
d. Test items consist only of a sample of the population of
behaviours examiner is interested in
e. From limited sample one makes inferences about other relevant
behaviours
f. Predict additional behaviours
ii. NORMS AND TEST STANDARDISATION
1. Task here is to standardise the test using a norm group
2. Raw score – most basic level of information provided by a test eg 25/40
3. Raw score only becomes meaningful in relation to the scores obtained
by a large and representative sample of subjects – i.e. in relation to
norms
4. Norm group/normative sample is sample of subject’s representative of
the population for whom the test is intended.
a. Also called standardization sample
b. Process of test standardisation
i. Draw a random heterogeneous and representative
sample of people
ii. Test all these people with your test and obtain their raw
scores
iii. From this distribution of test results you derive
summary statistics or norms
1. Mean score and SD for each age group
2. Percentile and standard scores
 5. Once you have this summary of the norm group’s scores you can test
another individual and tell how well they did compared to the norm
group – this is done by transforming the individual’s raw score into a
standard score or percentile
6. Need to update norms periodically as they become obsolete over time.
iii. TRANSFORMING RAW SCORES: TYPES OF NORMS
1. ASSUMPTION: that the raw scores of the norm group are normally
distributed in a bell curve shape – 68% of scores fall within 1 SD above
and below the mean
2. PERCENTILES
a. Most common way of transforming a psychological test score
b. A percentile score of 40 means you scored better than 40% of
the norm.
c. Expressed in terms of the % of persons in the standardisation
sample who fall below a given raw score
d. Mean = 50th percentile
e. Q1 = 25th & Q3 = 75th percentiles (cut off the lowest and highest
quarters of normal distribution.
f. Due to normal distribution there is a marked inequality of
percentile scale units especially at the extreme ends
g. Cannot be used for arithmetic functions
3. STANDARD SCORES
a. Z-scores tell you how far from the mean of the norm your score
is and whether it is above or below the mean
b. Uses Standard deviation units
i. assumes population mean =0.00 and SD = 1.00
ii. Score of +1.00 = I SD above the mean (better than 84%
of sample according to normal distribution)
c. Deriving Z-Score
i. Z=(X-M)/SD
d. Represent interval level measurements so statistical calculations
can be done on these scores
e. .Can use Standard scores to compare
i. two scores obtained by different people on the same
test or
ii. scores on 2 different tests by the same person
f. Standard scores maintain the relative magnitude of differences
found in the original scores
g. Distribution of Z scores is limited: -3.0 to +3.0
h. LINEARLY TRANSFORMED STANDARD SCORES
i. Multiply Z score by constant value (recommend X10
then add 50)
 ii. -3.0 to 1.0 to +3.0 becomes 20 to 50 to 80
iii. Become statistically more complex and less useful
i. NORMALISED STANDARD SCORES
i. These are standard scores that have been transformed
to fit a normal distribution
1. McCall’s T-score T=Zn10+50
2. Stanine Scale (standard nine)
a. Range from 1 – 9 mean 5 SD 1.96
b. Scale units are equal
c. Reflects persons position relative to
normal distribution
d. Comparable across groups
e. Allow statistical manipulation
f. Has only 9 units so is an approximate
scale
3. Sten scale (standard ten)
a. Range 1- 10 mean 5.5 SD 2
4. DEVIATION IQ SCALES
a. Normalized standard score with mean 100 SD 15
5. DEVELOPMENTAL SCALES
a. Typically used when measuring characteristics that increase
progressively with increase in age
b. MENTAL AGE SCALES
i. Basal age is computed – highest age at and below which
a test is passed
ii. Eg. average 10yr old should pass this test so 9yr old who
passes a test that has a basal age of 10 is functioning at
a 10-year old mental age level
c. GRADE EQUIVALENTS
i. Performance is translated into a grade value
ii. Specifically for scholastic measures
iii. Values are not precise
6. WHICHOF THE NORM SCORES TO USE?
a. Personal preference or convention
7. THE NORM GROUP
a. Group should be large
b. Representative cross-section of the population for which the
test is designed i.e. variety of different socio-economic levels,
genders, racial groups, urban/rural and geographical locations
c. Randomly sampled (simple or stratified)
d. May be forced to pick a diverse and approximately
representative sample using the sources available
 8. CRITERION-REFERENCED VERSUS NORM-REFERENCED TESTS
a. Criterion-referenced tests
i. Measure what the subject can do rather than how he
compares with other subjects
ii. The subjects performance on the test is not compared
to any reference group
iii. Compared to an external standard
iv. These tests are used particularly in EDUCATIONAL
context
1. Can the child read at the level appropriate for
his grade?
2. What arithmetic skills has he mastered?
v. Also used to determine proficiency (job, drivers license)
vi. Should have clearly defined domain of knowledge or
skills
b. SETTING STANDARDS AND CUT-OFF SCORES
i. Expectancy table – table that indicates the relationship
between performance on a test (say aptitude) and
success on a criterion
ii. i.e. for machine operators
80% of employees who got between 31-40 on aptitude
test were successful in job performance later on.
iii. 40% who got between 21-30 were successful
iv. CUT OFF SCORE: is then set such that it meets your
expectation for prediction of success
v. ADVANTAGE: is easy to show the relationship between
test score and probable performance
vi. DISADVANTAGE: requires large samples to construct the
table otherwise predictions will be inaccurate
vii. Be aware there is a band of error in the prediction
viii. Also may be discriminatory
c. RELIABILITY
i. INTRODUCTION
1. Two broad ways to understand reliability:
a. Temporal stability: consistency of measurement stated within a
margin of error (reliability coefficient)
b. Internal stability (consistency/homogeneity)
ii. CLASSICAL THEORY
1. Two sets of influences in any test score
a. Factors that contribute to consistency – the stable attributes
you are trying to measure
 b. Factors that contribute to the inconsistency of the score –
factors that have nothing to do with the attribute being
measured but nevertheless affect the score
c. X = T-e
d. The True score can never be known best we can do is state that
the true score lies within a given interval
e. Reliability always implies a certain amount of error
iii. SOURCES OF MEASUREMENT ERROR
1. Unsystematic measurement error (unpredictable and inconsistent)
a. Item Selection
b. Test Administration
c. Test Scoring
2. Systematic measurement error (consistent and predictable directional
effect – will cause score to either be higher or lower)
a. Test is measuring something other than or in addition to what
was intended.
i. Minimized by proper development procedures
ii. It is difficult to assess any trait/quality/characteristic in
isolation
b. X = T + [eu + es]
3. MEASUREMENT ERROR AND RELIABILITY
a. Refers to the same thing “How consistent are the test scores
over time”
iv. THE RELIABILITY COEFFICIENT
1. Reliability coefficient = correlation coefficient
2. Reliability coefficient gives us the ratio:
a. True score variance : Total variance (true score variance + error
variance) R=ΦT2/ΦX2
b. Recall ΦX2= ΦT2+Φe2 Total Var =True Var + Error Variance
c. Therefore Reliability R= ΦT2/ ΦT2+Φe2
d. Reliability coefficient ranges from 0.00 to 1.00
(completely unreliable to fully reliable)
The higher the denominator value (due to Φe2 (error variance))
the lower the result (less reliable)
e. A Reliability coefficient of 0.80 indicates that 80% of variance is
due to True variance and 20% is due to error variance
3. This measure of reliability ONLY APPLIES when the test is administered
under standard conditions, to a person who is similar to the normative
sample.
v. METHODS FOR ESTIMATING RELIABILITY
1. Measures of Temporal Stability
a. Test-retest Reliability
 i. Administering the test to the same heterogeneous
group of subjects on two separate occasions
ii. Reliability coefficient is simply the correlation between
the scores obtained by the same person on each test
iii. This is a measure of “Temporal stability” (stability over
time)
iv. Sources of error variance: mood, weather, random day-
to-day changes
v. To be acceptable coefficient not less than 0.80
vi. Time interval will be specified, generally not more than
6 months
vii. Useful in discounting day-to-day fluctuations
viii. PROBLEMS: practice effect and carryover
(remembering lists from first test) will lead to spuriously
low reliability
b. Alternate-forms Reliability
i. Essentially parallel or equivalent forms of the test are
produced – similar item content and difficulty
ii. Administer both forms to the same group (either
immediately or on separate occasions)
iii. Reliability coefficient is correlation between the scores
obtained for each form of the test
iv. ADDITIONAL error variance because of difference in test
items (CONTENT) – it is difficult to establish a parallel
form of test
v. Does not eliminate practice-effect or carryover.
2. Measures of Internal Homogeneity/consistency of a Test
These next measures determine a test’s reliability indirectly by using a
single test. The assumption is if the test has a high degree of internal
consistency it will also show stability on a test-retest approach.
a. Split-half Reliability
i. Single administration of the test to a single group
ii. AFTER the completion the test is split into two
equivalent halves and the first half then correlated with
the second (each subject has two scores – first half and
second half)
iii. Most usual split is between odd and even number items
iv. (similar idea to alternate-forms done at one sitting)
v. Error-variance identified is CONTENT-SAMPLING cannot
be temporal stability because there was only one test
administration.
 vi. Error-variance needs to be adjusted because we have
only measured reliability for half the test
1. Correct by using Spearman-Brown formula:
r(corrected)=2r(half test)/1+r(half test)
essentially this doubles the length of the test
vii. PROBLEM whichever way the test is split will have a
potential effect on the error variance obtained.
b. Coefficient alpha reliability (Cronbach’s coefficient alpha)
i. This reliability value is the mean of all possible split-half
coefficients – the degree to which all items correlate
with one another
ii. If using Cronbach’s coefficient alpha must be
supplemented by test-retest method
c. Kuder-Richardson estimate of reliability (KR-20)
i. As with above is coefficient is the mean from all
different splittings – but this formula only used where
score is dichotomous (score either 0 or 1 (or other
yes/no equivalent rating))
3. Inter-scorer reliability
a. The judgement of the scorer may differ from one test to
another reducing reliability of the test
b. PROCEDURE: random sample of completed tests is given to two
or more scorers. The scores are then correlated and an inter-
scorer reliability coefficient obtained
vi. SPECIAL CIRCUMSTANCES IN ESTIMATION OF RELIABILITY
1. Characteristics are inherently unstable
a. Emotional response for instance fluctuates in response to many
internal and external factors – to get a reliability measure would
be very difficult
2. Speed and Power Tests
a. Invariably give overly high reliability on split-half
i. i.e. if subject does 10 items out of 20 in the time limit
almost all 10 will invariably be correct giving a high
odd/even correlation
b. Better to use test-retest
3. Restriction of Range
a. Nature of the group on which the reliability is measured
b. If homogenous group is used reliability coefficient will be higher
than if a representative heterogeneous group was used
4. Criterion-referenced tests (mastery assessment)
a. These tests measure the degree to which a person has
mastered a particular skill
 b. We are not interested in test-retest correlation but rather
whether we would find the same classification (pass/fail) on a
second testing occasion
c. Use an alternate-forms method to find percentage of persons
for whom the same decision (pass/fail) is reached on both
testing occasions.
vii. INTERPRETING THE RELIABILITY COEFFICIENTS
1. Total error variance
a. E.g. Error variance is 0.80
therefore 80% true variance 20% error variance
this 20% might be made up:
10% sampling error, 8% time related, 2% inter-scorer
2. Acceptable level of reliability
a. Standardised tests: 0.85 or higher
b. Group tests may be acceptable as low as 0.65
c. In practice a test even with 0.70 can be useful
viii. STANDARD ERROR OF MEASUREMENT (SEM)
1. Used to interpret reliability for INDIVIDUAL test scores
2. Knowing
a. Standard Deviation (SD) of a test derived from the normative
sample and Reliability coefficient r then:
SEM=SD √(1-r)
b. E.g. SEM = 15√(1-0.97) = 2.6
Note: as reliability decreases SEM increases:
SEM = 15√(1-0.89) = 5.0
ix. Now 2 SD gives 95% probability (1 SD 68%) for normal distributions
Example test has Mean of 50 SD 10 test-retest reliability 0.8
To express an Individual’s test score of 60:
SEM = 10√(1-0.8) = 4.5 X 2 (for 2 SD) = 9
With 95% certainty subject obtained 60 +/-9 or
Subject range of score at 95% confidence interval is between 51-69
d. VALIDITY
Validity concerns what the test measures and how well it does so
Reliability is a NECESSARY PRECONDITION for validity
i. CONTENT VALIDITY/CONTENT DESCRIPTION PROCEDURES
1. By choosing appropriate items on the basis of specifications provided by
a panel of experts in the field in question – non statistical type of
validity
2. This type of validity is built into the test from the outset
3. Test manual should specify details about who comprised the panel and
what their qualifications were
4. APPROPRIATE FOR:
 a. Educational and occupational achievement tests where domain
of behaviour is well defined
b. Employee selection and classification
c. NOT for aptitude and personality tests
ii. FACE VALIDITY
1. Concept has no technical significance
2. Refers to what a test “appears” to measure
3. Face validity may be improved by wording items in relevance to the
context i.e. For machine operators a mathematical reasoning test could
use terms familiar to a machine operator rather than in terms of “apples
and oranges”
iii. CRITERION-RELATED VALIDITY/CRITERION-PREDICTION PROCEDURES
Refers to a test’s ability to estimate/predict the test-takers performance on
some other independent measure (the criterion)
1. Concurrent validity
a. i.e. where test measures depression and the criterion measure
is diagnosis by a psychiatrist
b. Test can be used as a “short cut” screening procedure
2. Predictive validity
a. E.g. university marks predicted from a university entrance exam
b. The scores of the test itself are correlated against the criterion
giving a correlation coefficient of the criterion: r(correlation)
c. The validity coefficient equation is then:
r(validity coefficient) = √r(reliability of test ) r(correlation)
d. If a test is used for PREDICtion IT IS NECESSARY TO HAVE
COMPUTED A regression equation – best fitting straight line
with which to estimate the criterion with the test score
EQUATION IS: y=bx +a
3. The Criterion
a. Academic achievement
b. Attainment of awards
c. Performance in specialized training
d. Actual job performance
e. Contrasted groups
f. Psychiatric diagnosis
g. Ratings
4. The validity coefficient is constrained by the reliability of both the test
and the criterion so can never be a perfect 10 this is why the validity
coefficient is always presented as being “less than or equal to” it’s
value.
5. Criterion contamination – eg selection board have knowledge of
subjects test results – may influence their decision
 iv. THESTANDARD ERROR OF THE ESTIMATE
1. (I did not go through this section)
v. CONSTRUCT VALIDITY/CONSTRUCT IDENTIFICATION PROCEDURES
1. Seven methods for determining construct validity
a. Test homogeneity
i. Making sure the scores for each item correlate with the
total score achieved on the test
b. Appropriate developmental changes (age differentiation)
i. Older children show more progress than younger
c. Theory-consistent group difference
i. Hypothesized against theory
d. Experimental interventions (Theory-consistent intervention
effects)
i. Pre-test and post-test
e. Convergent and discriminant validation
i. Correlates with other variables or tests which measure
the same construct
f. Factor analysis
i. Statistical technique
g. Correlations with other tests
i. Correlation between new test and earlier tests
vi. INTERPRETING THE VALIDITY COEFFICIENT
1. The validity coefficient is actually a Pearson’s correlation coefficient – so
the relationship between the two variables (the criterion and the
predictor variable) must have a linear relationship
2. FACTORS AFFECTING THE VALIDITY COEFFICIENT:
a. The nature of the group – in relation to the norm
b. Heterogeneity of the sample
c. Reliability of the test
d. Criterion-contamination
e. Pre-selection
e. TEST CONSTRUCTION/DEVELOPMENT
i. SIX STEPS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF A TEST MEASURE
1. Planning Phase
a. Purpose/aim
b. Content
i. The construct to be measured must be operationally
defined
1. Through Rational method –
a. literature study of main theoretical
viewpoints
 b. Breaking up construct into several
dimensions and operationalising each
dimension in concrete measureable
terms
2. Criterion-Keying method
a. Items discriminate between different
groups (high/low risk)
c. Format and number of each type
i. Homogenous or heterogeneous – same or varied
content
ii. Use table of specifications
iii. Decide on range of item difficulty
1. Difficulty shows differences between subjects
2. Ceiling effect – when many subjects obtain a
perfect score and cannot be separated
3. Floor effect – when many subjects obtain poor
scores and cannot distinguish the lower end
d. Writing the items
i. Must be non-ambiguous
ii. Avoid double negatives
iii. Not more than one theme to an item
iv. Content must be appropriate for purpose
e. Reviewing the items
i. Try on a small sample of people and review
2. Assembling the Measure and Pre-Testing it
a. Arranging the items
b. Finalizing the length
c. Answer protocols
i. Test booklet or separate sheets
d. Develop the administration instruction
e. Pre-testing
i. Sample of 400-500 representative people
3. Item Analysis
a. Determining item difficulty
i. Difficulty index – for each item % of people getting it
correct
ii. Revise or ditch items at either end of difficulty scale
iii. Index should range 0.3 – 0.7 (30-70% getting it correct)
b. Determining discriminating power of an item
c. Preliminary investigation into item bias
d. Select items for final version
4. Administering the Final Version to the Standardisation Sample
 a. Refine instructions for administration and scoring procedures
b. Administer the final version
5. Technical Evaluation and Establishing Norms/Standardising the Test
a. Compute reliability and validity coefficients
i. Choose type of coefficient best suited for the test
ii. (refer earlier section on reliability and validity)
b. If norm-referenced
i. Establish norms from results of standardisation sample
(refer earlier section for types of norm scales)
c. Criterion-related validity (cross-validation)
i. Before publishing the test manual more independence
evidence of criterion-related validity is obtained
ii. Use regression equation from standardisation sample
and apply it to another new group to determine
whether the predictive validity holds true
iii. Predictive validity tends to be less accurate in the new
group due to “validity shrinkage”
6. Compile the Manual
a. Purpose of the test
b. Practical information – length, abilities required to conduct
c. Administration
d. Scoring
e. Show phases of test development
f. Validity and reliability
g. Item bias
h. Norms
i. Cut-off scores if appropriate
7. Submit the Test for Classification
a. Professional Board for Psychometrics Committee
b. Selection will restrict its use to registered psychologists
8. Publishing and Marketing the Test/Measure
a. Marketing must not make any false claims
b. If test is classified do not include any actual examples or they
may find their way into the popular media and invalidate your
test.
c. Restrict who the test is marketed to
9. Ongoing Revision and refinement of the Test
a. Responsibility of developer to ensure tests are developed using
rigorous methodology and with information about reliability
and validity
b. Responsibility of the PSYCHOLOGIST to ensure that the
information given about the test is carefully evaluated before
using it and that it is appropriate (including item bias issues) and
current for his use
3. (03) CROSS-CULTURAL APPLICATION OF PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT MEASURES
a. FOCUS
i. Issues of test bias and test fairness
ii. Fair use of assessment measures
iii. Factors responsible for differences in test performance in a multicultural
context
iv. Use recommended reading and assignment feedback
b. DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN PSYCHOLOGICAL MEASURES: SOUTH AFRICAN
PERSPECTIVE
i. Context is characterised by unequal distribution of resources along racial lines
ii. Early measures standardised for whites only
iii. Results of intelligence tests used as evidence for difference between races and
maintaining the idea of white superiority
iv. “differences in original ability” (Fick -1929)
v. No account taken of cultural, economic and education factors on test
performance
vi. No investigation of test-bias
vii. Nationalist Government took power in 1948
1. Measures developed along cultural; and racial lines
2. Increasingly similar but separate measures
3. Various groups did not compete with each other on the job market
4. Most measures were for whites
viii. As discriminatory laws repealed in 1980-90’s
1. Tests developed for use by more than one racial group or norms for
other groups were compiled on pre-existing tests
2. Tests developed and normed for whites were just used on other groups
as well with no investigation into suitability.
3. First study of bias – Owen 1986 – recommended training in tasks being
measured for environmentally disadvantaged subjects
ix. Since 1994 additional criticism from ANC government as result of trying to
redress inequalities in WORK and EDUCATION contexts
1. Labour Relations Act against discriminatory practices now forbids
industrial testing unless tests can be shown to be:
a. Valid and reliable
b. Applicable fairly to ALL employees without bias
2. PROBLEM is that tests have not been scientifically investigated for bias
and have not been cross-culturally validated in SA
x. Assessment continues to be influenced by the political and legislative context
1. Developments come as result of criticism
2. Continues to play a useful role in decision-making – as long as applied in
an ethical and fair way
 3. NOTE: Assessment makes use of a variety of information and test results
are only just one source.
c. FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR DIFFERENCES IN TEST PERFORMANCE IN A MULTI-
CULTURAL CONTEXT
i. Importance of the Social context
On the importance of taking into account other information about the subject
when interpreting the results of testing.
1. Schooling
a. Most measures indirectly measure what you have learned
through formal education.
b. Education or quality of education thus becomes a source of
potential bias in interpreting results
2. Language
a. Takes longer to process information in a second language
b. Subtle aspects can be missed
c. Subject may be educated in different language to his home
language
3. Culture
a. Influences the way we learn, think and behave
b. Influences the meaning given to tests
c. Content of test mirrors the culture of the people who designed
it
d. Different levels of acculturation into dominant culture.
4. Environment
a. ‘Distal factors’ – broader environment
i. SES
1. Facilities available to child (schools, libraries,
games, clinics)
2. Poverty (disabilities, child abuse, poor health,
lack of stimulation)
ii. Urbanisation
1. Exposure to richer and more stimulating
environment
b. ‘Proximal factors’ – immediate environment
i. Home environment
1. Parental responsively
2. Stimulating environment
3. Household structure - crowding
5. Test-wiseness
a. Prior experience with testing situations
b. Difficulty understanding the examiners instructions
 c. Unease over formality and not being able to clarify with
assessor
d. Not used to working fast and briefly
e. Not used to intense concentration
ii. TEST BIAS
(Tests discriminate against persons from non-Western backgrounds, lower SES.
Test bias controversy originated in the finding that African Americans score on
average a SD below white Americans on standardised IQ tests. It is suggested
this difference is due to test bias rather than a meaningful difference)

Test bias refers to an objective statistical criteria – a test will be called biased if
it is differentially valid for different subgroups.
1. Bias in content validity (content bias)[SCORE COMPARABILITY]
a. If relatively more difficult for members of one group than
another due to:
i. Language
ii. Culture
iii. Wording
2. Bias in predictive or criterion-related validity [PREDICTIVE
COMPARABILITY]
a. Regression line is used to predict future score on a criterion
(first year University marks on basis of scholastic aptitude test)
b. Bias is indicated when the scores of the two groups do not
cluster around the same regression line but cluster around two
separate regression lines
3. Bias in construct validity [CONSTRUCT COMPARABILITY]
a. Where a test measures different constructs for different
subgroups or the same construct but with differing levels of
accuracy
b. Tested for by checking rank order of difficulties within the test
for each subgroup – rank orders should be the same or highly
similar (i.e. if one group found a particular item hardest the
other group should as well)
iii. TEST FAIRNESS
Reflects the judge’s subjective philosophy and values – not a statistical concept.
A test may be unbiased but still applied in an unfair manner.
1. Fair Selection Models
a. The regression model
i. If regression equation for two groups is different – use
separate equations for each group – the test is
considered fair if the number of people selected
 compared with the number of people selected and
successful is the same for both groups.
b. The quota model
i. Fairness = proportional representation
ii. If test subjects are 50% male 50% female then subjects
selected should have same proportion
c. The equal risk model
i. Cutoff point establishes selection
d. The constant ration model
i. Selection is made according to the same % success per
group i.e. 50% of A successful & 80% B successful then
selection is 50/130 of A and 80/130 of B
ii. In this way even those from the group that tend to do
worse will get selected
e. The conditional probability model
i. Members of both groups who obtains a satisfactory
score has equal chance of being selected regardless of
group membership i.e. 50% from A and 50% from B
f. PROBLEM with these models is there is no rationale for
choosing between them – it is an issue of philosophical position
or values
2. Value positions underlying the models
a. Unqualified individualism
i. Always choose the BEST candidate - highest score of
predicted performance even if this is related to his
group membership. Merit based approach
b. Quotas
i. Select according to local demographic - if 90% locals are
group A then select 80% from top A scorers then 20%
from top B scorers.
ii. Those chosen are not necessarily the best (or even
anywhere near the best)
c. Qualified individualism
i. Use a common regression equation (even though two
separate equations are indicated) then as with
unqualified individualism select the top predicted
performers
ii. This method tends to over- predict on the lower
performing group resulting in more of this group being
selected.
d. CROSS-CULTURAL TEST ADAPTATION AND TRANSLATION

i. Introduction
1. Test translation = converting from one language to another
Test adaption = making a measure more applicable to other contexts
Terms are however used interchangeably.
2. Cheaper and easier to adapt an existing test than to formulate a new
one.
ii. Considerations when adapting measures
1. Administration of the test
a. Communication problems between subject and tester
b. Tester must be familiar with language and culture of the subject
c. Have administration skills and experience with psychometric
testing
2. Item format
a. Multiple choice/true-false/essay – may not be familiar with
format
b. Use balance of different items and include practice items
3. Time limits
a. Use tasks that have no speed requirement when assessing non-
Westerners
iii. Designs for adapting tests
1. Equivalence – Equivalent persons (same ability levels) but from different
cultural groups should get same or similar scores on their equivalent
versions of the test
2. Judgmental designs for testing equivalence
a. Forward-translation designs
i. Source version is translated into target language
ii. Target language sample group complete the translated
test
iii. Experts then question sample group about their
responses to see if test-items have been adequately
understood in the same way the source intended.
iv. ADVANTAGE: test-takers are providing feedback
v. DISADVANTAGE: subjective process
vi. A COMMON ADAPTION is to use bilingual experts to
compare the two versions
1. Bilinguals may not think in same way as
monolinguals
 2. Items may be considered similar based on their
prior knowledge but may not be similar for the
subject with less experience.
b. Back-translation designs
i. Original version is translated to target version
ii. Second set of translators translate target version back
to original language
iii. Original language monolingual experts then compare
the two original and back translated versions
iv. Process can be repeated several times
v. ADVANTAGE: Only concepts that have same meaning in
both cultures will survive
vi. DISADVANTAGE: Evaluation of equivalence is only
conducted in the original language and it is possible for
errors made in first translation to get back translated
corrected so that the error in the translated version
goes undetected.
c. After either of above methods a bilingual review committee
should evaluate the final product
3. Statistical designs for testing equivalence
a. Based on bilingual test-takers
i. Given both versions and the scores compared
ii. Can divide group and each half given one version of the
test
b. Based on monolingual subjects (source and target)
i. Matched groups of monolinguals in each language
c. Based on monolingual subjects (source only)
i. Monolinguals in source language take both the original
and back translated versions
ii. Does not provide any data about the actual translated
version
iv. Bias analysis and differential item functioning
1. Differential item functioning (DIF)
a. Two matched groups from different cultural/language groups
take the test
b. An item shows DIF if individuals having same ability but from
different groups do not have same probability of getting the
item correct
c. Remove items with DIF to increase test’s reliability and validity
and results will be more comparable across different groups
2. Statistical methods for detecting DIF
a. Mantel-Haenzel Procedure
 b. Item Response Theory
e. FAIR AND ETHICAL ASSESSMENT PRACTICES
i. What Is Fair And Ethical Assessment?
ii. Ethical Assessment Procedures
1. Power relationship
a. Imbalance of power
b. Result can have enormous impact
2. Responsibilities of the tester
a. Inform subject of their rights, purpose of test, confidentiality,
obtain consent, option of refusal and what consequences will
be.
b. Treat subject politely respectfully and impartially
c. Administer measure properly
d. Score correctly and impartially
3. Rights of the test-taker – as above
4. Questions to ask before using a test
a. Will it server the purpose?
b. Possible side effects?
c. Are there alternative options?
5. Responsibilities of the test-takers
a. Follow instructions carefully
b. Treat tester with courtesy and respect
c. Present their test performance honestly
iii. Standard ethical issues
1. Best interests of the client
2. Confidentiality – duty to advise
3. Expertise of the test user
4. Informed consent
5. Standard of test
a. Appropriate and not obsolete
6. Responsible report writing
a. Within limitations of one’s expertise
b. Indicate test result is only one aspect
7. Communicating the test results
8. Consider individual differences
a. To eliminate bias due to age, race, gender or disability
9. Consider cultural and linguistic differences and test-wiseness
4. (04) DEVELOPMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN
a. FOCUS
i. Work through activities in Section C
ii. View each activity as a potential question
iii. Do NOT need detailed knowledge of the contents of measures described in
study material
b. RATIONALE FOR TESTING YOUNG CHILDREN
i. Why assess developmental changes?
1. To identify difficulties including motor and speech difficulties as EARLY
as possible – the sooner identified the sooner intervention can be
implemented.
2. Following functions are assessed:
(These factors are not mutually exclusive as socially and emotionally
deprived kids tend to show cognitive delays)
a. Physical
b. Cognitive
c. Social
d. Emotional
3. Assessment even if not apparently necessary may be the first step in
ensuring the optimal development of the child’s potential.
4. Since 1970’s Internationally recognised that the identification of
children with difficulties should take place as early as possible
ii. Types of developmental measures
1. SCREENING
a. Brief formal evaluation of developmental skills
b. Administered by non-specialists (parents, educators, nurses
who have been trained to use the tests)
c. Cost effective
d. Categorise performance rather than provide numerical score.
e. Often administered to large groups simultaneously
2. DIAGNOSTIC
a. Comprehensive diagnostic measures provide numerical scores
or age equivalents for overall performance and for each area
assessed.
b. Performed by trained professionals.
c. Typically used after it has been established that a child is at-risk.
d. Used to identify existence, nature and severity of the problem
a.
c. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TESTS FOR INFANTS AND TESTS FOR PRESCHOOLERS
i. Age-group specific testing
1. Best example of chronological age affecting test performance is infant
and pre-school tests – content of test differs according to age-range.
 2. Birth- 2 ½ yrs (INFANT) focus on sensory and motor development
(hearing, producing sounds, manipulating objects, muscular and posture
control) – development at this age is largely sensory-motor
3. 2 ½ -6yrs (PRE_SCHOOL) focus is on verbal and conceptual abilities –
development is verbal and symbolic.
4. Fits with Piaget’s theory of cognitive development
5. Ratio between mental age and chronological age is fairly constant up to
16yrs at which point mental age tends to level off.
ii. EXAMPLES OF SCREENING TESTS
1. Denver Developmental Screening Test (Denver II) [INFANT?]
a. 1mth-6yrs; based on parent reports, observation and
examination
b. 3 Categories: Abnormal-Questionable-Normal
c. Variety of domains:
i. Gross & fine motor
ii. Language
iii. Personal-social
d. Popular worldwide – no SA norms
e. High reliability and validity
f. Performs well in correctly identifying at-risk kids but does yield
false positives (shows normal as at-risk)
2. Vineland Adaptive Behavioural Scales (Vineland II)
a. Personal and social competence; birth-adult
b. Does not require direct administration – someone familiar with
abilities and behaviour
c. Attractive for use with individuals with special needs (hearing
impaired)
3. Draw-a-Person Test
a. 5-16yrs
b. Intellectual ability can be estimated from a human figure
drawing
iii. EDUCATIONALLY FOCUSSED SCREENING MEASURES
1. SCHOOL –READINESS EVALUATION BY TRAINED TESTERS (SETT)
a. Administration provides context similar to a classroom
b. Evaluates developments of:
i. Language and general intellectual
ii. Physical and motor
iii. Emotional-social
2. SCHOOL-ENTRY GROUP SCREENING MEASURE (SGSM)
a. Non verbal cognitive screening test designed for group
situations for ages 5-9yrs
 b. Fairly accurate predictor of at-risk kids for later scholastic
difficulties
iv. EXAMPLES OF DIAGNOTIC TESTS ADAPTED FOR USE IN SA
1. Griffiths Scales of Mental Development
a. Birth – 8yrs
b. 6 Scales – age equivalent given for each scale. Combining scores
gives General Quotient (global score)
i. Locomotor
ii. Personal-social
iii. Hearing and speech
iv. Eye and hand coordination
v. Performance
vi. Practical reasoning – good indication of child’s ability to
benefit from formal schooling.
c. Differences in scores for each scale shows up child’s strong and
weak points.
2. Bayley Scales (Bayley II) [INFANTS]
a. 1mth – 3 ½ yrs; widely used and standardised
b. 3 Scales:
i. Mental – sensory discrimination
ii. Motor – fine-motor and balance
iii. Behaviour – emotional tone
c. Does not give information on adaptive ability
3. McCarthy Scales of Children’s Abilities [PRESCHOOL]
a. 3 ½ - 8 ½ yrs
b. Uses tasks that look like games and use toy like material which
kids tend to enjoy
c. Useful for kids from different cultural and SES groups
d. Adapted for use in SA
e. 18 Tests groups into 5 scales. Overall measure derived by
combining scores on first 3 scales.
i. Verbal
ii. Performance
iii. Quantitative
iv. Motor
v. Memory
4. Junior South African Individual Scales JSAIS [PRESCHOOL]
a. Standardised for 3 – 7 yrs11mths English & Afrikaans with
separate norms for Coloured and Indian
b. Aims to measure general factor ‘g’
c. Range of mental abilities associated with effective functioning
at school
 d. 22 Subtests, 12 of which used to compute Global IQ score
e. Verbal IQ and performance IQ can be computed as well as
Memory and Numerical scale scores
f. Some tests are speeded, some have time limits others no time
limit.
g. Reliability coefficients are high
h. Scores
i. 90-109 = average
ii. 80-89 = low
iii. 70-79 = borderline
iv. <70 = cognitively handicapped
i. NOTE:
i. Strengths and weaknesses may not remain stable over
time
ii. Scores may result from temporary difficulties
iii. SES deprivation has strong effect
iv. NOT to pigeon hole children with specific scores
v. SHORTCOMINGS OF SA DEVELOPMENTAL ASSESSMENT
1. Most tests standardised only for some cultural, SES and language groups
with others (particularly black preschoolers) excluded
2. Tests only standardised for some age-groups
3. Because of above SA research is fragmented
4. Socio-emotional functioning is not always included in the tests which
limits their ability to give a holistic picture.

d. PREDICTIVE VALIDITY OF INFANT AND PRESCHOOL MEASURES

i. INFANT : Test scores obtained in first 2 years have very low predictive validity
ii. PRESCHOOL: By 5yrs correlations are high. Predictive validity tends to increase
gradually from 18mths-4yrs
iii. Infant functioning is qualitatively different from later functioning sensorimotor
versus verbal and representational. Acquisition of symbolic and linguistic tend
to happen at 18mths = age at which predictive ability become more valid (start
measuring verbal and symbolic abilities)
iv. Process is not as continuous and linear might be assumed – Piaget sees
development as discontinuous involving qualitative and abrupt changes.
v. Development is influenced by social and environmental factors
vi. Quality of interaction between infant and caregiver
vii. Before 18mths development is primarily biological after 18mths environmental
factors become more pronounced.
viii. Childs abilities are ‘plastic’ can be improved upon adequate environment
ix. Predictive validity for children who get VERY LOW scores is however high (for at-
risk and high-risk infants) - because of reduced capacity in severly impaired
 infants unlikely to be influenced by environmental factors which would affect a
normal child’s development.
x. Measures based on Information Processing techniques (recognition, memory
and attentiveness) have a much greater predictive value than traditional
measures.
e. PRINCIPLES OF EARLY CHILDHOOD ASSESSMENT
i. TRADITIONAL MODEL
1. Classify deficits, disabilities or pathologies
2. Child in isolation
3. Standardised and formalized settings – controlled
4. E.g. Bayley Scales of Infant development (BSID II)
ii. DEVELOPMENTAL ASSESSMENT |
Common thread to these principles is that the test score is only one piece of
information about the child’s functioning.
1. Based on an integrated developmental model emphasizes
interdependence of development
a. Functional capabilities in a variety of contexts
b. After integrated picture has emerged then focus on specific
areas of development
2. Multiple sources of information
a. Assessment team, parent
3. Follow a particular sequence
a. Reliable working relationship with significant people in child’s
life
b. Mutual trust and respect is necessary
c. Sensitive listening skills
d. Open to cultural backgrounds – theirs/yours
4. Child’s relationship and interaction with most trusted caregiver is
cornerstone of child’s ability to organize and respond to their world
a. Observe interaction
5. Understand typical development sequence
a. View child with developmental delays as not yet functioning as
expected in given areas rather than missing a milestone.
6. Emphasise attention on child’s level and pattern of organizing
experience – their ability to learn about the world and participate in it.
7. Identify current competencies and strengths
a. These form anchors from which it is possible to learn about
child’s area of difficulty
8. Assessment is a collaborative process
a. Not to promote own view, but to view child multidimensionally
9. Assessment is always first step in a potential intervention process
 10. Reassessment should occur in context of day-to-day family or
intervention activities.
a. Essential in determining what to do next
f. FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE PROCESS AND OUTCOME OF THE ASSESSMENT
i. The child
1. Biological – medical history, physical impairments, transient physical
conditions, medication.
2. Intrapsychic – anxiety, upset, traumatic experience, psychopathological
conditions may mask true level of functioning
3. Age & developmental status –difficulties because of age related
behaviours
ii. The social context – SES, parent-child relationship, home-environment,
schooling, language & culture
iii. The test – most appropriate is one standardised for the same population as the
child, a variety of tests should be used to provide as much information as
possible
iv. The examination situation – examiners should be experienced with working
with children because of the special demands: limited ability to concentrate,
easily distracted, frequent movement, need for varying stimulation, high level of
activity
g. ETHICAL PRINCIPLES
i. Assessment is generally requested by an adult and as such the child has little to
say in the matter therefore VERY important for examiner to consider needs and
rights of child and act in an ethically acceptable manner
ii. Qualification to conduct test
iii. Confidentiality
iv. Fairness of test
1. Tests appropriate for unimpaired children may not be fair for
handicapped children
2. Same for Westernised children and non-Western as they relate to skills
encouraged by Westernised urban society.
v. Failure to take into account other factors that influence test performance –
language difficulties, emotional state, anxiety
vi. Failure to adhere to recommendations for practical aspects of assessment
vii. Maintain ethical standards of conduct in administration, scoring, interpretation
and feedback
5. (05) ASSESSMENT OF COGNITIVE FUNCTIONING WITH PSYCHOLOGICAL MEASURES
a. FOCUS
i. Understand difference between main theoretical approaches to intelligence
ii. Value of these approaches for SA context
b. UNDERSTAND
i. Different theoretical approaches to intelligence
ii. How different approaches influence measurement of cognitive functioning
iii. How different types of tests are used to measure cognitive functioning
iv. Relevance of these tests to specific contexts (i.e. SA job context)
c. WHAT IS INTELLIGENCE
i. No agreement about the correct definition of intelligence/cognitive functioning
ii. Biological Intelligence
1. Measuring the functioning of the brain through objective measures –
how long it takes to respond to a stimulus
iii. Psychometric Intelligence
1. Use of standardised psychological tests
2. Intelligence defined as “whatever the tests measure”
iv. Contextual Intelligence
1. Defined in terms of adaptive behaviour specific to the context in which
it is used.
d. THEORETICAL APPROACHES TO INTELLIGENCE
i. PSYCHOMETRIC APPROACH
1. INTRODUCTION
a. Intelligence is a latent (not directly observable trait) – the
approaches are used to support or adapt theories about the
structure/nature of intelligence.
b. All psychometric approaches based on correlational or
differential
c. Focus is on measurement of individual differences in
psychological characteristics
d. Primary methods are statistical analysis.
e. Score is said to reflect the person’s general intellectual ability
f. Deviation IQ scores are standardised scores which allow
comparison with peers of same and other age groups thee
mean IQ score is 100 with SD of 15, subtests mean is 10 with SD
of 3.
g. Score is reflection not only of intellectual ability BUT ALSO of
your socio-environmental and emotional contexts, educational,
language and cultural backgrounds
h. Test results ARE NOT innate inherent and unchanging
i. NOTE ALSO Standard Error of Measurement (SEM) in
“classifying” a person
2. GALTON-CATTELL APPROACH
a. First to give concept of intelligence scientific attention
b. Postulated a “general mental ability” that could be measured
c. Intelligence is the sum of all sensory functions – the more
perceptive your senses are to differences the larger the field on
which your judgement and intellect can act > the more
intelligent you are.
d. Intelligence thus derives from the speed and refinement of our
sensory responses.
e. PROBLEMS
i. No high correlation among the various tests
ii. Scores did not correlate with other general indicators of
intelligence (ratings by teachers)
iii. Tests were impractical
3. BINET’S APPROACH
a. Commissioned by French government to develop way to
identify mentally retarded children so that specialized education
could be provided.
b. Intelligence involves “higher mental processes” such as
judgement and reasoning
c. These processes should increase as child ages – tests were
grouped according to the age at which most kids respond
correctly to that item.
d. SCORES were given in terms of the age of kids whose
performance the subject equals = mental age level
e. Adapted for use in USA as STANFORD-BINET INTELLIGENCE TEST
f. IQ = (mental age/chronological age)X100
4. SPEARMAN’S 2-FACTOR APPROACH
a. Spearman used (originated) technique of factor analysis which
analyses score of different tests and identifies aspects they have
in common.
b. Concluded:
i. A pervasive general factor (g) common to all items
(most influential)
ii. Specific factor (s) unique to particular item
iii. Individual differences in g will manifest in degrees of
ability to carry out cognitive functions therefore to
measure intelligence use those mental tests that are
highly saturated with g.
c. Actual content of test item is not essential the essential
elements are:
 i. Eduction – bringing out of relationships, assesses our
ability to think, reason and see relationships/analogies
5. MULTIPLE FACTOR THEORIES
a. Based on results of factor analysis which indicate that not all
commonalities could be explained by g.
b. Contributed the idea that intelligence is not a single unitary
ability but rather a composite of many components of ability
each important in different contexts.
c. THURSTONE - PMA’s
i. Defines 7 group factors known as PRIMARY MENTAL
ABILITIES (PMA’s)
1. Verbal comprehension
2. Word fluency
3. Arithmetic computation
4. Spatial ability
5. Associative memory
6. Perceptual speed
7. Reasoning
ii. Did prove to be some correlation (second order factors)
between these and he accepted Spearman’s g as one of
these factors.
d. GUILFORD – STRUCTURE OF INTELLECT MODEL
i. Describes and classifies all intellectual abilities along 3
basic dimensions:
1. OPERATIONS – type of mental operation
performed (5 types)
2. CONTENTS – kind of information (4 types)
3. PRODUCTS - form in which the information
must be conceptualized (6 types)
4. Total of 120 different mental abilities –
becomes unwieldy
5. Advantages:
a. identifying many new abilities, i.e.
social intelligence
b. There are specific instances when it is
useful to have measurement of very
specific abilities
c. Persons who have same value for g may
differ in specific patterns of their
abilities – focus on specific patterns is
useful for occupational and educational
selection.
6. HIERARCHICAL THEORIES
a. Performing factor analysis on the 120 factors identifies “higher-
order” factors
b. In the hierarchical theory the factors are layered with more
general at top and more specific at the bottom.
c. VERNON – Verbal-educational & practical-mechanical
i. Saw g a factor at top (most general component)
ii. Followed by :
1. Verbal-educational (v:ed)
2. Practical-mechanical-spatial-physical (k:m)
iii. At next level some more minor-group factors
resembling PMA’s
iv. At bottom are the “specific factors” (similar to
Spearma’s s)
d. CATTELL – fluid and crystallised
i. Splits Spearman’s ‘g’ into two second order factors:
1. Fluid intelligence ‘gf’ mostly non-verbal and
relatively culture free (learning ability)
2. Crystallised intelligence ‘gc’ representing
already learned and used for tasks that are
habitual (vocabulary, arithmetic) – highly
culturally dependent.
3. Separate but highly correlated (gf & gc) – if you
are high in one you are likely to be high in the
other.
4. Note similarity to Vernon’s v:ed & k:m
7. MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
a. GARDNER
i. Independent in the sense that brain damage might
impair one but not others i.e autistic kids with special
skills may have one preserved.
ii. Proposed 7 independent intelligences:
1. Linguistic (languages)
2. Logical-mathematic (mathematician)
3. Spatial (architect)
4. Musical (musician)
5. Bodily-kinesthetic (athlete/dancers)
6. Interpersonal (awareness of others)
7. Intrapersonal (awareness of self)
b. STERNBERG’S TRIARCHIC THEORY
i. COMPONENTIAL
1. Internal mental mechanisms/abilities
 a. Metacomponents: executive processes
(direct all other aspects of intelligence)
b. Performance components: actually
used to solve the problem = short term
memory, logical reasoning. Typically
measured by IQ tests
c. Knowledge-acquisition: processes used
to learn new skills
ii. EXPERIENTIAL
1. Ability to deal with new tasks and ability to
automate tasks encountered repeatedly – not
typically measured in other tests of intelligence
iii. CONTEXTUAL
1. Adaptation – to different contexts
2. Selection – find suitable context for own skills
3. Shaping – changing context to better fit own
needs.
iv. Most comprehensive model
v. Combines information-processing approach with
psychometric approach
vi. Also added importance of experience and socio-cultural
context.
vii. Pointed out that MANY aspects of intelligence are not
measured by traditional tests – intelligence has too
many components to be measured by any single test
ii. INFORMATION-PROCESSING APPROACH (COGNITIVE PROCESSING)
1. Looks at individual differences in terms of different strategies for
processing information
2. Divide intelligence into:
a. Attentional processes
b. Information processes
c. Planning processes
iii. DYNAMIC ASSESSMENT
1. VYGOTSKY
a. Based on Vygotsky’s work.
b. Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development (ZPD) is the
theoretical base on which dynamic assessment and
measurement of learning potential is based
c. The tester must identify a person’s actual developmental level
at the time of testing and also the potential development level
(the level attainable with some form of help) the difference
 between these two is the ZPD which reflects the person’s ability
to benefit from assistance and learning opportunities.
d. Example: 2 X 10yr olds, both mental age=8yr BUT potentials
A=12yr level, B=9yr level. A has higher ZPD score and will
benefit more from instruction, B is already close to optimal for
himself.
2. Training is incorporated into the test procedure so you evaluate:
a. Current level of cognitive ability
b. Potential future level (measured by subject’s performance
following supervised assistance.
3. TAYLOR’S VERSION – LEARNING POTENTIAL
a. Assesses learning potential rather than prior knowledge (fluid
rather than crystallised intelligence)
b. New learning experiences are incorporated and the ability to
master these new tasks is evaluated.
c. Has been used to measure learning potential (psychometrically
oriented approach) AND to modify cognitive ability as a
cognitive training approach (clinical or enrichment approach).
e. HOW DIFFERENT APPROACHES INFLUENCE MEASUREMENT
i. The approach one adopts to intelligence with influence the types of tests used
to assess it as well as the interpretation of the test scores.
ii. Most intelligence tests in SA are based on the psychometric approach
1. Has advantage of providing indication of both general intellectual ability
and more specific abilities (verbal, performance abilities)
iii. PROBLEM: does not take into account the CONTEXT in which intelligence
develops and functions.
1. Learning potential assessment model does on the other hand attempt
to minimize the impact of socio-economic and educational deprivation
on test results.
2. However tend to include only non-verbal items which give less of a
holistic profile.
iv. STANDARD TESTS tend to tap scholastic learning > those subjects with poor
educational and socioeconomic opportunities will do poorly in such tests and as
a result > will not be selected for further education/employment on the basis of
test results resulting in unfair and inequitable testing which tends to maintain
the status quo.
v. UNIVERSAL CONSTRUCTS: constructing tests that measure universal constructs
(experiences common to all different cultures) precludes the use of verbal
material and any scholastic content leaving the test a poor predictor of future
academic performance.
 vi. WESTERN BASED ASSUMPTION: that intelligence = speed of execution which is
NOT a concept shared by many non-Western subjects. Suggestion is to use
power tests rather than timed tests.
vii. DYNAMIC TESTING OF LEARNING POTENTIAL:
1. is possible solution where used in conjunction with currently available
procedures rather than replacing them.
2. The focus here shifts to identifying UNDEVELOPED potential rather than
present ability and existing skills.
3. Recommends extended practice procedure
4. Bring non-test-wise subjects into familiarity with test environment and
procedures
viii. WAIS-III
1. Scales have a number of simple practice items
a. Suggestion is to give these to the non-test-wise subject before
the test together with guidance
ix. TEST-WISENESS: most fundamental difference between Westernized and non-
Westernized test-subjects is degree of test-wiseness which is also a powerful
moderator of test performance
1. Highly motivated
2. Intense concentration
3. Working fast and accurately
4. Experience with test taking and environment
(06) ASSESSMENT IN AN INDUSTRIAL CONTEXT
f. FOCUS
i. Focus on the role of different types of psychological measures in the selection
process.
g. PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT (Chp 11)
i. Used to assess an individual’s personality
1. To understand the uniqueness of the individual
2. To identify characteristic strengths and weaknesses
3. To identify their way of interacting with the world
ii. Conceptual scheme for personality assessment
1. Three Levels
McAdams: for full understanding most likely necessary to focus on all
three levels. Equal importance but do not slot into each other neatly.
a. Personality traits – emotional tendencies – stable characteristics
b. Motives - what they are doing and want to achieve
c. Integrated identity – life story
Psychologists’ assessments usually focus on levels 1 & 2 as third level
focuses on the way the individual constructs their identity.
2. Structured methods of personality assessment:
a. Standardised questionnaires, inventories, fixed question
interviews
b. Response set problems:
i. Socially desirable response (what I think tester wants)
ii. Acquiescence – tendency to agree rather than disagree
3. Projective assessment techniques
a. Characterised by ambiguous stimuli – individual encouraged to
provide response to the stimuli
b. Scored and interpreted more intuitively
c. Assumed responses reflect something of individuals personality
d. Advantage = difficult to provide socially desirable response
iii. Level 1: (TRAITS & FACTOR ANALYSIS) the assessment of relatively stable
personality traits
i.e. Someone with the trait of aggressiveness will be predisposed to behave in a
certain way.
1. The 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF)
a. One of most widely used tests of normal personality
b. All traits are bipolar
i. Warmth (reserved – outgoing)
ii. Intelligence (concreter thinking – abstract)
iii. Emotional stability ( Reactive-Stable)
iv. Dominance (submissive – assertive)
v. Impulsivity (serious – heedless)
 vi. Conformity (disregards rules –conforms)
vii. Boldness (shy – bold)
viii. Sensitivity (self-reliant – sensitive)
ix. Suspiciousness (trusting – suspicious)
x. Imagination (conventional – unconventional)
xi. Shrewdness (genuine – calculating)
xii. Insecurity (confidence – worrying)
xiii. Radicalism (conservative – liberal)
xiv. Self-sufficiency (group orientated – self sufficient)
xv. Self discipline (impulsive – socially precise)
xvi. Tension (relaxed – driven)
c. Psychologists rely on factor analysis as a summarizing technique
to reduce large groups of variable to smaller groups
d. Five second-order factors which underlie the 16 PF (the primary
factors still offer better predictive ability of future behaviours)
i. Extroversion
ii. Anxiety
iii. Tough-mindedness
iv. Independence
v. Self-Control
e. SA = 16PF 5th Ed for adults who have completed Gr12 or equiv
f. Form E for adults Gr4 – 11 Vocabulary has been simplified to
make it accessible
g. WELL ESTABLISHED AS AN INSTRUMENT USED IN PERSONNEL
SELECTION and in career and academic counseling and
development.
i. Several personality profiles have been developed for
different occupations
1. If personality fits occupation profile it suggests
an occupation/individual worth looking further
into
h. Understand relatively STABLE PATTERNS OF BEHAVIOUR that
may contribute to client difficulties or reveal STRENGTHS that
may be emphasized
i. Evaluated on a sten scale (mean of 5.5 and SD of 2) deviations
of more than 2 stens from the mean are regarded as significant
j. CROSS-CULTURAL APPLICATION: appears biased - has been
demonstrated that the meaning of English words is not clear to
primary English speakers. Constructs measured CANNOT be
generalized unconditionally to different language subgroups
k. SECOND-ORDER factor structure very similar for subgroups
suggesting that it measures the same BROAD personality traits
 across diff languages. Holds promise for cross-cultural use of
16PF in SA
2. The Big Five model of personality traits
a. Many personality researchers have come to the conclusion that
personality traits may be summarized in terms of 5 broad traits:
i. Extroversion
ii. Neuroticism (Emotional stability)
iii. Agreeableness
iv. Conscientiousness
v. Openness to experience (Intellect or Culture)
b. Big Five also been identified in many different CULTURES –
however in SA the imported measures yielded mixed results
c. BASIC TRAITS INVENTORY – newly constructed SA version of Big
Five taking local conditions into account is receiving support
3. The Occupational Personality Questionnaire (OPQ)
a. Popular personality assessment tool in the workplace
b. Comes in variety of different forms:
i. OPQ32 measures 32 work-related personality
characteristics used for:
1. Personnel selection
2. Training & development
3. Performance management
4. Team building
5. Organizational development
6. Counselling
Not based on any particular theory – eclectic. Has
satisfactory reliability for SA. The 32 scales may be
summarized in terms of 6 broad traits which correspond
with Big 5 model + trait of Interpersonal
4. The Myers Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
a. Based on Jung’s theory of psychological types, four bi-polar
scales:
i. Introversion- Extroversion (I-E)
ii. Thinking-Feeling (T-F)
iii. Sensing-Intuition (S-N)
iv. Judgement-Perception (J-P)
b. By combining the four poles of the scales it is possible to
identify 16 personality types i.e. type ENTP (Extroversion,
intuition, Thinking, Perception)
c. Emphasis is on assigning individual to one of these 16 types with
the assumption:
i. that people of same type share similar characteristics
 ii. That personality types are differentially suited to
different occupations
d. No single type is considered superior to any other – each of the
types has something positive to offer – individuals can receive
positive feedback with emphasis on their strengths
e. Used for:
i. Career counselling
ii. Team building
iii. Organisational & personal development
iv. Assumption is that diff personality types function better
in diff environments idea is to match individual and
environment.
f. IS AVAILABLE IN ENGLISH, AFRIKAANS, ZULU – but SA research
is lacking.
g. JUNG PERSONALITY QUESTIONNAIRE is SA version developed
for high school students
i. Research lacking wrt usefulness with “non-white” race
students
5. The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
a. Response is Yes/No to a number of questions (567 in MMPI-2)
b. Developed to discriminate between psychiatric patients and
normal people. Items grouped into 10 clinical scales
(Depression, Paranoia, Schizophrenia… etc).
c. Designed to identify pathological personality characteristics it
was widely used in mental hospitals and for diagnostic
purposes. Revision has broadened it to make it more suitable to
normal individuals (MMPI-2)
d. Has been adapted for SA use and translated into Afrikaans and
Xhosa
e. MMPI-A developed for use with ADOLESCENTS (shorter)
f. PIC-R (Personality inventory for Children- revised) 3yrs – 16yrs
i. has been adapted, translated and researched in SA with
Gr1 samples
ii. Cross-cultural use suggested through research but
concern that large proportion of double negatives could
be problematic.
g. PIY (Personality Inventory for Youth) 9yr s– 18yrs
6. Cross-cultural use of structured personality assessment measures
a. Constructs measured must have same meaning in both cultures
b. Not easy to achieve – then biased (measure does not measure
the same construct in diff cultures) and no valid comparison can
be made
 c. Bias usually assessed by examining patterns of interrelationship
between the items in the measure
d. To offset this the psychologist needs to know the meaning of
the particular construct in the culture where he/she intends to
use it.
iv. Level 2: assessment of motives and personal concerns
Knowledge of personality traits alone does not acknowledge the CONTEXT in
which behaviour takes place.
1. The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
a. Requires respondents to make up stories about a series of
vague or ambiguous pictures
b. What led up to the pic, what is happening and what is the
outcome – also describe thoughts and feelings of the characters
c. ASSUMPTION is that individual will PROJECT own wishes, needs,
feelings – characteristics of main characters reflect own
personality.
d. MEASURES three major motives
i. Need for intimacy (need to feel close to other people)
ii. Need for achievement (need to do better – associated
with success and promotion)
iii. Need for power (need to make impact on other people
– leadership. Women high in power tend to have happy
relationships while OPPOSITE is true of men)
e. Concerns over reliability and validity of TAT
f. TAT reflects longer term outcomes.
2. Cross-cultural use of the TAT
a. Have been attempts to devise tests for use with black
populations. These attempts appear to be biased and to reflect
cultural and racial stereotypes that may be offensive
b. SA in need of a thematic apperception test that reflects the
contemporary cultural complexity.
3. Other projective methods of personality assessment
a. Rorschach Inkblot Test
b. Draw-A-Person test
c. Sentence completion tests

h. CAREER COUNSELLING ASSESSMENT (Chp 12)

1. Introduction
a. Three stages to career counselling:
i. Diagnosis
1. What the client wants to achieve
2. Why client cannot make own career decision
 3. Work-related strengths and weaknesses
4. What the clients preferences are
ii. Process
iii. Outcome
b. Purpose of assessment for career counselling
i. Stimulate, broaden then focus
ii. Stimulate self in relation to career
iii. Provide information wrt options
2. The person-environment-fit approach
a. Assessing intelligence
i. No consensus as to what intelligence really is
ii. Powerful indicators of academic success and work
performance
iii. Other factors apart from IQ score
1. SES (Socioeconomic-status)
2. Quality of schooling
3. Test anxiety
4. Measurement error
5. MULTICULTURAL CONTEXTS may provide biased
scores when used with groups that differ from
standardization sample
6. Do not base decisions on IQ score alone.
Explore other factors
iv. Most widely used in SA for career counseling is:
1. GSAT (General Scholastic Ability Test)
2. The Raven Progressive Matrices – popular
because they are non-verbal
3. SSAIS-R (The Senior South African Individual
Scale – Revised) – often used for individual
assessment
b. Assessing aptitude
i. Assumption is that different occupations require
different skills
ii. Measures of specific abilities/aptitudes are matched
with specific occupations
iii. Aptitude test scores :
1. Provide an index of measured skills intended to
predict how well an individual may perform on
a job or training program
2. Or alternately it refers to an individual’s
POTENTIAL to acquire a new skill or learn some
specialized knowledge
 3. May also identify relative cognitive strengths
and weakenesses
c. Interest questionnaires
i. First widely used interest inventory by Strong (Strong
Interest Inventory) widely used in USA
1. Identify interests of which client was not aware
2. Confirm stated interests
3. Identify discrepancies btwn interests and ability
ii. The Self-Directed Search (SDS)
1. Developed and standardised in SA
2. Measures for 6 broad interests fields
a. Realistic (practical)
b. Investigative (scientific)
c. Artistic
d. Social
e. Enterprising (business)
f. Conventional (clerical)
3. Format – yes/no answers
4. Six scores result – highest three represent
interest
5. Theory describes interests as being structurally
ordered in a hexagonal fashion
6. Hexagonal structure is NOT valid for black SA’s
and other non-westernized samples
iii. MB-10
1. Also developed in SA a very popular measure
2. Revised version of KODUS Interest Inventory
3. 10 Different fields
4. Format: choose between one of two activities
presented – forced choice or ipsative format
5. Forced choice format means test-taker is
compared with him/her self and not with group
norm
6. Standardised for high school learners – Western
Cape and first-year students at U of
Stellenbosch
d. Assessment of values
i. The Values Scale
1. Values arise from people’s needs
2. Strive towards what they value & move away
from what they do not value.
 3. JOB SATISFACTION depends on degree of
congruence between individual’s VALUES and
REINFORCERS offered by a job.
4. The Values Scale measures 22 values
a. Factor analysis condenses to 6 clusters:
i. Inner Orientation
ii. Material Orientation
iii. Autonomous Life-Style
iv. Humanism & Religion
v. Social Orientation
vi. Physical Orientation
b. Standardised for English, Afrikaans, and
African lang groups in SA.
e. Assessment of personality (REFER EARLIER PARAGRAPHS)
i. The 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire
ii. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and Jung Personality
Questionnaire
f. The validity of the person-environment-fit approach to
assessment
i. Assumes that if an individual KNOWS THEMSELVES, and
WORLD OF WORK they can make a satisfying career
choice.
1. Maturity levels differ
2. Not free to choose
3. Dependent on reliable and valid scores
a. Language
b. Education
c. Socioeconomic status
ii. HAS BEEN A DOMINANT FORCE in career councelling
3. The developmental approach to career counseling assessment
Career choice not viewed as static. By assessing level of career maturity
counselor may identify development tasks client needs to focus on.
a. Assessing career development
i. Preview – records and background
ii. Depth view – work values, life roles, career maturity,
personality, interests
iii. Assessment of all data – interrogate information
iv. Counselling – address career decision making process
b. The Career Development Questionnaire (CDQ)
i. 5 Components
1. Self-knowledge
2. Decision making
 3. Career information
4. Integration of self-knowledge with career
information
5. Career planning
ii. Can be used with black, coloured, Indian and white high
school and university students
c. Life Role Inventory (LRI)
i. Role of worker is NOT equally important to everybody –
LRI measures how important worker role is relative to
other roles
ii. 5 Major arenas
1. Workplace
2. Community
3. Family
4. Academic environment
5. leisure
d. Evaluation of developmental approach to career councelling
assessment
i. Validity of developmental approach to career
counselling has been questioned
ii. Does emphasise developmental nature of career
decision making
iii. Makes questionable assumptions which do NOT hold in
developing countries where financial resources are
lacking and opportunities scarce.
1. Development follows predictable path
2. Stages have to be completed before next stage
3. If person is career mature they will be able to
make successful career choice
4. Career councelling in a changing environment
a. Need to recognise pervasive social and technological changes
influencing the way work is structured and perceived.
i. Change organisations
ii. Change careers
iii. Multiskilled and flexible
i. THE USE OF ASSESSMENT MEASURES IN VARIOUS APPLIED CONTEXTS (Chp 14)
i. Assessment in industry
1. Assessment of individuals
a. Personnel selection
i. Selection and employment decisions
ii. Supplement other sources of information
iii. INPUT-BASED APPROACH
 1. Compared with job specifications in terms of
characteristic or personality traits i.e. a
fisherman must have patience and tenacity
iv. OUTPUT-BASED APPROACH
1. Competencies required to perform a particular
job i.e. to read and write, to operate machinery,
to drive
2. NOT normally classified as psychological
measures – still need to be reliable and valid
b. Personnel appraisal
i. Assessment of job performance
1. INPUT-APPROACH
a. Personality traits, attributes and
characteristics
2. OUTPUT-BASED
a. Only those competencies specified by
job requirements are assessed
3. 360-Degree competency assessments
a. As opposed to traditional performance
appraisal (single rater) this uses
multiple assessors – found to result in
more reliable and valid assessments.
2. Situational tests
a. Simulations
Attempt to recreate an everyday work situation. Role play
b. Vignettes
Simulation is based on a video of film presentation in which the
candidate is requested to play the role of a particular person
and deal with the problem. More consistent in terms of
presentation than simulations
c. Leaderless group exercises
Trained observers rate leadership qualities,
d. In-basket tests
Given typical letters, memo’s reports that a manager has to deal
with.
e. Interviews
i. Structured interview – specific content
ii. Unstructured interview
3. Assessment centres
a. Combinations of above exercises
b. Observed by trained observers for specified behavioural
dimensions
 c. Candidates can relate to exercises because they perceive them
as relevant.
d. CAUTION: predictive validity from training centers is
questionable. Assessment centers must themselves be
evaluated in terms of content validity and experience of
observers.
ii. Assessments of groups and organisations
Although groups or organisations are the target assessment data are still
obtained at an individual level – individual responses are collated to describe
the group/organisation.
1. Processes
a. Group processes – leadership, conflict-handling styles, decision
making
b. Organisational processes – organisational communication,
corporate culture, organisational socialisation
2. Characteristics
a. Autocratic/democratic management style, strategy style,
organizational effectiveness.
3. Structure
a. Levels – in-groups/out-groups, status, conformity to norms,
operating model.