Nervous System PDF

Human Physiology
(Neural control and Coordination)
The process through which two or more organs interact and complement the funcitons of one another is
called co-ordination. In human beings nervous and endoerine system jointly coordinate and intergrate all
the activities of different other organs in synchronised fashion.
Nervous system is responsible for rapid transmission of stimuli and its response by electro chemical signals
which are short lived and very specific while endocrine system is responsible for slow transmission by
specific chemicals i.e. hormones those travel through blood stream and act on target organs. The response
of these hormones is long lasting and wide spread.
In all the multicellular animals above the level of sponges, the system meant to perceive stimuli detected by
the receptors, to transmit these to various body parts and to effect responses through effectors, is called
nervous system. In vertebrates, it is highly specialized and plays at least three vital roles which are
following -
(1) Sensory function : It senses certain changes (stimuli) both with in body (internal environment) and out
side body (external environment).
(2) Integrative functions : It analyses the sensory information, store some aspects, and makes decisions
regarding appropriate behaviors.
(3) Motor functions : It may respond to stimuli by initiating muscular contractions or glandular secretions.
The neural system of all animals is composed of highly specialised cells called neurons which can
detect, receive and transmit different kinds of stimuli.
The neural organisation is very simple in lower invertebrates. For example, in Hydra it is composed of a
network of neurons.
The neural system is better organised in insects, where a brain is present along with a number of
ganglia and neural tissues.
The vertebrates have a more developed neural system.
3.1 Neurons
A neuron is a nerve cell with all its branches. Neuron is formed from neuroblast. It is the structural and
functional unit of nervous system. It is the longest cell of the body.
(i) Cyton : It is also called perikaryon or soma or cell body. Its granular cytoplasm is called neuroplasm
which has following structures :
A large, spherical,
centrally placed nucleus with a single nucleolus.
Numerous fine threads called neurofibrils for the conduction of nerve impulses.
A number of small, basophilic granules called Nissl’s granules formed of rough endoplasmic reticulum
with ribosomes and are sites of protein synthesis.
Neuroplasm has large number of mitochondria to provide high energy for impulse conduction.
Neuroplasm may have melanophores with melanin pigment and lipochromes with orange or yellow
pigment.
NEET_Neural Control and Coordination - 1

A mature neuron has no centriole, so it cannot divide.
A “Barr body” is often seen abutting against
the inner surface of nuclear membrane of
cytons in females. This has been proved to
be a transformed ‘X’ chromosome.
Certain neurons having flask-shaped cytons
and called purkinje cells, occur in the
cerebellum of the brain.
(ii) Neuron processes : The processes of neu-
rons, called neurites, extend varying distances
from the cyton and are of two types – dendrites
or dendrons and an axon or axis cylinder
(neuraxon).
(a) Dendron : These are several short, taper-
ing much branched processes. The den-
drites contain neurofibrils, neurotubules,
Nissl’s granules and mitochondria. They con-
duct nerve impulse towards the cell body.
(b) Axon : This is a single very long, cylindrical
process of uniform diameter. It arises from
a conical projection, the axon hillock, of the
cyton. The axon contains neurofibrils and
neurotubules but lacks Nissl’s granules. Axon
is usually branched only terminally into slen-
der branches called telodendria. The latter
have knobbed ends called endbulbs or axon
terminals or buttons or synaptic knobs or
end plates. The synaptic knobs contain mito-
chondria and secretory vesicles.
3.2 Types of neurons : Neurons are divided into

different categories on different basis.
(i) On the basis of functions : Neurons are
divided into three categories :
Sensory (afferent) neurons : These are found in sense organs. Their dendrons receive the nerve
impulse from the nerve process of the receptor cell while their axon forms the synapse with dendron of
the next neuron. These may be naked or encapsulated e.g. olfactoreceptors and gustatoreceptors.
Internuncial neurons : These are located in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord. These are called
association neurons (when their axon synapses with the dendron of motor neuron of same side) or
commissural neuron (when their axon synapses with the dendron of motor neuron of opposite side).
Motor (efferent) neurons : These are always present in the ventral horn of the spinal cord. Their axon
ends into the muscle fibres or glands cells. These conduct the nerve impulses to the effector organs
which respond to the stimuli.
(ii) On the basis of number of nerve processes : Neurons are of three types –
Unipolar neurons : In these neurons, only one nerve process arises from the cyton which acts as
axon but there is no dendron. These are found only in early embryos. The unipolar neuron of the
adult gives rise to a single nerve process, which immediately divides into a dendron and an axon. Such
unipolar neurons are called pseudo-unipolar neurons. These are found in the dorsal root ganglia of
spinal nerves and in the roots of V, IX and X cranial nerves.

Dendron
Dendron
Axon
Axon
Axon
(a) (b) (c)
Types of Neurons (a) Unipolar ; (b) Bipolar ; (c) Multipolar

Bipolar neurons : In these neurons, the cyton gives rise to two nerve processes out of which one acts
as an axon while other acts as a dendron. These are found in the olfactory epithelium of nasal chamber
and retina of eye. These may be isopolar or heteropolar (dendrons being irregularly branched). Gan-
glia of VIII cranial nerve.
Multipolar neurons : In these neurons, the cyton gives rise to several nerve processes out of which
one acts as an axon while remaining nerve processes act as dendrons. These are found in the central
nervous system and the ganglia of autonomic nervous system of adult.
3.3 Nerve fibres
Axon or dendron of a nerve cell covered with one or two sheath is termed as nerve fibre. The nerve fibres
are of two types – medullated or myelinated and non medullated or non myelinated regarding their struc-
ture.
(a) Medullated nerve fibres : A medullated nerve fibre typically consists of a central core, the axis cylin-
der, or neuraxis, surrounded by two sheaths : inner thick medullary sheath and outer thin neurilemma.
(i) Axis cylinder :
The axis cylinder is simply the axon or dendron of a nerve cell.
It contains longitudinal neurofibrils and mitochondria in its neuroplasm, called axoplasm, limited by cell
membrane termed axolemma. It is the axolemma that conducts the nerve impulses.
(ii) Medullary sheath :
The medullary sheath is composed of a shinning, white, fatty substance called myelin.
This sheath perhaps serves as an insulating layer, preventing loss of energy of the nerve impulse
during its passage along the fibre.
The medullary sheath is continous around the fibres in the central nervous system, but in the fibres of
the peripheral nerves it is absent at certain points known as the Node of Ranvier. The part of a nerve
fibre between two successive nodes is termed the internode.
(iii) Neurilemma :
The neurilemma consists of tubular sheath cells (Schwann’s cells) placed end to end. The neurilemma
is continuous over the Nodes of Ranvier.
The function of the Schwann’s cells is to produce the myelin sheath around the neuraxis.
The medullated nerve fibres within the brain and spinal chord lack neurilemma. Instead, they have an
incomplete covering of neuroglia cells, which probably produce the myelin sheath.
Neurilemma present around the peripheral nerve fibres enables them to regenrate after injury.
Nerve fibres in the brain and spinal chord do not regenrate after injury due to lack of neurilemma.
The medullated nerve fibres occur in the white matter of the brain and spinal chord and in the cranial
and spinal nerves.
(b) Non medullated nerve fibres : A non medullated nerve fibre consists of an axis cylinder enclosed by
neurilemma and connective tissue. These fibres appears grey in colour in the fresh state. The non-medullated
nerve fibres occur in the autonomic nerves.

All parts of a neuron transmit excitations (= impulses), but the transmission is always unidirectional. The
dendrites and cytons usually constitute the impulse receiving parts which receive impulses directly from
receptors, or from other adjacent neurons. The axons are specialized as fibres conducting impulses away
from the receiving parts. Thus, the reaction or response impulses are always carried to the effectors by
axons. That is why, the term ‘nerve fibres’ is usually applied to the axons. The latter are 0.1 mm to one or
more (upto 10) metres long and about 0.025 m thick on an average.
4.1 Main properties of nervous tissue : The nervous tissue has two outstanding properties excitability and
conductivity.
(i) Excitability : It is the ability of the nerve cells and fibres to enter into an active state called the state of
excitation in response to a stimulus. Excitation arises at the receptors on account of various stimuli
such as light, temperature, chemical, electrical or pressure which constantly act on the organisms.
(ii) Conductivity : The excitation does not remain at the site of its origin. It is transmitted along nerve
fibres. The transmission of excitation in a particular direction is called conductivity.
4.2 Definition of nerve impulse : A wave of reversed polarity or depolarization (action potential) moving
down an axon is called a nerve impulse.
4.3 Mechanism of conduction of nerve impulse

Most accepted mechanism of nerve impulse conduction is ionic theory proposed by Hodgkin and Huxley.
This theory states that nerve impulse is an electro-chemical even governed by differential permeability of
neurilemma to Na+ and K+ which in turn is regulated by the electric field.
(a) Transmission of nerve impulse along the nerve fibre
(i) Polarization (Resting membrane potential-RMP) :
In a resting nerve fibre (a nerve fibre that is not conducting an impulse), sodium ions Na+ and Cl–
+
predominate in the extracellular fluid, whereas potassium ions (K ) predominate in the intracellular
fluid (within the fibre).
Intracellular fluid also contains large number of negatively charged (anions) protein molecules.
Na+ are 10 times more outside the neuron and K+ ions are 25 times more inside the cell.
Thus it makes a considerable difference between the ion concentration outside and inside the plasma
membrane.
It also causes a difference in electrical charges on either side of the membrane. The plasma mem-
brane is electrically positive outside and negative inside.
This difference is called potential difference. The potential difference across the plasma membrane is
known as resting potential.
This potential averages – 70 mv (– 40 to – 90 mv) in inner side of membrane in respect to outer side.
A higher concentration of cations outside the membrane compared to the concentration of cations

inside it. This state of the resting membrane is called polarised state and makes its inner side
electronegative to its outside.
Diagrammatic representation of impulse conduction through an axon (at points A and B)
(b) Depolarization (Action membrane potential or AMP) :

When the nerve fibre is stimulated mechanically, electrically, thermally or chemically a disturbance is
felt at the point of stimulation which gives rise to a local excitatory state.
The membrane becomes permeable to sodium ions. The membrane is negatively charged on the
outside and positively charged on the inside.
The membrane with reversed polarity is said to be depolarized. This wave of depolarization travelling
down a nerve fibre is called action potential. Infact, the action potential “moves” in the manner of a
spark moving along a fuse.
This “moving” action potential constitutes the nerve impulse. The action potential (impulse) is the basic
means of communication within the nervous system.
Do You Know ?
When a neuron is not conducting any impulse, i.e., resting, the axonal membrane is comparatively more
permeable to potassium ions (K+ ) and nearly impermeable to sodium ions (Na+).
The action potential of + 45 mv on inner side of axolemma in respect to its outer side is also called
spike potential.
(c) Repolarization :
With the increase of sodium ions inside the nerve cell, the mebrane becomes less permeable to sodium
ions whereas the permeability membrane to potassium ions increases.
The sodium ions are pumped out of the cell and potassium ions are pumped into the cell until the
original resting state of ionic concentration is achieved.
Thus this makes the membrane negative on inside and positive on outside. This process is called
repolarization.
+30 Action
potential
0
Resting
–70 membrane
potential
1 2 3 4 5
Time in milliseconds (m
sec.)
Record of potential changes

The last movement of ions is thought to take place by an active transport mechanism called sodium
potassium pump (also called sodium potassium exchange pump or sodium pump).
The sodium-potassium pump is a process of expelling out sodium ions and drawing in potassium ions
against concentration and electrochemical gradient.
The entire process of repolarization requires some time during which the nerve cannot be stimulated
again.
This period is called refractory period. During repolarization, as the cell returns to its resting potential,
the neuron is ready to receive another stimulus.
The synapse is an area of functional contact between one neuron and another for the purpose of transferring
information.
Synapses are usually found between the fine terminal branches of the axon of one neuron and the
dendrites or cell body of another.
This type of neuron is called axo-dendrite synapse. Sir Charles Sherrington (1861-1954) was the
first person who used the term ‘synapse’ to the junctional points between two neurons.
Diagram showing axon terminal and synapse

5.1 Structure of synapse :
A typical (generalized) synapse consists of a bulbous expansion of a nerve terminal called a pre-
synaptic knob lying close to the membrane of a dendrite.
The cytoplasm of the synaptic knob contains mitochondria, smooth endoplasmic reticulum, microfila-
ments and numerous synaptic vesciles.
Each vescile contains neurotransmitter (chemical substance) responsible for the transmission of the
nerve impulse across the synapse.
The membrane of the synaptic knob nearest the synapse is thickened and forms the presynaptic
membrane.
The membrane of the dendrite is also thickened and is called the post synaptic membrane.
These membranes are separated by a gap, the synaptic cleft. It is about 200 Å across The post
synaptic membrane contains large protein molecules which act as receptor sites for neurotransmitter
and numerous channels and pores.
The two main neurotransmitters in vertebrate nervous system are acetylcholine (ACh) and norad-
renaline although other neurotransmitters also exist.
Acetylcholine (ACh) was the first neurotransmitter to be isolated and obtained by Otto Loewi in 1920
from the endings of parasympathetic neurons of the vagus nerve in frog heart.
Neurons releasing acetylcholine are described as cholinergic neurons and those releasing norad-
renaline are described as adrenergic neurons.

5.2 Mechanism of transmission of nerve impulse at a synapse :
The process of chemical transmission across synapses was discovered by Henry Dale (1936). The
physiological importance of synapse for the transmission of nerve impulses was established by McLennan
in 1963. A brief description of the mechanism of synaptic transmission is given below
When an impulse arrives at a presynaptic knob, calcium ions from the synaptic cleft enter the cyto-
plasm of the presynaptic knob.
The calcium ions cause the movement of the synaptic vesicles to the surface of the knob. The synaptic
vesicles are fused with the presynaptic membrane and get ruptured (exocytosis) to discharge their
contents (neurotransmitter) into the synaptic cleft.
The synaptic vesicles then return to the cytoplasm of the synaptic knob where they are refilled with
neurotransmitter.
The neurotransmitter of the synaptic cleft binds with protein receptor molecules on the post synaptic
membrane. This binding action changes the membrane potential of the postsynaptic membrane, open-
ing channels in the membrane and allowing sodium ions to enter the cell. This causes the depolariza-
tion and generation of action potential in the post-synaptic membrane. Thus the impulse is transferred
to the next neuron.
Having produced a change in the permeability of the postsynaptic membrane the neurotransmitter is
immediately lost from the synaptic cleft. In the case of cholinergic synapses, acetylcholine (ACh) is
hydrolysed by an enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE) which is present in high concentration at the
synapse.
The products of the hydrolysis are acetate and choline which are reabsorbed into the synaptic knob
where they are resynthesized into acetylcholine, using energy from ATP.
(1) Neurotransmitters : As explained in the discussion of synapses, neurotransmitters are chemicals

released from a presynaptic neuron that interact with specific receptor sites of a postsynaptic neuron. At
least sixty chemicals thought to have the capacity to act as neurotransmitters have been discovered.
S.No. Excitatory Inhibitory
Gamma amino
1 Acetylcholine butyric acid
(GABA)
2 Norepinephrine (NE) Glycine
3 Serotonin
5-hydroxy tryptamine
4
(5-HT)
5 Dopamine
6 Histamine
7 Glutamate
8 Epinephrin
9 Gastrin
10 Glucagon
11 Melatonin
12 ADH

(2) Synapse, A one-way valve : The synapse cannot transmit an impulse in the reverse direction as the
dendrites cannot secrete a neurotransmitter. Thus, the synapse acts as a one-way valve, allowing the
conduct of impulse from axon to dendron only.
(3) Synaptic delay : Transmission of an impulse across a synapse is slower than its conduction along a
neuron. This is because of the time needed for the release of a neurotransmitter, its diffusion through
the synaptic cleft, and its action on the postsynaptic membrane. The difference in the rate is called
synaptic delay. It amounts to about half a millisecond at body temperature (37oC).
(4) Synaptic fatigue : Repeated stimulation of the presynaptic knob may deplete the neurotransmitter, and
this may fail to stimulate the postsynaptic membrane. This condition of the synapse is termed synaptic
fatigue. It lasts for several seconds during which the neurotransmitter is resynthesized. Synaptic fa-
tigue is the only fatigue that affects the nervous tissue. Conduction of the nerve impulse along the
neurons is not subject to fatigue.
(5) “All or None law” (Keith Lucas, 1905) : When stimulated, the axon membrane (= axolemma) does
not respond for a moment due to its resistance or threshold to stimulation. However, when its threshold
is broken, the stimulation is conducted through its whole length as a strong impulse. If the stimulation is
too weak to break the axon’s threshold, impulse is not established, but if the intensity of stimulation is
much more than the threshold value, impulse conduction remains normal. Thus, the action potential
obeys “all or none law”. In other words, impulse conduction is such a triggered phenomenon which,
though occurs in a twinkling, like an explosion, but only when it reaches “ignition point” or firing level”.
Nervous system is divided into three parts –

Nervous system
Central Nervous Peripheral Nervous Autonomic Nervous

System (CNS) System (PNS) System (ANS)
Brain Spinal Cranial Spinal Sympathetic Parasymp-

cord Nerves Nerves Nervous athetic
(All Mixed) System Nervous
System
Sensory Nerves Motor Nerves Mixed Nerves

(I, II, VIII) (III, IV, VI, XI, XII) (V, VII, IX, X)
6.1 Central nervous system (CNS) :

In all the vertebrates including man, CNS is dorsal, hollow and non-ganglionated while in invertebrates when
present, it is ventral, solid, double and ganglionated. CNS is formed of two parts :
(1) Brain – Upper and broader part lying in the head.
(2) Spinal cord – Lower, long and narrow part running from beginning of neck to trunk. CNS is covered by
3 meninges and its wall has two type of matter.
6.2 Types of matter :
CNS of vertebrates is formed of two types of matter –
(i) Grey matter : It is formed of cell-bodies, non-medullated nerve fibres, neuroglea, dendrites of association
neurons and motor neurons.
(ii) White matter : It is formed of medullated nerve fibres or myelinated axon of motor and sensory
neurons, which appear white due to presence of medullary sheath.

It is soft, whitish, large sized and slightly flattened structure present inside cranial cavity of cranium of the
skull. In man, it is about 1200-1400 gm in weight and has about 10,000 million neurons. Brain is made up of
3 parts :
7.1 Fore brain or Prosencephalon : It forms anterior two-third of brain and is formed of three parts.
(a) Olfactory lobes : These are one pair, small sized, club-shaped, solid, completely covered by cerebral
hemisphere dorsally. Each is differentiated into two parts –
(i) Olfactory bulb : Anterior, swollen part, and
(ii) Olfactory tract : Posterior and narrow part which ends in olfactory area of temporal lobe of cerebral
hemisphere.
Function : These control the smell.
Note :
(1) It is normal in frog, rabbit and man.
(2) It is well developed in dog. So power of smell is more in dog.
(3) These are also well developed in dog fish and name dog fish is on the basis of well developed olfactory
lobes.
(b) Cerebrum :
Cerebrum is divided into 5 lobes (a) frontal (b) parietal, (c) occipital, (d) temporal and (e) Insula.
A lobe called insula is hidden as it lies deep in the sylvian fissure.
The cerebral hemisphere are separated from olfactory lobes by rhinal fissure.
The median fissure divides the cerebrum into a right and a left cerebral hemisphere.
Diagram showing sagital section of the human brain

A few sulci are well developed and form three deep and wide fissures which divide each cerebral
hemisphere into four lobes : anterior frontal lobe, middle parietal lobe, posterior occipital lobe and
lateral temporal lobe.
Fissure sulcus lying between the frontal and parietal lobes is central fissure or sulcus, that lying
between the parietal and occipital lobes is parieto-occipital fissure and that demarcating frontal and
parietal lobes from the temporal lobe is lateral or Sylvian fissure.
Function of Cerebrum – It is a centre for Intelligence, Emotion, Will power, Memory, Consciousness,
Imagination, Experience, Knowledge, Reasoning, Voluntary controls, Weeping and laughing, Micturition,
Defecation.
Note :
(i) Each cerebral hemisphere is with a fluid-filled cavity called lateral ventricle or paracoel.
(ii) Two cerebral hemispheres are interconnected by thick band of transverse nerve fibres of white matter
called corpus callosum.
(iii) The peripheral portion of each cerebral hemisphere is formed of grey matter and is called cerebral cortex,
while deeper part is formed of white matter and is called cerebral medulla.
(iv) Cerebral cortex is the highest centre for many sensations and activities and is with a number of
sensory areas. Cerebral cortex 2-4 mm thick.
(v) If cerebrum is removed animal becomes simple reflex animal.
(1) Corpus callosum : It is the unique feature of mammalian brain. It is the band of white neurons present
between both cerebral hemisphere and connect them on medial surface.
Below corpus callosum there are two fused band of white neurons called fornix. There anterior part is
called column and posterior part is called crura. Between column and genu a membrane is called
septum lucidum or septum pellicidum. Septum lucidum encloses a space called V5 or Pseudocoel,
because it is not possessing C.S.F. i.e. why it is called pseudocoel.
(2) Limbic system : Limbic system present on inner border of cerebrum and floor of diencephalon, It is
also called emotional brain or animal brain. Limbic system controlling emotion, animal behaviour like
chewing, licking, sniffing, docility, tameness, affection (animals) rage, pain, pleasure, anger, sexual
feelings, feer, sorrow grooming.
(c) Diencephalon :
Diencephaton cavity is called, III ventricle or diocoel the thin roof of this cavity is known as the epithala-
mus, the thick right and left sides as the thalami, and floor as the hypothalamus.
(i) Epithalamus :
It forms roof of third ventricle.
The epithalamus is not formed of nervous tissue. It consists of piamater only. Hence, it is of relatively
little significance as a nerve centre. Its anterior part is vascular and folded. It is called anterior choroid
plexus.
Behind this plexus, the epithalamus gives out a short stalk, the pineal stalk which bears a small,
rounded body, the pineal body, at its tip, and paired right and left habenular nuclei (olfaction or smell).
(ii) Thalamus :
A pair of mass of grey matter forms the superior part of lateral walls of the third ventricle. It measures 3
cm in length and comprises 80% of diencephalon.
The thalamus is principal relay station for sensory impulses that reach the cerebral cortex from spinal
cord, brain stem, cerebellum.
It also allows crude appreciation of some sensations such as pain, temperature, and pressure.
Certain nuclei in the thalamus relay all sensory input to cerebral cortex. These include the –
(a) Medial geniculate nucleus for hearing.
(b) Lateral geniculate nucleus for vision.
(c) Ventral posterior nucleus for taste, touch, pressure, vibration, heat, cold, and pain.
Other nuclei are centers for synapse in somatic motor system their include.
(a) Ventral lateral nucleus and ventral anterior nucleus (voluntary motor actions).
(b) Anterior nucleus concerns with emotions and memory.
(iii) Hypothalamus :
The hypothalamus is visible in the ventral view of the brain and forms the floor of diencephalon.
Hypothalamus also gives a nervous process called infundibulum (forms pars nervosa) which meets a
rounded non-nervous pharyngeal outgrowth called hypophysis.
Both collectively form master gland called pituitary body.
A stalked outgrowth of infundibulum combines with a pouch-like epithelial outgrowth (Rathke’s pouch)
of the roof of embryonic mouth (= stomodaeum), forming a pituitary gland or hypophysis. Which
secretes a number of hormones.
In front of hypothalamus, there is cross of two optic nerves called optic chiasma. Behind the
hypothalamus, there is one pair of small, rounded, nipple-like bodies called mammilary bodies or corpora
mammillares.
The hypothalamus consists of many masses of grey matter, called hypothalamic nuclei, scattered in the
white matter.
Anterior
Cerebrum
Cranial nerves
Olfactory bulb
Olfactory tract Cranial nerve I (olfactory)
Pituitary gland Cranial nerve II (optic)
Cranial nerve IV (trochlear)
Optic tract
Cranial nerve III (oculomotor)
Tuber cinereum
Mammillary body Cranial nerve V (trigeminal)
Cerebral peduncle of midbrain Cranial nerve VI
Cranial nerve VII (facial)
Pons
Cranial nerve VIII(vestibulocochlear)
Middle cerebeller peduncle
Cranial nerve IX (glossopharyngeal)
Medulla oblongata
Pyramids Cranial nerve X (vagus)
Olive Cranial nerve XI (accessory)

Decussation of pyramids Cranial nerve XII (hypoglossal)
Spinal nerve C1
Spinal cord
Cerebellum
Posterior Inferior aspect of brain
Ventral view of brain
In man and some other mammals, most fibres of optic nerves cross, but some fibres do not cross and
innervate the eyes of their own respective sides.
This arrangement enables man and these mammals to have a binocular vision. Rabbits simply have a
monocular vision.
Note :
(i) Hypothalamus is a centre for Hunger, Thirst, Sweating, Sleep, Fatigue, Temperature, Anger, Pleasure,

love and hate, Satisfaction.
(ii) It is also centre to release factors for endocrine glands.
(iii) It also control A.N.S (autonomic nervous system)
(iv) Centers for regulation of parasympathetic (cranio-sacral) activity. When stimulated, it causes slow-
ing down of heart beat, contraction of the visceral muscles.
Functions of Diencephalon – It is a centre for :

(a) Carbohydrate metabolism
(b) Fat metabolism
(c) It relays impulses from posterior region of brain and also to posterior region of brain.
(d) Its secretes neurohormone
(e) From part of pituitary gland
(f) Secrete cerebrospinal fluid
(1) Pineal Gland : Pineal gland is a pine cone-shaped gland. It is located in the center of brain with which
it loses all nerves connection after birth. It is innervated by sympathetic nerves. It has a photosensory
role in amphibian and primitive reptiles and is called ‘Third eye’. Pinealocytes secretes melatonin.
Mammalian pineal does not act as photoreceptor but it produces the hormone called melatonin which is
anti FSH, and anti LH. It inhibits reproductive function. Melatonin secretions decrease after puberty.
(2) Cerebrum : Cerebral cortex is made up of grey matter and differentiated into –
(a) Sensory and associated area confirm, recognise and evaluate for shape, colour, sound, taste and
smell for sensory cells in relation with object.
(b) Broca’s area : Known as sensory speech area or motor speech area. Translate thought into speech.
Located into frontal lobe towards left side. It is associated with language area and also interpriate
translation of written words into speech. Damage or injury in Broca’s area (sensory or motor speech
area) may result. Aphasia(Inability to speak), Word deafness, Word blindness.

7.2 Midbrain
The midbrain is located between the thalamus/hypothalamus of the forebrain and pons of the hindbrain.
It is formed of two parts –
(i) Optic lobes : These are one pair, large sized lobes present on dorsal side. Each is divided transversely
into upper and larger superior coliculus and lower and smaller inferior coliculus. So there are four optic lobes,
so called optic/corpora quadrigemina (only in mammals). In frog these are known as bigemina. Valve of
vieussens It joins the optic lobe with cerebellum.
(a) Superior optic lobe or superior colliculus : They are concerned with reflex action of eye, head and
neck in response to visual stimulus.
(b) Inferior colliculus : They are concerned with movement of head and trunk in response to hearing
stimulus.
(ii) Cerebral peduncle (crura cerebri) : They are the pair of thick bands of longitudinal nerve fiber present on
the floor or ventral side of mid brain. This connects upper & lower region of brain.
Functions of Mid brain
(i) Pair of anterior optic lobes (which are also known as superior colliculi) is related with vision.
(ii) Pair of posterior optic lobe (known as inferior colliculi) related with auditory.
(iii) These act as coordination centres between hind and fore brain.
Note :
(i) A canal called the cerebral aqueduct passess through the midbrain.
(ii) Midbrain and hindbrain form the brain stem.
7.3 Hindbrain
The hindbrain comprises pons, cerebellum and medulla (also called the medulla oblongata).
(a) Cerebellum (Sandwitched brain) : Cerebellum is second largest portion of brain lies posterior to
medulla and pons and inferior to posterior portion of cerebrum. It is butterfly shape structure. The super-
ficial layer of cerebellum, called cerebellar cortex, consist of gray matter. Deep to gray matter are white
matter tree called ‘Arbor vitae’ or tree of life. Cerebellum has very convoluted surface in order to
provide the additional space for many more neurons.
Functions of Cerebellum –
(i) It is centre for co-ordination of muscular movement.
(ii) It is primary centre for balancing, equilibrium, orientation.
Note : Poorly developed in frog but well developed in mammal.
(b) Medulla oblongata : Medulla oblongata is the hindest and posterior most part of brain. Cavity is known
as IVth ventricle (metacoel) which is continuous with central canal of spinal cord through Formen Mag-
num. It has a pair of lateral Foramina of Luschka and a median foramen magendie. Cerebrospinal fluid come
in contact by these apertures from internal cavity of the brain to outer fluid of meninges. Medulla contain
nuclei of origin of 5 pairs of cranial nerves, VIII, IX, X, XI and XII
Funcitons of Medulla oblongata – It contains centre for –
(i) Heart beats (ii) Respiration
(iii) Digestion (iv) Blood pressure
(v) Gut peristalsis (vi) Swallowing of food
(vii) Secretion of gland
(viii) Involuntory function – e.g. vomiting, coughing vasoconstrictor, vasodilater, sneezing, hiccouping.
(ix) It control urination, defecation.
(x) The cardiovascular center – regulate rate, force of heart beats.
(xi) Medullary rhythmicity area – adjust basic rhythm of respiration.
(c) Pons Varolii : An oval mass, of white mater called the pons varolii, lies above the medulla oblongata. It
consists mainly of nerve fibres which interconnect as bridge connecting spinal cord with brain and parts of
brain with each other. Pons also with pneumotaxic area and apneustic area. Together with medullary
rhythmicity area, they help control respiration.

Note :
Salient or mammalian features of human brain : The salient or mammalian features in the human brain
are –
(1) Relatively small, solid olfactory lobes.
(2) Very large cerebral hemispheres divided into lobes and with highly folded surface, with cerebral cortex of
gray matter.
(3) Corpus callosum interconnecting the cerebral hemispheres only found in eutheria.
(4) Very small pineal body.
(5) A pair of mammillary bodies joined to hypothalamus.
(6) Relatively small, solid optic lobes divided into 4 corpora quadrigemina.
(7) Large, solid cerebellum, with highly folded surface and divided into lobes.
(8) Pons varolii present anterior to the cerebellum.
Present in spinal canal or vertebral canal of vertebral column. It is extended from foramen magnum to II
lumber vertebra. In new born infants, extend to 3 or 4 lumber vertebra. Spinal cord is swollen in cervical and
lumber region which are called cervical and lumber enlargement. The length of spinal cord ranges from 42
to 45 cm. Its diameter is about 2cm.
Structure of spinal cord : Spinal cord is also covered by duramater, arachnoid & piamater. The outer-
part of spinal cord is of white matter while inner-part contain gray matter. On the dorsa-lateral & ventro-lateral
surface of spinal cord, the gray matter (butter fly like) projects outside & forms the one pair dorsal & ventral
horn. Dorsal & ventral horn continue in a tube like (bundle of never fibres) structure known as root of Dorsal
& Ventral Horn. In root of dorsal and ventral horn, ganglia are present called Dorsal and ventral root ganglia
respectively. Both root are combined with each other at the place of Intervertebral foramen. Sensory neurons
are found in the dorsal root ganglia which is pseudounipolar in nature & near to inter vertebral foramen. its
axon extend & gets embedded into gray matter of spinal cord & sensory nerve fibre come from ganglia &
make synapse with ventral root neuron. Motor neurons are found in the ventral root. Cyton is found in ventral
horn while its dendrons are embedded into gray matter of spinal cord where they make synapse with axon of
sensory neuron. Both sensory & motor nerve fibers combindly come out from intervertebral foramen & form
spinal nerve.
Posterior (dorsal) root ganglion
Posterior (dorsal)
Spinal nerve root of spinal nerve
Lateral white column Posterior gray horn
Posterior median sulcus
Anterior (ventral) root of spinal nerve
Posterior white column
Central canal Gray commissure
Anterior gray horn
Axon of sensory neuron
Anterior white commissure
Lateral gray horn
Anterior white column
Cell body of motor neuron
Cell body of sensory neuron
Anterior median fissure
Anterior rootlets
Axon of motor neuron
T.S. of the thoracic spinal cord of mammal
(1) Meninges :
The meninges are connective tissue membranes which surround the brain and spinal cord of CNS. In the
fishes, there is only one meninx called meninx primitiva (piamater). In amphibians, reptiles and birds, the
brain is covered by two meninges or membranes : inner pia-arachnoid and outer duramater. In mammals,
CNS is covered by three meninges or membranes or cranial meninges. Brain meninges are continuous
with spinal meninges
The three layers of cranial meninges in order from superficial to deeper duramater, arachnoid and
piamater. Duramater is nonvascular, tough made up of fibrous connective tissue.
Arachnoid mater made up of reticular connective tissue with collagen and elastin fiber, while innermost
vascular piamater (nutritive) made up of loose aerolar connective tissue.
Between dura and arachnoid mater presence of sub dural space (no CSF in mammals here), between
Arachnoid and piamater presence of sub-arachnoid space (with CSF in mammals, CSF also found in
ventricles and central canal).
Between duramater and periosteum presence of epidural space. An extension of duramater between
two cerebral hemispheres called falx cerebri.
Tentorium, an extension of duramater between cerebrum and cerebellum.
(2) Cavities or ventricles of the brain :

The ventricles consist of four hollow fluid filled space inside the brain and same duct for connection
between these ventricle.
(i) Olfactory lobe – Rhinocoel
(ii) Cerebrum – I and II ventricle or lateral ventricle or paracoel.
(iii) Foramen of monero : I and II ventricle communicating with
IIIrd ventricle by foramen of monero. They are two in human
and single in rabbit and frog.
(iv) Diencephalon : Third ventricle or Diocoel.
(v) Iter or cerebral aquiduct or aquiduct of sylvius : It is very
narrow cavity between III and IV ventricle.
(vi) Optic lobe : Optocoel
(vii) Cerebellum : Solid.
(viii) Medulla oblongata : 4th ventricle or metacoel.
Cavities of brain and spinal cord are modified neurocoel.
They are lined by low columnar ciliated epithelium called ependyma.

(3) Cerebrospinal fluid :
All the ventricles of the brain, central canal of spinal cord are continuous and lined by a columnar,
ciliated epithelium, the ependyma.
They contain lymph-like extracellular fluid called the cerebrospinal fluid (C.S.F.).
This fluid is secreted by the choroid plexuses by filtration of blood.
The choroid plexuses consist of loose connective tissue of pia mater covered internally by a simple
cuboidal epithelium of secretory (glandular) nature.
The cerebrospinal fluid slowly flows toward the fourth ventricle by secretion pressure and passes into the
spinal cord.
Some fluid escapes into the subarachnoid spaces through three pores a median aperture (of magendie)
and a paired lateral aperture (of Luschka) in the roof of the fourth ventricle in the medulla.
From the subarachnoid spaces, the cerebrospinal fluid is transferred to the blood of the venous sinuses.
Nervous tissue is without lymphatic vessels.
The cerebro-spinal fluid (CSF) provides –
(i) Protection to brain from mechanical shocks, physical injury.
(ii) Optimum physiological fluid environment for neural functions e.g. conduction of nerve impulses, trans-
port of aminoacids, sugars, O2 etc.
(iii) ‘Relief’ mechanism for the increase in intracranial pressure that occurs with each arterial pulse of
blood to brain.
(iv) ‘Sink’ like facility for metabolites of brain.
(v) The blood CSF barrier for selective transport process between blood and CSF.
(vi) Nourishment to CNS.
Major site of CSF formation is choroid plexus, and mid ventricular wall and sub-arachnoid wall also
contribute. CSF is cell free, slightly alkaline, and is isotonic to plasma. Rate of formation of C.S.F is 20
ml/h (480 ml/day) 20 ml/hour approx, 1/2 litre per day. Total amount present in and around CNS is 80-
150 ml it means there is atleast 3 times renewal of C.S.F. every day. CSF contains glucose, proteins,
lactic acid, urea, Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Cl–, HCO3– and some WBC.
Blood brain barrier facilitate maintenance of stable internal environment. Its acts as physiological and
pathological barrier.
(4) Hydrocephalus : The enlargement of head, a pathological condition characterized by an abnormal

accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid resulting headache, vomiting, pain and stiffness of the neck. Infection
may be viral, bacterial or both. The most common cause of meningitis is the infection of Streptococcus
pneumoniae, Neisseria meningitidis and Haemophilus influenzae.
(5) Choroid plexus : There are three choroid plexus in humans –
(i) Lateral choroid plexus : It is in the roof of I and II ventricle.
(ii) Anterior choroid plexus : It is in the roof of III ventricle (diacoel).
(iii) Posterior choroid plexus or pelochoroida : It is in the roof of IV ventricle.
(6) Oxygen and glucose requirements of brain : To control various functions of our body organs brain
needs a large and constant oxygen (20% of the body’s consumption) and blood glucose (15% of its
consumption) supply. Brain deprived of oxygen creats mental confusion and leads to permanent damage
with in 5 minutes.
Reflexes are fast predictable, automatic responses to change the environment. First of all Marshal Hall
(1833) studied the reflex action. Best and Taylor defined reflex action “simplest form of irritability associated
with the nervous system is reflex actions or a reflex reaction is an immediate involuntary response to a
stimulus.” The reflex actions are involuntary actions because these are not under the conscious control of
the brain. Central nervous system is responsible for the control of reflex action.

Reflex arc is formed by the neurons forming the pathway taken by the nerve impulses in reflex action. The
simplest reflexes are found in animals involving a single neuron and the following pathway -
8.1 Component of reflex action :

The whole of the reflex are includes five parts –
(i) Receptor organs : Receptors are windows of the body or guards of the body. These are situated on all,
important organs, for example – eyes, nose, ear, tongue, integument etc. These perceive the stimuli from out
side the body.
(ii) Sensory neurons : These are also termed afferent neurons. These carry the stimuli from receptors to
spinal cord. These neurons are situated in the ganglion on the dorsal side of spinal cord gray matter or
brain stem.
(iii) Association neurons or Integrating center : These are also called intermediate neurons or interstitial
neurons. These are found in spinal cord. They transfer the impulses from sensory neurons to motor
neurons. Association neurons forms monosynaptic and polysynaptic reflex arc.
(iv) Motor neurons : These are situated in the ventral horn of spinal cord. These carry the impulses to
effector organs.
(v) Effector organs : These are the organs, which react and behave in response to various stimuli, for
example – muscles and glands.
Diagrammatic Presentation of reflex action (showing knee jerk reflex)
8.2 Mechanism of reflex action :

The time taken by a reflex action is too short, for example – in frog it is 0.3 meter per second and in
man 5-120 meter per second.
Whenever, a part of the body is stimulated by any stimulus, for example – pin pricking, then the
stimulus is converted into impulse.
This impulse is perceived by the dendrites of sensory neurons. From here, the stimulus reaches the
spinal cord through axonic fibres.
In the spinal cord, this stimulus passes through synaptic junctions and reaches the intermediate neu-
rons, from where this stimulus reaches the effector organs through motor nerve fibres.
As soon as the stimulus reaches the effector organs, it is stimulated and that part of the body is
immediately withdrawn.
The whole reflex action takes place so rapidly and quickly that we know it when it is completed.
8.3 Type of reflexes :
The reflexes are of following types –
(i) Monosynaptic reflex :
This is the simplest reflex found in vertebrates.
The simplest reflex found in vertebrates.
The sensory neuron synapses directly on to the motor neuron cell body.
In this case the reflex action takes place without the involvement of brain.

(ii) Polysynaptic spinal reflex :
This has at least two synapses situated within the spinal cord. It involves a third type of neuron also –
the internuncial or inter-mediate relay neuron.
The synapses take place between the sensory neuron and intermediate neuron, and between interme-
diate neuron and the motor neuron.
These two reflex arcs allow the body to make automatic, involuntary, homeostatic adjustments, to
changes in the external environment, such as the iris pupil reflex and balance during locomotion, and
also in the internal environment such as breathing rate and blood pressure.
(iii) Polysynaptic spinal/brain reflexes :
In this case the sensory neuron synapses in the spinal cord with a second sensory neuron, which
passes to the brain.
The latter sensory neurons are part of the ascending nerve fibre tract and have their origin in preintermediate
neuron synapse. The brain is capable of identifying this sensory information and stores it for further use.
The motor activity may be initiated by the brain anytime and the impulses are transmitted down the
motor neurons in descending nerve fibre tract, to synapse directly with spinal motor neurons in the
postintermediate synaptic region.
(iv) Simple reflex :
Simple reflex is also known as unconditioned reflex.
It is inborn, unlearned, reflex to a stimulus. Simple reflex is mostly protective in function. Example of
simple reflex are
(a) Knee jerk – Tendon of patella tapped, also called patellar reflex.
(b) Corneal reflex (blinking reflex) – closing of eyelids.
(c) Rapid withdrawal of hand while burned or pricked.
(d) Quick recovery of balance while falling.
(e) Scratch reflex of frog – in pitched frog with acetic acid.
(f) Coughing, sneezing and yawning.
(v) Acquired reflex :

Acquired reflex is also known as conditioned reflex. It is not inborn, but acquired and dependent on
past experience, training and learning.
Demonstration of conditioned reflex was first made by Russian physiologist Ivan Petrovitch Pavlov
(1846-1936) in hungry dog. Pavlov rang the bell while feeding dog, thus associated the uncondi-
tioned response with additional stimulus.
Examples of conditioned reflex are learning of dancing, cycling, swimming, singing,, driving, etc.
These actions are under cerebral control during learning.
It is formed of a number of long, thin, whitish threads called nerves extending between central nervous
system and body tissues. Each nerve is formed of bundles of nerve fibres, fasciculi, held together by
connective tissue and surrounded by a white fibrous connective tissue sheath called epineurium.
The nerve fibres are classified into two categories on the basis of presence or absence of myelin (white
fatty) sheath.
(1) Medullated or Myelinated nerve fibres.
(2) Non-medullated nerve fibres.
On the basis of function, the nerves are of three types
(1) Sensory nerve
(i) It contains only sensory nerve fibres.
(ii) It conducts nerve impulses from sense organs to CNS to produce sensation. e.g. Optic nerve, auditory
nerve.
(2) Motor nerve
(i) It contains only motor nerve fibres.
(ii) It conducts nerve impulses from CNS to some muscles or glands to control their activities. e.g.
Occulomotor nerve, hypoglossal nerve.

(3) Mixed nerve
(i) It contains both sensory and motor nerve fibres.
(ii) It conducts both sensory and motor impulses. e.g. All spinal nerves, trigeminal nerve.
On the basis of their origin, nerves are of two types
(1) Cranial or cerebral nerves which either arise from or end into brain.
(2) Spinal nerves which arise from spinal cord.
(4) Cranial nerves
(1) 10 pairs of cranial nerves are present in an anamniote (fishes and amphibians).
(2) Number of cranial nerves found in frog is ten pairs (20).
(3) 12 pairs of cranial nervers are present in an amniote (reptiles, birds and mammals).
(4) Number of cranial nerves found in rabbit and man is 12 pairs (24).
(5) The first 10 pairs are common for frog and rabbit. The additional pairs found in rabbit are spinal
accessory and hypoglossal.
(6) The smallest cranial nerve is trochlear in human beings, but all animals smallest cranial nerve is
abducens.
(7) The largest cranial nerve is trigeminal in human beings but vagus is largest cranial nerve in all
animals.
(8) Vagus supplies the regions other than head.
(9) The sensory cranial nerves are
I Olfactory – Smell
II Optic – Vision
VIII Auditory – Hearing and equilibrium
(10) The motor cranial nerves are : III, IV, VI, XI and XII.
(11) Extraocular muscle nerves are : III, IV and VI.
(12) The mixed cranial nerves are : V, VII, IX and X (4 pairs).
(13) Number of cranial nerves in snake (Amniota) 10 pairs.

Name Nature Origin Distribution Function
Receive stimuli from the sensory
Sensory epithelium of
(1) Olfactory Nerves Sensory Olfactory lobe epithelium of olfactory sac and carry
olfactory sacs
them to olfactory lobes
Lateral geniculate nuclei of Stimulus of light is carried to optic

(2) Optic nerves Sensory In retina of eye
thalamus occipital lobe of cerebral cortex.
Eye ball muscles like superior

rectus, medial rectus, inferior
(3) Occulomotor nerves Motor Crura cerebri (mid brain) rectus and inferior oblique. Movement of eye lids and eye ball.
except superior oblique
muscle and external rectus
From in between the

Superior oblique muscle of
(4) Trochlear nerves Motor optic lobes and Movement of eye ball
eye ball
cerebellum
From the gassarion
(5) Trigeminal nerves Mixed galglia situated on the — —
lateral side of pons
Skin of lips, upper eye lid,
(i) Ophthalmic nerve Sensory ,,
lacrimal, gland
Upper lip, skin of nose, lower Carry the stimuli from these organs
(ii) Maxillary Sensory ,,
eye lid. Upper teeth. to brain
Carry the stimuli from these organs
(iii) Mandibular nerve Mixed ,, Lower lip and skin of jaw
to brain
(6) Abducens nerves Motor Pons Eye muscles external rectus Movement of eye ball
(7) Facial nerves Mixed Pons — —
Carry the impulses from roof of
(i) Palatinus Sensory — In the roof of mouth cavity
mouth cavity
Muscles of low jaw, muscles Carry the impulses from brain
(ii) Hyomandibular Motor — of neck and pinna (external muslces of lower jaws, neck and
ear) pinna.
Receives the stimuli from the taste
In salivary glands and taste
(iii) Chordotympani Mixed — buds and carry the stimulus to
buds
salivary gland.
(8) Auditory nerves Sensory Medulla, pons — —
Semicircular canals, saccule, Receives impulses from the internal
(i) Vestibular nerve ,, —
utricle. ear and carry to brain for equilibrium
(ii) Cochlear nerve ,, — Cochlea Impulses associate with hearing.

Glossopharyngeal Taste buds present in tongue Secretion of saliva, taste muscle
(9) Mixed In medulla
nerve and muslces of oesphagus sense (proprioception)
th
Arising from medulla, 9
th
and 10 cranial nerves
(10) Vagus nerve Mixed unites to form vagus — —
nerve but become
separate and divide into
branches
(1) Smooth muscles contraction and
(i) Superior laryngeal relaxation.
Motor — Glottis, trachea, lung muscle (2) Secretion of digestive juice.
nerve
(3) Muscle sense (proprioception)
(ii) Recurrent
Motor — Glottis, trachea, lungmuscle. (4) Sensation of visceral organs.
laryngeal nerve
(iii) Cardiac nerve Motor — Heart Muscles From brain to heart muscles
Carry impulse from these organs to
In the abdominal cavity, in
(iv) Pneumogastric Motor — brain and from brain to muscles of
stomach and lungs.
these organs.
(v) Depresser nerve Motor — Diaphragm Carry the impulse to diaphragm
Muscles of neck and
shoulders, voluntary muscles Swallowing movements, movement
(11) Spinal accessory Motor Medulla
of pharynx, larynx, and soft of head.
palate.
Movement of tongue during speech,
(12) Hypoglossal nerve Motor Medulla Muscles of tongue and neck and swallowing, proprioception
(Muscle sense).

Spinal nerves : Spinal nerves arise from gray matter of spinal cord. There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves
in man (37 pairs in rabbit). All spinal nerves are mixed. The spinal nerves in man are divided into 5 groups.
(1) Cervical (C) 8 pairs –– in Neck region
(2) Thoracic (T) 12 pairs –– in thoracic region
(3) Lumbar (L) 05 pairs –– upper part of abdomen
(4) Sacral (S) 05 pairs –– lower part of abdomen
(5) Coccygeal (CO) 01 pairs –– represent the tail nerves
Total = 31 pairs
Number of spinal nerves in frog is 10 pairs.
Spinal nerve formula can be written as – C8, T12, L5, S5, CO1,
Autonomic nervous system was discovered by Langley.

Autonomic nervous system (ANS) automatically regulates the activities of smooth muscles, cardiac
muscles and glands.
This co-ordination is involuntary. Autonomic nervous system usually operates without conscious con-
trol.
Autonomic nervous system is entirely motor. All autonomic axons are efferent fibres.
Autonomic nervous system is regulated by centres in brain like cerebral cortex, hypothalamus and
medulla oblongata.
Autonomic fibres release chemical transmitters at synapse. On the basis of the transmitter produced,
these fibres may be classified as cholinergic or adrenergic.
Cholinergic fibres release acetylcholine. Adrenergic fibres produce norepinephrine (noradrenaline), also
called sympathetin.
Nature of autonomic control : The autonomic nervous system regulates and co-ordinates such vital
involuntary activities like heart beat, breathing, maintenance of the composition of body fluids (= homeosta-
sis) and body temperature, gut peristalsis, secretion of glands, etc. Autonomic nervous system consists of
two divisions –
(1) Sympathetic ANS (Thoracolumbar out flow)
(i) Thoraco Lumber out flow (all thorocic + 3 lumber)
(ii) Preganglionic nerve small.
(iii) Post ganglionic nerve long.
(iv) Preganglionic nerve secrete acetyl choline.
(v) Postganglionic nerve secrete sympathatin. (nor-epinephrine)
(vi) It shows sympathy (generally increase the function).
(vii) Expenditure of energy takes place.
(viii) It increase defence system of body against adverse condition.
(ix) It is active in stress condition, pain, fear and anger.
(2) Parasympathatic ANS (Cranio-sacral out flow)
(i) ANS Cranio sacral outflow (cranial-III, VII, IX, X Nerves)-(sacral-II, III, IV Nerves)
(ii) Preganglionic nerve long.
(iii) Postganglionic nerve small.
(iv) Secrete acetyl choline only.
(v) It provide relaxation, comfort, pleasure, at the time of rest.
(vi) Restoration and conservation of energy takes place.

(vii) Collateral ganglia present in sympathetic nervous system.
(viii) Horner’s syndrome results from the damage of sympathetic trunk of one side.
(ix) A patient of Horner’s syndrome exhibits lack of sweating (on affected side), sunken eyes and constricted
pupil.
S.No. Name Sympathetic Parasympathetic

Acetyl choline and
1 Secretion Acetyl choline only
Sympathiatin
2 Blood pressure Increase Decrease
Blood vessel to
3 Constrict Dilate
skin
Blood vessel to
4 Dilate Constrict
heart
Blood vessel to
5 lung and Dilate Constrict
muscle
6 Pupil Dilate Constrict
7 Lacrymal gland Stimulate Inhibits
8 Heart beat Increase Decrease

Adrenal
9 Stimulate Inhibit
secretion
Breathing and
10 Increase Decrease
BMR
11 Nostrils Dilate Constrict
12 Urinary bladder Relax Constrict
13 Iris Constrict Dilate
14 Salivary gland Decrease Increase
15 Digestive gland Decrease Increase
16 Gut peristalsis Decrease Increase
17 Ejaculation Increase Decrease
18 Bile Decrease Increase
19 Renin (kidney) Increase Decrease
20 Bronchi Dilate Constrict
Cutting of sympathetic or parasympathetic nerve to heart will not stop functioning of heart. Heart will beat
but without any nervous control.
Autonomic nervous system functions rapidly to alter visceral functions (3-5 seconds).
It is activated mainly by centers located in spinal cord, brain stem and hypothalamus. Limbic cortex also
influences its function often this system function via visceral reflexes i.e. sensory signal enter auto-
nomic ganglia spinal cord brain stem or hypothalamus can elicit reflex responses back to
visceral organs to control their activities.

Sensory Organ
How are environmental changes detected ? In its broadest context, sensation is the conscious or uncon-
scious awareness of external or internal stimuli. Cells which are specialised to receive stimulation called
receptors.
The sensory system consists of simple to complex structures called sensory receptors. An animal re-
sponds to a stimulus in a four-step process – sensory transduction, transmission, Integration and Re-
sponse.
Human have binocular vision. The eye can discriminate colour, appraise length, width and depth visually and
form true inverted image.
12.1 Structure of Eye
Diagram showing parts of an eye
The eyes are two in number and lodged in orbits (bony socket) of skull. The eye is a hollow, spherical
organ, about 2.5 cm in diameter and about 6 to 8 gram in weight. It has two parts –
(1) Protective devices : Eye has four protective devices.
(i) Eye brows : The outwardly directed hair of the eyebrows carry the sweat and rain drops trickling down
the forehead to the sides to prevent their falling into the eyes.
(ii) Eye lids (Palpebrae) : In man two eyelids are present, upper is movable. They are regularly closed at
short intervals to clean the cornea. This is called blinking. In frog out of two upper eyelid is immovable and
lower eyelid is movable. Nictitating membrane is present in frog which protect eye in water. Movement of
nictitating membrane takes place by retractor bulbi. It becomes folded by levator bulbi.
A nonfunctional vestigeal nictitating membrane, called plica semilunaris, occurs in human eyes. It remains
permanently retracted at the inner angle of each eye.

(iii) Eye lashes : The eyelids bear at the free edge a row of stiff hair, the eye lashes. These check the
entry of dust particles, tiny insects and rain drops into the eyes.
Anterior cavity (contains aqueous humor)

Light
Anterior chamber
Scleral venous sinus Visual
(canal of schlemm) Posterior axis Cornea
chamber Pupil
Iris
Lens Zonular fibers of lens
Lacrimal sac
Bulbar conjunctiva
Ciliary muscle
Ciliary body
Ciliary process Ora serrata
Retina
Choroid
Hyaloid canal
Sclera
Medial rectus muscle Lateral rectus muscle
Viterous chamber
(contains vitreous body)
Medial Lateral
Central retinal artery

and vein
Optic disc Central fovea

Optic nerve (cranial nerve ii)
(blind spot)
Superior view of transverse section of right eyeball
(iv) Eye glands

(a) Meibomian gland : The eye-lids bear at the free edge a row of meibomian gland that is modified
sebaceous gland. (Act as a lumbricant).
(b) Lacrimal gland or Tear gland : It lies in the upper outer part of the orbit and secretes a slightly saline,
watery fluid that contains a bacteriolytic enzyme named lysozyme. This secretion moistens the surface of
the eyeball. The excess of this secretion passes through nasolacrimal duct. It is modified sweat gland.
(c) Harderian gland : Some aquatic mammals (whale) possess harderian gland which lubricate nictitating
membrane. It is also found in frog and birds.
(d) Glands of zeis (zis) : These are modified sebaceous gland, found at base of hair follicle of eye lashes,
pour lubricating fluid in hair follicle. Infection of these glands is stye.
(e) Glands of Moll : It is modified sweat gland and open into the follicles of eyelashes.
In human meibomian, lachrymal, Moll’s glands, and zeis glands are present.
(v) Connective tissue : A layer of fatty connective tissue surrounds the eyeball. It serves as a soft
shockproof pad.
(2) Eye ball : Eye ball is made up of 3 coats or tunic.
(i) Sclerotic layer (Fibrous tunica) : Outer most and opaque, fibrous and non-vascular layer easily seen
as white of the eye. It is a coat of dense connective tissue made up of collagen fibers and fibroblasts.
Sclera covers entire eye ball except cornea, gives shape to eye ball. Sclera in frog is cartilaginous.
(a) Cornea : In the centre, sclerotic layer it merges with the transparent round window called cornea.
(b) Conjunctiva : The cornea and exposed part of sclera are covered externally by a thin, transparent
membrane the conjunctiva.
(ii) Choroid layer (Vascular tunica) : Also known as uvea middle. it is vascular layer which supplies
nutrients to the eye. It is distinguished into three parts choroid, ciliary body and iris.
(a) Choroid : It is highly vascular posterior portion of vascular tunic. The choroid occurs in the main part
of eye ball adhered to the sclerotic. (The pigment is reddish in rabbit and black, brown or bluish in man).
(b) Ciliary body : Ciliary body is vascular and pigmented like choroid, made up of ciliary processes and
ciliary muscles (only circular type). The ciliary body is hidden by iris. The ciliary body helps in accommo-
dation by altering the focus of eye from object or the shape of lens near or far vision.
(c) Iris : Beyond the ciliary body, the vascular tunic sharply turns inwards, forming a circular, shelf-like
diaphragm called iris. The colour of the iris is responsible for colour of eye e.g., brown, black, blue or
green. In albinos, iris is deficient of pigments.
Lens :
Lens is colourless, transparent and fibrous crystaline structure made up of protein ( and crystalline
protein) and enclosed in lens membrane.
It is ectodermal in origin. Lens is lodged in eye ball by suspansory ligament of ciliary body.
Suspansory ligaments are known as “Zonula of Zinn”. In man lens is biconvex while in frog it is
elliptical (subspherical).
Lens divide the eye ball in 2 chamber outer aqueous chamber (partially divided into a large anterior and
a smaller posterior chamber) filled with aqueous humor (watery) formed by ciliary body and inner
vitreous chamber filled with vitreous jelly (or Wharton’s jelly) containing 99% water, some salt a little
mucoprotein (vitrein) and hyaluronic acid.
(iii) Retina (Neurosensory tunica) : It is innermost, thin and transparent, purplish red due to the present
of the eye pigment rhodopsin (in rods) or visual purple which was extracted by Kuhne (1876) and named
‘Schpurpur’ (Visual purple). Made up of 4 distinct layer –
(a) Cuboidal pigmented epithelium (towards choroid).
(b) Layer of rods and cones.
(c) Layer of bipolar neurons.
(d) Layer of ganglia (Towards vitreous chamber innermost).
Pigmented
layer Rod
Cone
Photoreceptor
layer
Outer synaptic
layer
Horizontal cell
Bipolar cell
Bipolar cell
layer Amacrine cell
Inner synaptic
layer
Ganglion cell layer Ganglion cell
Optic nerve
Retinal blood
vessel
Nerve impulses
propagate along optic
nerve toward optic disk
Microscopic structure of the retina

Area centralis of retina :
A little part of retina that lies upon the optical axis is called area centralis. Here, the retina is very thin
and contains only cone cells filled with a yellow pigment.
Hence, this part is called yellow spot or maculla lutea.
In man (Rabbits) and other mammals, but not in frogs, this area has a small shallow dispression called
fovea centralis.
The latter is the most sensitive part of an eye, i.e. the area of most acute vision. It is also claimed that
the cone cells in fovea centralis are placed somewhat obliquely.
So that these can form magnified images of object.

Blind spot (Optic disc) :
At this point, the optic nerve turns towards the outer side, pierces through the whole thickness of the
wall of eyeball, forming an optic foramen and runs to the brain.
Obviously, the region of optic foramen has no retina.
It therefore, does not take part in image formation and is called blind spot.
Ora seratta : The function retina terminates anteriorly along an irregular border, the ora seratta.
12.2 Working of eye
(a) Mechanism of light perception : The human eye has two functional parts – Dioptric or Focus-
sing part and Receptor part.
(i) Focussing part : It consists of conjunctiva, cornea, aqueous humour lens and vitreous humour. These
part are transparent and act as lenses. They refract the light rays passing through the eye to bring them to
a focus on the retina. Maximum refraction is caused by the cornea, which places the image approximately
on the retina. The lens effects fine adjustment and brings the image into a sharp focus.
(ii) Receptor part : It comprises the retina. The image formed on the retina is inverted and smaller. It
converts the energy of specific wave lengths of light into action potential in nerve fibre.
(b) Pathway of sensory impulses from eye to brain : The nerve impulses generated in the retina of the
eye in response to light follow a definitive path and terminates in visual cortex in each optic lobe which act
as primary visual center.
12.3 Biochemistry of eye
The receptor cells of eye are called photoreceptor or visual cells. They are of two types – Rod cells and
Cone
Right visual field
Left visual field
Retina
Optic nerve
Optic chiasma
Optic tract
Lateral geniculate body
Recticular formation
Superior colliculus
Visual cortex in occipital lobes (integreted

interpretation action; memory)
(a) Rod cells :

The rod cells contain a purplish pigment called visual purple or rhodopsin.
They function in dim light and at night.
They produce poorly defined images. Bright light splits rhodopsin into a lipoprotein scotopsin and a
carotenoid pigment retinal (retinine) a process called bleaching.
The spiliting of rhodopsin depolarizes the rod cell and it releases a neurotransmitter, passing the nerve
impulse via bipolar neuron and ganglion cells to the optic nerve.
In the dark, rhodopsin is resynthesized from scotopsin and retinal.
This process is called ‘dark adaptation’. It makes the rods functional.
It takes sometime for rhodopsin to be reformed.
This is why on entering a dark room at daytime or on coming out of a well lighted room at night we feel

blind for a while, when we go from darkness into bright light, we feel difficulty in seeing properly for a
moment till rhodopsin is bleached and cones become functional.
(b) Cone cells :
Cones contain iodopsin which is visual violet and made up of photopsin + retinal. The 3 types of cones
are erythrolobe (775 nm sensitive tored), cyanolabe (430 nm sensitive to blue) and chlorolabe (sensitive
to green 535 nm).
However, if all the cone, types are simultaneously stimulated by equal amounts of coloured light than
sensation for white light is perceived.
Diurnal animals are adapted to see during day light (Photopic vision) and can perceive colour. In dark,
colours are not perceived. Such animals have more cones in their eye than rods.
12.4 Accommodation :
Light passes through many refractive surfaces before it is focussed on the retina forming an inverted
and true image. The main sites of refraction are cornea aqueous humor iris lens (position
can be altered by ciliary body : accommodation) posterior chamber (= vitreous humor) retina (
in fovea).
The refractive index of the eye varies from 59 diopter (when the lens is at rest) to about 71 diopter
(when lens is bulging in maximum accomodation).
The accommodation reflex occurs when the eye changes its focus from a far away object to nearer
one.
The change in strength of the lens provides the physiological basis of accommodation.
Radial and circular muscle fibres of ciliary muscles play an important role in this as they contract
reflexively (parasympathetic control) and increase lens strength.
The pupil constricts. This facilitates increase in sharpness of image.
Ageing causes loss of accomodation.
(1) Types of vision

(i) Binocular Vision : Man has binocular vision in which both the eyes are focussed on the same object but
from slightly different angles. The visual fields of both eyes overlap and the foveae of both are focused on
the same object. This provides depth to the images, i.e., gives stereoscopic or 3D effect and enables man
to judge distances correctly.
(ii) Vision in other animals : Primates and predatory animals, such as owl and cat, have binocular vision.
In some animals, such as rabbit, birds, each eye is focussed on a separate object. This is termed monocular
vision.
(iii) Colour vision : It is the ability of some animals to detect colours in an object. Humans, apes, monkeys,
and most fishes, amphibians, reptiles and birdss have strong colour vision. The insects and crayfish also
have colour vision. In vertebrates, colour vision results from the activity of cone cells. Most domestic and
nocturnal mammals and sharks lack colour vision. They probably see objects in shades of grey (monochrome
vision).
(iv) Nocturnal and Diurnal vision : Man has both day vision and night vision as he has both rods and
cones in considerable numbers in the retina. Most birds have only day vision as their retina contains mainly
cones. Owls have much better night vision than day vision for they possess a large number of rods and few
cones in their retina.
(2) Range of vision : The visible range of spectrum varies in animals. Bees, ants, spiders and goldfish
can see ultraviolet light, which is invisible to man.
(3) Eye movement : In eye orbit eyeball remain attached with 6 extrinsic muscles.
Out of six, first four are rectus and last two are oblique muscles.
(1) Anterior rectus or Internal ractus (2) Posterior rectus or External ractus
(3) Inferior rectus (4) Superior rectus
(5) Inferior oblique muscle (6) Superior oblique muscle

Superior oblique
Upper eyelid muscle
Superior rectus
Internal rectus
Pupil
External rectus
Inferior rectus
Lower eyelid Interior oblique
muscle
Extrinsic muscles of eyeball
(4) Eye defects

(a) Myopia
(i) Also known as near sightness. (ii) Short sightness.
(iii) Near object is clear. Far object is not clear. (iv) Eyeball become longer.
(v) Image is formed before retina. Can be removed by concave lens.
(b) Hypermetropia
(i) Also known as hypermetropia or long sightness.
(ii) Far sightness.
(iii) Far object is clear, near object is not clear.
(iv) Eye ball become short.
(v) Image is formed behind the retina.
(vi) Can be removed by convex lens or lens convient.

(c) Astigmatism
(i) Curvature of cornea become irregular and image is not clearly form.
(ii) Can be removed by cylindrical lens.
(d) Cataract
(i) It is due to defective protein metabolism.
(ii) During this lens or cornea sometime both become opaque.
(iii) Operation is needed.
(e) Glaucoma
(i) It is due to increase in intraocular pressure in aqueous chamber.
(ii) Operation is needed at early stage due to blockage of schlemm’s canal.
(f) Trachoma
(i) It is increased in redness of eye and more secretion of watery fluid.
(ii) It is due to infection of bacteria, chlamidia trachamastis.
(iii) Due to this follicles may form in conjunctiva.
(g) Xeropthalmia
(i) It is due to deficiency of vitamin A. (A2)
(ii) During this conjunctiva or cornea becomes keratinized.
(iii) It may lead to blindness.
(h) Strabismus
(i) In this type eyeball remain in some what in bended position.
(ii) It is due to long extra ocular muscles during development of eye.
(iii) Operation is needed at early stage.
(iv) Also associated with squint.
(i) Presbiopia
(i) During this power of accommodation of lens decreases due to age factor and defected metabolism.
(ii) Also known as age sightness.
(iii) Can be removed by bifocal lens.
(j) Photophobia : No clear image in bright light.
(k) Emmetropia : Normal vision.
13.1 Phonoreceptor and Mechanism of hearing or auditory sensations and equilibrium

Also known as stato-acuostic organ. It is the receptor for balancing and hearing which is sensitive for
gravity and sound waves. It is also sensitive in orientation of body. It is also known as mechano receptor
because of it change mechanical energy of sound waves in to action potential.
Structure of Ear
Ear of mammal is divided in to 3 parts –
(1) External ear : It is made up of pinna and auditory meatus. Pinna is found in only mammals. Its upper
rounded part is helix and lower is ear lobe. It is made up of adipose connective tissue and elastic carti-
lage and has ear muscles which are vestigeal in case of human beings. Pinna collect the sound waves
and drive towards auditory meatus.
Auditory meatus is 25 mm. long canal lined by simple columnar epithelia and made up of fibro elastic
cartilage. It possesses ceruminus gland which secrete cerumin (ear wax). Cerumin trap the dust particles
and microbes.
Tympanic membrane : It is also called ear drum and present at the junction of auditory meatus and
tympanic cavity.
(2) Middle ear : The cavity of middle ear is known as tympanic cavity which is enclosed by tympanic bulla
bone of skull and filled with air. Middle ear separated from external ear by ear drum and from internal ear by
thin bony portion or partition with two openings known as oval and round window.
Diagrammatic view of ear
(i) Ear ossicle : A chain of three small, movable bones, the auditory or ear ossicles crosses the tym-
panic cavity. The outer ossicle is attached to the inner surface of the tympanic membrane.
Ear Ossicles
Ear ossicle Shape Modification of

Hammer Articular bone of
M – Malleus
shaped lower jaw.
Anvil
I – Incus Quadrate bone
shaped
Steirrup Hyomandibular of
S – Stapes
shaped columella
In man ear ossicles are known as H.A.S. stapes is the smallest bone of the body. In frog only stapes is
present.
(ii) Joints
(iii) Muscles
Tenser tympani : Limits movements and increases tension on eardrum to prevent damage to inner ear
from loud sound.
(iv) Eustachian tube : It is made up of elastic cartilage and it connect middle ear to nosopharynx. It
maintain equilibrium in and out side of the tympanic membrane. Blocking of eustachian tube impairs

hearing due to imperfect vibrations of drum. Eustachian tube is normally closed, it opens during swallowing
and yawning.
(v) Fenestrae : Between middle ear and internal ear a thin bony membrane is present which possess two
apertures (Windows).
(a) Fenestra ovalis : It is upper window, connect middle ear to internal ear and guarded by membrane.
End of stapes is fit on the upper window. It is towards vestibule so it is also known as F. vestibuli.
(b) Fenestra rotundus : It is ventral window, connect middle ear to internal ear and guarded by membrane.
It is towards scala tympani so it is also known as F. Tympani (also known as F. cochleae).
(3) Internal ear (Membranous labyrinth) : Internal ear is also known as membranous labyrinth and
enclosed by bony labyrinth. Bony labyrinth is formed by periotic bone or petrous. A cavity is present
between membranous labyrinth and bony labyrinth known as perilymphatic space. It is filled with perilymph
and endolymph is found in membranous labyrinth. The membranus labyrinth consists of 2 parts – Vestibule
and Cochlea.
Bony labyrinth
(contains perilymph)
Semi circular canal (contains Membranous labyrinth

semicircular ducts) (contains endolymph)
Ampulla of semicircular canal

Utricle
Anterior Endolymphatic sac
Posterior Vestibule
Lateral Saccule
Cochlea
Cochlear
Ampulla of semicircular duct
duct
Oval window
Secondary tympanic membrane in round
window
Section through the cochlea (Semicircular canals, vestibule and

cochlea of the right ear
(i) Vestibule : The vestibule is a central sac like part. It further consists of 2 chambers large – Utriculus
(Upper) and smaller – sacculus (lower).
(a) Semicircular canal : From utriculus 3 semicircular canals arise these are –
Anterior semicircular canal (Superior)
Posterior semicircular canal (Inferior)
Horizontal semicircular canal (External)
They are perpendicular each other.
Crus commune : A common part of anterior and posterior semicircular canal arise from dorsal region of
utriculus is known as crus commune.
Ampulla : Terminal part of the each semicircular canal is enlarged to form an ampulla.
Crista : Each ampulla has a sensory spot called crista ampullaris or simply crista, for equilibrium.

(b) Sacculus : It is a lower chamber of vestibule. From the lower part of the sacculus arises a short tube,
the ductus reuniens, that joins the cochlear duct.
Ductus endolymphaticus : It is filled with endolymph and arises from the junction of utriculus and sacculus.
Macula : are present in utriculus and sacculus. it is a group of sensory cells. In man (Rabbit) 2 maculas
are present. (A crista resembles a macula in structure except that lies on an elevation, the acoustic ridge,
its sensory cells have longer “hair”, and its gelatinous mass is dome shaped, lacks otoliths and is called
cupula.)
S.No. Crista Macula

Found in ampulla of Found in vestibule i.e.
1
semi-circular canal sacculus and utriculus.
2 Their total number is 3 Only 2 are present
No otolith Otolith present
3
Long auditory hairs Short auditory hair
4
Facilitate maintenance Help in static equilibrium
of dynamic equilibrium and linear acceleration
and angular e.g. tilting of head or body
5
acceleration e.g. at rest and rapid forward
rotational movement of movement.
head
Otolith : Also known as otoconia made up of protein and calcium carbonate and present in endolymph.
(ii) Cochlear duct and Cochlea : It is a spirally coiled tube (2 – 3 coiling) which is connected to sacculus
by a short duct. It is divided into 3 chambers by 2 membranes.
(a) Scala vestibuli : Upper chamber filled with – perilymph - connect with middle ear by F. ovalis, or oral
window.
(b) Scala media (Real cochlear duct) : Middle chamber filled with – endolymph.
(c) Scala tympani : Lower chamber filled with – perilymph connect with middle ear by F. Tympani or round
window.
(d) Reissner’s membrane : Present at the roof of scala media, it saparate S.M. to S.V.

Diagrammatic representation of the sectional view of cochlea
(e) Basilear membrane : Present at the base of S.M. It is thicker than Reissner’s membrane and it
separates S.M. to S.T.
(f) Modiolus : A bony core around which bony spiral canal of cochlea make 2 3/4 turns or coils in man.
(g) Helicotrema : A aperture present in scala media which connect scala vestibuli to scala tympani is
known as helicotrema.
(h) Tectorial membrane : Tectorial membrane is a leaf like gelatinous structure present at the dorsal side
of organ of corti.
(i) Organ of corti : Discovered by Italian anatomist Alfanso-Corti. Also known as ridges of corti which are
present in basiler membrane. Organ of Corti contains a variety of cells. They receives nutrients from
endolymph. The cells of organ of Corti are following types
Tectorial membrane Outer receptor hair cells
Hairs Cells of hensen
Inner hair cell
Supporting cell
Basilar Deiter's cells

Cochlear branch of membrane
vestibulocochlear nerve (viii)
Detailed structure of organ of corti

(vertical section)
13.2 Mechanism of sound perception

Vone Beskey won the Nobel prize for his work on ear. The mechanism found in ear involve two unrelated
functions : Hearings and equilibrium.
Ear
[Utriculus + sacculus] Semicircular canals Cochlea (Organ of corti)

(Macula) (Crista)
Static equilibrium Dynamic equilibrium Hearing

(a) Hearing :
The ear not only detects sound but also notes its direction, judges its loudness and determines its pitch
(frequency) sound waves are collect by the pinna and directed inward through the external auditory
meatus (frequency 430 cycle per second).
Here they strike the tympanic membrane. The latter begins to vibrate at the same frequency as that of
the sound waves.
From the tympanic membrane, the vibration are transmitted across the tympanic cavity by the ear
ossicles to the membrane of the fenestra ovalis.
The force of vibrations is considerably increased in the middle ear by leverage of the ossicles and also
by much smaller surface area of the membrane of fenestra ovalis than that of the tympanic membrane.
(The frequency is 2400 cycle/sec).
Increase in frequency is important because the sound wave are transmitted from air to a fluid medium.
The membrane of fenestra ovalis transmits the vibrations to the perilymph of the scala vestibuli and
hence via Reissner’s membrane to the endolymph in the scala media.
From here the vibrations are transferred to the basilar membrane and the perilymph in the scala tympani.
Vibration of the endo lymph of the scala media cause the basilar membrane of this chamber vibrate.
Vibrations of the basilar membrane make the “sensory hair” of receptor cells in the organ of corti move
in the overlying gelatinous membrane (Tectorial membrane) and get distorted.
This stimulation causes depolarisation of the receptor cells and initiation of nerve impulse in the fibres
of the auditory nerve.
The nerve impulse travels via relay centers e.g. spiral ganglion cochlear nuclei superior auditory
nuclei inferior colliculi auditory cortex of cerebrum (The cerebral cortex interprets the impulses
as sound).
The various steps in the mechanism of hearing
Human ear can hear a frequency of 500 to 5000 hertz (Hz; 1 Hz = 1 cycle/second). However, it can
hear the complete range of frequencies from 20 – 20,000 Hz only with intense sound.
Sound energy is measured in terms of units called decibels (dB). Sounds in our city homes average
40 – 50 dB, but street noise averages 70 – 80 dB.
Sounds up to 80 dB are considered bearable by man, but higher sound intensity are hazardous, causing
nervous stress, irritability, increased blood pressure etc.
Non stop noise of 90 or more dB produces temporary deafness. 160 dB sound can cause total deafness
by rupturing our ear drum.
Sound becomes uncomfortable to normal ear at about 120 dB.

Auditory
cortex
Median geniculate
body
Inferior colliculus
Mid brain
Cochlear nerve
Medulla
Cochlea of Superior auditory nucleus

right ear
Cochlea of left ear
Biaural
Pathway of sound perception from organ of corti in cochlea to

auditory cortex of cerebrum
(b) Equilibrium : Sound become painful above 140 dB. Exposure to certain antibiotics, such as gentamycin
some anticancer drugs, loud sound, loud music, or engine rear of jet planes, vacuum cleaners, damages
hair cells of cochlea.
(i) Static equilibrium and linear acceleration :
Maculae detect changes in the head (or body) with respect to gravity (static equilibrium) and in the
movement in one direction (linear acceleration).
With a change in the position of the body, the otoliths, being heavier than the endolymph, press upon
the sensory hairs of the maculae.
This stimulates the sensory cells which initiates nerve impulse in the fibres of the auditory nerve.
The macula of utricle responds to vertical movements of the head, and the macula of saccule responds
to lateral (sideways) movement of the head.
On rapid forward movement, the otoliths, because of having greater inertia than the surrounding en-
dolymph, lag behind and press back the sensory hair, stimulating the sensory cells to generate nerve
impulses.
(ii) Dynamic equilibrium :
Cristae detect turning or rotational movements of the head (angular acceleration).
When the head is turned, the endolymph in the semicircular ducts, due to its inertia, does not move as
fast as the head and the sensory cells of the crista, but continues to move after the head stops moving.
Because of this difference in the rate of movement, the sensory hair of the cristae are swept through
the endolymph and become bent over.
This disturbance stimulates the sensory cells and sets up action potential in the fibres of the auditory
nerve, which transmits it to the brain.
Since the three semicircular ducts are arranged in three different planes, a movement of the head in
any direction will stimulate the sensory cells of at least one crista.
13.3 Defects of ear
(1) Labyrinthine disease : Malfunction of inner ear.
(2) Meniere’s disease : Loss of hearing due to defect in cochlea.
(3) Otitis media : Acute infection of middle ear.
(4) Eustachitis : Inflammation of eustachian tube.
(5) Myringitis (Tymanitis) : Inflammation of eardrum.
(6) Otalgia : Earache (pain in ear)

Multiple sclerosis is the destruction of myelin sheath of neurons of CNS.
An American scientist Roger Sperry got Nobel Prize in 1981 for his outstanding work on split brain theory.
Parkinson’s disease or Paralysis agitans is a defect of brain.
Parkinsonism is characterised by tremors and progressive rigidity of limbs caused by a degeneration of
brain neurons and a neurotransmitter called dopamine.
Optic bigemina : Two optic lobes in brain and are found from fishes to birds.
Cerebellum is also called little brain.
Optic chiasma is meant for binocular vision.
Nervous disorders
Agnosia : Failure to recognize;
Alexia : Failure to read;
Agraphia : Failure to write;
Aphasia : Failure to speak (due to injury to Broca’s area)
Analgesia : Loss of sensation of pain;
Anesthesia : Loss of feeling;
Insomnia : Inability to sleep;
Amnesia : Partial or complete loss of memory;
Coma : Complete loss of consciousness.
Aproxia : Inability to carry out purposeful movements.
Brain stem : Diencephalon + mid brain + pons + medulla oblongata.
Cerebro vascular accident (C.V.A) or stroke : Blocking of blood supply of a part of brain.
Alzheimer : It is the disease appearing usually after 65 year. It is characterized by dementia usually.
Usually in this disease is ACH producing neurons of cerebral cortex and hippocampal lobe are degener-
ated. It is also seen that a amyloid protein is accumulated in the brain. It is the matter of research.
The jumping of action potential from node to node (of Ranvier) in a myelinated fiber is called saltatory
conduction.
Intelligence quotient (I.Q.) is the ratio of mental age to chronological age multiplied by 100.
Neurons stops dividing after birth.
Transmission of nerve impulse can be recorded with the help of oscilloscope.
Bipolar nerve cell and ganglia cell are found in the retina.
Arbor vitae are composed of white matter.
IIIrd, IVth and VIth cranial nerves control eye-ball movement.
Cerebellum of post brain involved in loss of control when a person drinks alcohol.
The minimum current required to stimulate a nerve is called rheobase or threshold current of firing level of
impulse. It is about 15 mv.
The glial cells that form the blood brain barrier by lining brain capillaries are the astrocytes.
Hydra has false nervous system but not brain.
Unipolar nerve cells are found in vertebrates embryo.
Saltatory conduction is found in all vertebrates.
Corpus callosum is absent in the brain of prototherians and metatherians both.
Degeneration or imperfect development of corpus callosum in human brain results in a neurological
disorder called schizophrenia.

-amino butyric acid is a neurotransmitter.
Acetylcholine is the cardiac inhibitor.
5-Hydroxy tryptamine is a chemical transmitter.
Spike phase of action potential is 2 m. sec.
EEG - Electro-Encephalogram : Electrical tracing of the cerebral cortex is call EEG Berger in 1929 was
first to record EEG. Instrument for the recording is Electroencephalograph or cathode ray oscilloscope.
It is record of brain wave. Brain waves are of following type
(i) –wave : These are rhythmic waves (8-13 cycles per second. These are produced in normal awaking
condition. These disappear in sleep.
(ii) –wave ; 14-30 cycle per second. These are produced when nervous system is active e.g. Mental work
(iii) –wave : 5-8 cycle per second. Produced in children.
(iv) –wave : 1-5 cycle per second. In normal condition these are produced in awake infants. These are
produced in deep sleep. In damage condition of the brain waves may produce in awaking condition in
adults.
The sensation of sight in human brain is perceived by occipital lobe.
The sensation from skin one perceived in the cerebrum in parietal lobe.
Fundamental character of chordates is the presence of dorsal hollow nerve chord.
Somesthatic & taste area present in parietal lobe of cerebrum
Epilepsy : Is second common neurological disorder is characterized by short, recurrent, periodic attacks
of motor, sensory, or psychological mal function. The attacks called epileptic seizures are initiated by
abnormal, synchronus electrical discharge from millions of Neurons in brain. Due to this, a person undergoing
an attack may contract skeletal muscles involuntarily, light, noise, smells may be sensed when eyes, ears,
nose have not been stimulated. Epilepsy has causes, including brain damage at birth (Most common
cause), hypoglycemia, hypocalcemia, hyoxia, uremia, encephalitis, meningitis, and tumorn.
Nystagmus – An uncontrolled oscillation of the eyes, is one of the symptoms of an inner-ear disease
called Meniere’s disease (from Prosper Meniere, French physician, 1799-1862).
Cones are absent in noctural animals like shrews, hedge hogs, rodents and bats.
During night the eyes of carnivores like cat, dog, lion, seal glow. It is due to tapetum lucidum a reflecting
layer next to retina, which is made of crystaline layer with zinc, cysteine and guanin
Bees can see ultraviolet light.
The normal eye is known as emmetropic.
Nocturnal animals have more rods than cones in their eye. The image formed has no colour but is black
or grey, the edges are not sharp.
Colour blindness – It is known as daltonism. It is in between red and green colour. It is genetic defect.
Colour vision is due to presence of specialise cone cell in Retina which value the sensitivity for different
colours.
Night blindness – During this rhodopsin is not resynthesized or regenerate in dim light.
Monocular vision found in frog, rabbit and horse.
Binocular vision formed in primates, ape, monkey.
Colour vision found in fishes, reptiles, amphibia.
Iridial part of Retina – It is also thin and is like wise composed only of a layer of pigmented cells. It lies in
contact with the iris.

There are only four basic modalities of taste, which are sensed most acutely in particular regions of the
tongue. These are sweet (tip of the tongue), sour (sides of the tongue), bitter (back of the tongue) and
salty (over most of the tongue.)
Cornea grafting : Cornea can be removed from a dead man’s eys, stored and grafted on another
persons’s eye to restore vision, cornea transplantation is successful because it lacks blood vessels. Eye
donation is a noble act.
Irratibility and conductivity are maximum in nervous tissue it has capacity for regeneration
Rate of conduction of impulses in motor nerve of a mammal is 100 m/sec
Meissener’s corpuscles & Merkel’s discs are tangoreceptor (touch receptor)
Pacinian corpuscles are pressure receptors
Krau’s end bulbs are frigido-receptors
Ruffini’s end organs are thermoreceptors
Tongue act as chemoreceptor
In fishes, most of the sensory organs are present at the lateral side of the body and form lateral line system
which help in balancing and to sense various stimuli with water current

Type (I) : Very Short Answer Type Questions : [01 Mark Each]
1. Name any inhibitory and excitatory neuro transmitter.
2. How many cranial and spinal nerves are present in human body?
3. Rearrange the following in the correct order of involvement in electrical impulse movement-Synaptic knob,
dendrities, cell body, Axon terminal, Axon
4. Which cells of the retina enable us to see coloured objects around us?
5. Which part of the brain maintains posture and equilibrium of the body?
6. Which is the structural and functional unit of the nervous system.
7. Which is the reflex centre of the brain.
8. Name the structure which is associated with both nervous system and endocrine system.
Type (II) : Short Answer Type Questions : [02 Mark Each]
9. How brain is protected inside a human body ?
10. What is the role of the brain in reflex action?
11. Why is a system of control and coordination essential in living organisms ?
12. Write down the parts of brain related with following functions.
(A) Memory centre (B) Hunger centre
(C) Balancing centre (D) Involuntry Action centre
13. Draw a flow chart of Reflex arc.
14. Comment upon the role of ear in maintaining the balance of the body and posture.
15. Arrange the following in the order of reception and transmission of sound wave from the ear drum :
Cochlear nerve, external auditory canal, ear drum, stapes, incus, malleus, cochlea.
Type (III) : Long Answer Type Questions: [03 Mark Each]
16. Explain the followings :
(A) Myopia (B) Astigmatism (C) Cataract
17. What are the limitations of nervous system in human body ? How it is overcome ?
18. Draw a well labelled diagram of human eye.
Type (IV) : Very Long Answer Type Questions: [05 Mark Each]
19. Explain the mechanism of nerve impulse on axon.
20. Explain the process of the transport and release of a neurotransmitter with the help of a lablelled diagram
showing a complete neuron, axon terminal and synapse.

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
oLrqfu"B iz'u ¼OBJECTIVEQUESTIONS½
Nervous Tissue
1. The efferent process of neuron is known as -
(1) Axon (2) Dendrites (3) Cyton (4) Neurofibrilae
2. Junction of two nerve fibres is called
(1) Synapse (2) Junction (3) Connection (4) None of these
3. Bundles of nerve fibres are enclosed in a sheath called
(1) Fascicle (2) Endoneurium (3) Epineurium (4) Perineurium
4. Bipolar nerve cells and ganglion cells are found in the
(1) Sclerotea (2) Cochlea (3) Retina (4) Cristae
5. Largest cell in body is
(1) Lymph (2) Osteoctyte (3) Neuron (4) Chromatophore
6. Most of the neurons of our body are
(1) Unipolar (2) Bipolar (3) Pseudounipolar (4) Multipolar
7. In the diagram of multipolar myelinated neuron given below, different parts have been indicated by alphabetes;
choose the answers in which these alphabetes have been correctly matched with the parts which they
indicate
C D F
E G
B
A
(1) A = Cell body, B = Nissl bodies, C = Nucleus, D = Dendrites, E = Naked portion of axon, F = Myelin
sheath, G = Node of Ranvier
(2) A = Cell body, B = Nissl bodies, C = Naked portion of axon, D = Dendrites, E = Nucleus, F = Myelin
(3) A = Cell body, B = Nissl bodies, C = Naked portion of axon, D = Nucleus, E = Dendrites, F = Myelin
(4) A = Cell body, B = Nissl bodies, C = Dendrites, D = Nucleus, E = Naked portion of axon, F = Myelin

8. Irritability and conductivity are maximum developed in
(1) Muscular tissue (2) Nervous tissue (3) Connective tissue (4) None of the above
9. Axons form nerve in
(1) Autonomic nervous system (2) Central nervous system
(3) Peripheral nervous system (4) All of the above
10. The function of repairing in nervous tissue is done by
(1) Glial cells (2) Nerve cells (3) Cytons (4) Only axons
11. The junction between Schwann cells is known as
(1) Plasmalemma (2) Node of Ranvier (3) Dendrons (4) Synapse
12. Some cells of our body can be over a foot long. These are
(1) Nerve cells (2) Muscle cells (3) Bone cells (4) Gland cells
13. Nissl’s granules are characteristically found in
(1) Nephrons (2) Neurons (3) Cytons (4) Dendrites
14. Which of the following tissues in mammals show the least capacity for regeneration
(1) Epithelial tissue of the skin (2) Endothelium of blood vessels
(3) Skeletal tissue of long bones (4) Nervous tissue of brain
15. Cell bodies or cyton is found in
(1) Brain (2) Spinal cord
(3) Brain and ganglia (4) Brain, spinal cord and ganglia
16. Nerve fibres conduct impulses in
(1) One direction (2) Two direction (3) Multidirection (4) None of the above
17. Neurons are classified on the basis of
(1) Number of nucleus present (2) Number of processes arising from the cell body
(3) Number of dendrites present (4) Number of axons present
18. Node of Ranvier is found in
(1) Right auricle (2) Muscle bundles (3) Dendrite (4) Axon
19. The brain develops from
(1) Ectoderm (2) Mesoderm (3) Endoderm (4) Meso-endoderm
Biochemical aspect of nervous physiology

20. Which one of the following statement in regard to nerve activity is true
(1) The synaptic cleft does not prevent direct propagation of action potential from presynaptic neuron to
post synaptic cell
(2) Information across the synaptic cleft is transmitted by means of a chemical neurotransmitter in small
vesicle
(3) Combination of neurotransmitter with receptor site changes membrane potential without changing mem-
brane potentiality
(4) In tetanus the excitatory impulse to muscles are inhibited leading to lock jaw
21. Propagation of action potential is very fast in nerve fibres which have
(1) Large fibre diameter (2) Small fibre diameter
(3) Covering of myelin sheath (4) (1) and (3) both are correct
22. The following hormones are neurotransmitters
(1) Acetylcholine and secretin (2) Cholecystokinin and acetylcholine
(3) Adrenalin and acetylcholine (4) Cholecystokinin and adrenalin
23. When a neuron is stimulated to generate nerve impulse, the electrical potential on the inside of the nerve
membrane changes
(1) From negative to positive and remains positive
(2) From negative to positive and back to negative
(3) From positive to negative and remains negative
(4) From positive to negative and back to positive
24. The potential difference in the membrane which is responsible for the conduction of an impulse is brought
about by a change in the membrane
(1) Permeability (2) Structure (3) Anions (4) Concentration
25. When an impulse passes, the membrane is depolarized and the charge of the cells is
(1) Outside positive and inside negative (2) Inside positive and outside negative
(3) Both sides have zero potential (4) Both sides are electronegative
26. Resting potential of the membrane is -
(1) – 60 to –70 mV (2) – 100 to – 10 mV (3) 50 to 100 mV (4) – 20 to – 30 mV
27. The rate of conduction of impulses in motor nerve of a mammal is
(1) 4 m/sec (2) 10 m/sec (3) 50 m/sec (4) 100 m/sec
28. The chemical causing the transmission of nerve impulse across synapses is
(1) Acetylcholine (2) Cholinesterase (3) Choline (4) Acetic acid
29. The action potential of a nerve cell is
(1) 60 mV (2) 55 mV (3) 80 mV (4) 75 mV
30. After the transmission of one impulse from the synapse, it cannot transmit another impulse because one of
the following chemical is active there
(1) Choline (2) Acetic acid (3) Acetylcholine (4) Acetylcholinesterase
31. The neuron terminates in the muscles, the terminal part is known as
(1) Button (2) Synapse (3) End plate (4) Terminal plate
32. The dendrite carries impulses
(1) Towards the cyton (2) Away from cyton
(3) Across the body (4) From one neuron to another
33. The neurotransmitter which communicates between two neurons or between a neuron and a muscle is
(1) Acetylcholine (2) Globulin (3) Rennin (4) ATP
34. Nerve impulse is
(1) Carried by afferent and efferent fibres
(2) Is not carried by any afferent or efferent fibres
(3) Is carried away by afferent fibres and brought about by efferent fibres
(4) Is brought by afferent fibres and carried by efferent fibres
35. Transmission of nerve impulse can be recorded with the help of
(1) Oscilloscope (2) Microscope (3) Spirometer (4) Microdensitometer
36. Some cell in our body can be over a feet long. They are
(1) A muscle cell (2) The bone cell (3) Nerve cell (4) Gland cell

37. The potential difference between outside and inside of a nerve before excitation is known as
(1) Resting potential (2) Action potential (3) Spike potential (4) Reaction potential
38. During transmission of nerve impulse the potential inside membrane has the following type of charge
(1) First positive, then negative and back positive
(2) First negative then positive and back negative
(3) First positive then negative and remain negative
(4) First negative then positive and remain positive
39. The medullary sheath of the nerve fibre is interrupted at intervals by
(1) Septa (2) Nodes of Ranvier (3) Synapses (4) Glia
40. When a nerve fibre is stimulated the inside of the membrane becomes
(1) Negatively charged (2) Positively charged
(3) Depolarised (4) Filled with acetylcholine
41. The mineral necessary for nervous conduction is
(1) Iron (2) Sodium (3) Phosphorus (4) Magnesium
42. Suppose the terminal ends of axon are in contact with dendrites of four adjacent neurons, the nerve
impulse of the axon will
(1) Travel in all the four neurons
(2) Get, distributed in all the four neurons resulting in a weak impulse
(3) Travel only in one neuron which is in closest contact and with the same intensity
(4) Travel in none of the neurons because the impulse travels from dendrites of one neuron into the axon of
another neuron
43. Afferent nerve fibres carry impulses from
(1) Effector organs to central nervous system (2) Receptors to central nervous system
(3) Central nervous system to muscles (4) Central nervous system to receptors
44. On nerve fibres to prevent leakage of an impulse layer of ...... is found
(1) Schwann cells (2) Neurilemma (3) Axons (4) Myelin sheath
CSF, Brain covering, Brain Cavity

45. Foramen of Monro is an aperture between
(1) 2nd and 3rd ventricle (2) Diocoel and metacoel
(3) Rhinocoel and diocoel (4) 3rd and 4th ventricle
46. The correct sequence of meninges from outer to the inner side is
(1) Arachnoid – piamater – duramater (2) Arachnoid – duramater – piamater
(3) Piamater – arachnoid – duramater (4) Duramater – arachnoid – piamater
47. All the meninges of brain are interrupted at the structure known as
(1) Neuropore (2) Anterior choroid plexus only
(3) Posterior choroid plexus only (4) Anterior and posterior choroid plexus
48. In which part of the following, the anterior choroid plexus is situated
(1) Diocoel (2) Metacoel (3) Olfactocoel (4) Optocoel

49. Metacoel is the cavity in the
(1) Cerebral hemispheres (2) Diencephalon
(3) Cerebellum (4) Medulla oblongata
50. The innermost meninx surrounding the central nervous system in frog and man respectively are
(1) Piamater and piamater (2) Arachnoid and piamater
(3) Piamater and duramater (4) Arachanoid and duramater
51. The anterior choroid plexus in the brain of man covers
(1) Corpora bigemina (2) Medulla oblongata (3) Diencephalon (4) Mesencephalon
52. The iter lies
(1) In the third ventricle (2) In the second ventricle
(3) Between the third and the fourth ventricles (4) In the lateral ventricles
53. The medulla oblongata encloses the
(1) Fourth ventricle (2) Second ventricle (3) Optic lobe (4) Otic capsule
54. Foramen of Monro is
(1) Gap in pelvic girdle of rabbit
(2) Foramen in the skull of frog
(3) Space in brain of frog and rabbit
(4) Pore in the inter-auricular septum in a mammalian heart
55. Which of the following is a richly vascular layer with lots of blood capillaries
(1) Durameter of brain (2) Piamater of spinal cord
(3) Epidermis of skin (4) Epithelial lining of trachea
56. Lateral ventricles are found in
(1) Heart (2) Brain (3) Thyroid (4) Brain and heart
57. Which one of the following cells secrete cerebrospinal fluid
(1) Ependymal cells (2) Neurons (3) Schwann cells (4) Neurilemma
58. Which of the following connect lateral ventricle of diocoel in brain with third ventricle
(1) Iter (2) Foramen of Monro (3) Corpus striatum (4) Filum terminale
59. Sub-arachnoid space is found in
(1) Piamater (2) Durameter (3) Blastocoel (4) None of the above
60. Cerebral aqua is
(1) A cavity in the ventricle of a brain (2) A fluid filled in the posterior chamber of eye
(3) A fluid filled in the sacculus of ear (4) An aperture in the auricle of heart
61. In the anatomy of man aqueduct of sylvius occurs in
(1) Ventricle of heart (2) Eye
(3) In between middle and internal ear (4) Brain
62. Foramen of Magendie is situated in
(1) Right auricle (2) Base of skull
(3) Medulla oblongata of brain (4) Posterior end of humerus

63. Which of the following forms the covering of the central nervous system of man
(1) Duramater and piamater (2) Duramater and arachnoid membrane
(3) Arachnoid membrane and piamater (4) Duramater, arachnoid mater and piamater
64. Ventricles of brain are lined by the cells called
(1) Ependymal cells (2) Neurons cells (3) Neuroglea (4) Schwann’s cells
65. Cerebrospinal fluid is produced by
(1) Ependymal cells (2) Choroid plexus (3) Neuroglial cells (4) Neurons
66. Third ventricle is present in
(1) Heart (2) Brain (3) Kidney (4) Liver
Brain & Spinal cord

67. If a person has lost his memory in an accident, the following part of the brain have got injured
(1) Diencephalon (2) Medulla oblongata (3) Cerebellum (4) Cerebrum
68. The hind brain consists of
(1) Pons + cerebellum (2) Hypothalamus + cerebellum
(3) Medulla oblongata + cerebellum (4) Medulla oblongata + cerebellum + pons
69. Which one of the following is responsible for the control of reflex action
(1) Sensory nerves (2) Motor nerves
(3) Sympathetic nervous system (4) Central nervous system
70. Learning is related to which part of the human brain
(1) Medulla oblongata (2) Hypothalamus (3) Cerebrum (4) Cerebellum
71. Which part of the brain is directly concerned with the control of heart
(1) Cerebrum (2) Diencephalon (3) Pons verolii (4) Medulla oblongata
72. The largest number of neurons are found in
(1) Brain (2) Retina (3) Spinal cord (4) Tongue
73. The branched tree like structure present in cerebellum is
(1) Arbor vitae (2) Arboreal (3) Archenteron (4) Areole
74. Crura cerebrae is found in
(1) Hind brain (2) Fore brain (3) Mid brain (4) Spinal cord
75. Olfactory lobe of rabbit is
(1) Fused and solid (2) Fused and hollow (3) Free and solid (4) Free and hollow
76. The dorsal root of spinal cord contains
(1) Somatic motor fibres (2) Visceral motor fibres
(3) Somatic sensory fibres (4) Visceral sensory fibres
77. White matter consists of
(1) Nerve fibres with myelinated sheath (2) Nerve fibres without myelinated sheath
(3) Scattered areolar tissue (4) Nerve fibres with blood vessels
78. Which part of the brain can distinguish the perfume smell
(1) Olfactory lobe (2) Olfactory bulb (3) Olfactory tract (4) Temporal cortex

79. The nervous strip connecting both the cerebral hemispheres in the rabbit is
(1) Corpus callosum (2) Corpus albicans (3) Corpus stratum (4) Corpus spongiosum
80. The thermoregulatory centre is situated in
(1) Spinal cord (2) Pituitary body (3) Cerebellum (4) Hypothalamus
81. Nissl’s granules are present in the ....... and are made up of ....... respectively
(1) Muscle cells and deoxyribo nucleic acid (2) Mast cells and RNA
(3) Osteocytes and DNA (4) Neuron and RNA
82. Space between the two adjoining neurons where the chemical transmitter is released is known as
(1) Synaptic vesicle (2) Synapse (3) Synaptic cleft (4) Terminal button
83. An injury to diencephalon may result in
(1) Loss of understanding (2) Loss of learning
(3) Loss of intelligence (4) Loss of heat sensation
84. The spinal cord terminates in -
(1) Corpus terminale (2) Coput terminale
(3) Cauda terminale (4) Filum terminale
85. Which part of the mammalian brain controls muscular co-ordination
(1) Cerebrum (2) Medulla oblongata (3) Cerebellum (4) Corpus callosum
86. Reflexes for maintaining vital functions like blood pressure are localised in
(1) Hind brain (2) Mid brain (3) Fore brain (4) Cerebrum
87. The spinal cord extends from the brain through
(1) Foramen Magnum (2) Iter (3) Anterior commissure (4) Foramen of Monro
88. In mammals, the corpus callosum connects
(1) Bone to a muscle (2) Bone to a bone
(3) The two cerebral hemispheres (4) The two optic lobes
89. Cerebral hemispheres are the centres of
(1) Thinking (2) Balance (3) Smell (4) Taste
90. Glands of Swammerdams which are calcareous glands, are found
(1) Below the cerebrum in brain
(2) In the liver of the vertebrates
(3) At the junction of medulla oblongata and spinal cord
(4) At the places of emerging of spinal nerves
91. In which part of the following, the vomiting centre is situated
(1) Cerebrum (2) Cerebellum (3) Medulla oblongata (4) Hypothalamus
92. Cerebral hemisphere is the centre of
(1) Thinking (2) Will power (3) Reasoning (4) All of these
93. When degeneration of nerve cells occur which will be affected first
(1) Dendrites (2) Motor end plates (3) Nissl granules (4) Schwann cells
94. Which one of the following is mainly used by the brain
(1) Glucose (2) Ascorbic acid (3) Folic acid (4) Glutamic acid

95. Which part of the human brain controls homeostasis
(1) Cerebrum (2) Cerebellum (3) Medulla oblongata (4) Hypothalamus
96. How many separate layers of neurons are present in the cerebral cortex
(1) 1 (2) 3 (3) 6 (4) 10
97. Arbor vitae is composed of
(1) Grey matter (2) Neuroglea cells (3) White matter(4) All the above
98. Broca’s area is situated in
(1) Frontal lobe (2) Parietal lobe (3) Temporal lobe (4) Occipital lobe
99. The control of blood sugar level, osmoregulation and thermoregulation are the function of
(1) Medulla oblongata (2) Cerebellum (3) Hypothalamus (4) Diencephalon
100. The appetite and satiety centres in the brain of man are located in the region of the
(1) Cerebral hemisphere(2) Cerebellum (3) Medulla oblongata (4) Hypothalamus
101. Other name of diancephalon is
(1) Thalamencephalon (2) Telencephalon (3) Rhombocephalon (4) Metencephalon
102. Contraction of involuntary muscles, secretion of digestive glands and rate of heart beats are under the
control of
(1) Cranial system (2) Reflex system
(3) Autonomic nervous system (4) Central nervous system
103. Ventilation is controlled by
(1) Cerebellum (2) Medulla oblongata (3) Cerebrum (4) Mesencephalon
104. Main function of cerebellum is
(1) Balancing (2) To see (3) To hear (4) Remembering
105. Breathing is controlled by
(1) Lungs (2) Trachea (3) Medulla oblongata (4) Hypothalamus
106. Medulla oblongata controls
(1) Blood pressure (2) Synapse (3) High temperature (4) Low temperature
107. Dicondyllic skull and 10 pairs of cranial nerves are found in
(1) Reptilia (2) Aves (3) Amphibia (4) All of these
Reflex, cranial nerves, PNS, ANS

108. In man which one of the following cranial nerve is associated with the sense of body balance
(1) VI (2) VII (3) VIII (4) IX
109. Which of the following cranial nerve of man is both sensory and motor
(1) Olfactory (2) Trigeminal (3) Optic (4) Auditory
110. The number of spinal nerves in man is
(1) 27 pairs (2) 31 pairs (3) 37 pairs (4) 47 pairs
111. Which of the following cranial nerves are involved in the movement of eye
(1) Optic, occulomotor, abducens (2) Occulomotor, abducens, trochlear
(3) Trochlear, abducens and optic (4) Abducens, optic, trochlear, occulomotor
112. The smallest cranial nerve in human being is
(1) Trochlear (2) Opthalmic (3) Abducens (4) Vagus

113. Parasympathetic nerves increase the mobility in
(1) Small intestine (2) Heart (3) Brain (4) None of the above
114. Neural stimulation in visceral organ in human being is done by
(1) Sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves and is under involuntary action
(2) Sympathetic nerves and is under voluntary action
(3) Sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves and is under voluntary action
(4) Parasympathetic nerves and is under voluntary action
115. The stomach pain impulses are received by receptors known as
(1) Proprioreceptors (2) Exteroreceptors (3) Free nerve ends (4) Chemoreceptors
116. The weakest current strength that can excite a tissue is called
(1) Chronaxia (2) Rheobase (3) Saltatory (4) Reflex arch
117. Purely motor nerve is
(1) Optic (2) Abducens (3) Opthalamic (4) Palatinus
118. The number of cranial nerves in rabbit/mammal is
(1) 10 pairs (2) 12 pairs (3) 24 pairs (4) 36 pairs
119. The nervous system and endocrine glands are
(1) Antagonistic (2) Synchronous (3) Independent (4) Interdependent
120. The duramater and piamater are referred as
(1) Peritoneal epithelium (2) Serosa (3) Endothelium (4) Meninges
121. Which one of the following occurs without the help of brain
(1) Cranial reflex (2) Spinal reflex (3) Efferent reflex (4) Afferent reflex
122. Parasympathetic nervous system increases the activity of
(1) Gut, iris and urinary bladder (2) Heart, adrenal and sweat gland
(3) Heart, pancreas and lachrymal gland (4) Lachrymal gland and sweat gland
123. The lungs, heart, intestine etc. are supplied by cranial nerve
(1) Trigeminal (2) Vagus (3) Abducens (4) Oculomotor
124. Reflex action immediately involves
(1) Spinal cord (2) Cerebellum (3) Medulla oblongate (4) Optical lobe
125. Gasserian ganglion is formed by the
(1) Vagus nerve (2) Trigeminal nerve (3) Trochlear nerve (4) Cervical nerve
126. IV, V and IX cranial nerves are
(1) Olfactory, spinal accessary and vagus (2) Trigeminal, vagus and glossopharyngeal
(3) Occulomotor, trigeminal and hypoglossal (4) Pathetic, trigeminal and glossopharyngeal
127. Which of the following is an example of reflex action
(1) To shoot the bird after aiming (2) Watering of the mouth on seeing good edibles
(3) To obey the order (4) To read the story

128. Heart is innervated by
(1) Trigeminal (2) Vagus (3) Glossopharyngeal (4) Facial
129. Two system which exert opposite influence on the same organs or set of organs are
(1) Endocrine and exocrine gland systems (2) Muscular and nervous system
(3) Endocrine and nervous system (4) Sympathetic and parasympathetic systems
130. A boy learns typewriting and harmonium at the same time. He finds harmonium more easy to learn. This is
(1) Conditioned reflex (2) Short term homeostasis
(3) Long term homeostasis (4) Residual learning
131. Valve of vieussens joins the
(1) Olfactory lobe to cerebrum (2) Cerebrum of diencephalon
(3) Diencephalon to optic lobe (4) Optic lobe to cerebellum
132. Corpora striata is found in
(1) Paracoel (2) Metacoel (3) Cerebrum (4) Diocoel
133. What is found in the periphery of spinal cord
(1) Grey matter (2) Myelinated nerve (3) White matter (4) Notochord
134. Which is correct about human brain
(1) It is covered by two membranes
(2) There is no blood brain barrier
(3) Largest number of cranial nerves originate from cerebral hemisphere
(4) Cerebral cortex is highly developed
135. The white matter is noted for
(1) Having nerve fibres and myelin sheaths (2) The relay of nerve impulses
(3) Possessing only the fatty sheaths (4) The storage of nerve forming cells
136. Which brain structure in rabbit is directly vision related
(1) Corpus albicans (2) Hippocampal lobe (3) Corpus callosum (4) Corpora quadiregemina
137. The pneumotaxis centre in the body is
(1) Heart (2) Lung (3) Medulla (4) Liver
138. Which is a wrong relation
(1) Conditioned reflex – Hodgkins (2) Blood circulation –W. Harvey
(3) DNA double helix model – Watson and Crick (4) None
139. Which of the following is the immediate covering of a nerve fibre
(1) Sarcoplasm (2) Perineurium (3) Epineurium (4) Endoneurium
140. The nerves leading to the central nervous system are called
(1) Efferent (2) Afferent (3) Motor (4) None
141. Spot out the parasympathetic effect
(1) Increasing blood pressure (2) Dialating pupil
(3) Secretion of digestive juice (4) Increasing cardiac output
142. The membranes enclosing the brain and spinal cord are known as
(1) Meninges (2) Meningitis (3) Nephron (4) Axon

143. The ramus communicans of the spinal nerves
(1) Joins the sympathetic chain (2) Joins the parasympathetic chain
(3) Remains independent (4) Joins the brachial plexus
144. The hypoglossal nerves are the ....... of the spinal nerves
(1) Second pair (2) Ventral roots (3) First pair (4) Sixth pair
145. The largest of the spinal nerves is constituted by the
(1) First pair (2) Brachial nerves (3) Third pair (4) Fourth pair
146. The arachnoid membrane present next to -
(1) Spinal cord (2) Otic capsule (3) Piamater (4) None of the above
147. The self governing nervous system is known as
(1) Central nervous system (2) Peripheral nervous system
(3) Autonomic nervous system (4) Sympathetic nervous system
148. Which of the cranial nerve is mixed
(1) Optic (2) Olfactory (3) Vagus (4) Trochlear
149. The second cranial nerve is
(1) Optic (2) Trigeminal (3) Olfactory (4) Abducens
150. The eighth cranial nerve (auditory) of vertebrates leads from brain to
(1) Ear (2) Eye (3) Nose (4) Tongue
151. Autonomic nervous system is
(1) Paired chain ganglia (2) Brain and spinal cord
(3) Sense organs (4) Cerebral hemispheres
152. Paralysis of jaw muscles is due to loss of function of which cranial nerve
(1) III (2) V (3) VII (4) X
153. The trigeminal nerve (V cranial nerve) arises from brain in the region of
(1) Cerebellum and divides into palatine, chorda tympani and hyomandibular
(2) Medulla and divides into palatine, chorda tympani and hyomandibular
(3) Cerebellum and divides into ophthalmic, maxillary and mandibular
(4) Medulla and divides into opthalmic, maxillary and mandibular
154. One common example of simple reflex is
(1) Tying your shoe laces while talking to anoher person and not looking at them
(2) Watering of mouth at the sight of a favourite food
(3) Climbing up a stairs in dark without stumbling
(4) Closing of eyelids when an object suddenly approaches the eye
155. Tweleve pairs of ribs and twelve pairs of cranial nerves are found in
(1) Fish (2) Frog (3) Lizard (4) Man
156. Bipolar nerve cells and ganglion cells are found in the
(1) Sclerotea (2) Cochlea (3) Retina (4) Cristae
157. The sympathetic nervous system is other wise called
(1) Visceral system (2) Mesenteric system
(3) Thoraco lumber system (4) Cervico-sacral system

158. How many pairs of cranial nerves in mammals are purely sensory
(1) Five (2) Four (3) Three (4) Two
159. The following cranial nerve plays an important role in regulating heart beat
(1) IX (2) VII (3) X (4) VIII
160. Pneumogastric nerve is known as
(1) Vagus (2) Glossopharyngeal (3) Spinal accessory (4) Hypoglossal
161. Pioneer work on conditioned reflex was done by
(1) Karmer (2) Pavlov (3) Darwin (4) Lamark
162. Longest cell in body is
(1) Lymph (2) Osteoctyte (3) Neuron (4) Chromatophore
163. Dorsal root ganglion are
(1) Mixed (2) Motor (3) Sensory (4) None of these
164. The cytons of reflex in central nervous system and autonomal nervous system is
(1) Sensory (2) Mixed (3) Motor (4) All of these
165. Reflex action in a vertebrate is an essential display exhibited by
(1) Sympathetic nerve (2) Motor nerve
(3) Sensory nerve (4) Autonomic response
166. When no intervention is done by the brain, the response is due to
(1) CNS (2) Voluntary actions (3) Spinal reflex (4) Cerebral reflex
167. The cranial nerves which are exclusively sensory in function are
(1) Olfactory and optic (2) Optic and oculomotor
(3) Hypoglossal and optic (4) Hypoglossal and olfactory
168. Function of sympathetic system is to
(1) Decrease heart beat (2) Increase heart beat
(3) Contract respiratory organ (4) Secrete saliva
169. The 3rd, 6th and 11th cranial nerves are
(1) Occulomotor, trigeminal, spinal (2) Optic, facial, spinal
(3) Occulomotor, abducens, spinal (4) Trichlear, abducens, vagus
170. If the sympathetic nerve to the heart is cut-off, the heart beat will
(1) Increase (2) Decrease (3) Remains same (4) Stop
171. The cranial nerves which control eye–ball movement are
(1) 4, 6 and 7 (2) 3, 4 and 6 (3) 2, 3 and 5 (4) 5, 8 and 9
172. Cranial nerves originating from medulla oblongata are
(1) III, VII, IX (2) IX, X, XI, XII, III (3) VII, VIII, IX, X (4) VII, IX, X, XI, XII
173. Increase in gastro-intestinal secretion and movement after ingestion of food is mainly brought about by
(1) Sympathetic nervous system (2) Parasympathetic nervous system
(3) Central nervous system (4) Hormone secreted by thyroid
174. Simple two neuron reflex arc involves
(1) Sensory neuron (2) Spinal cord (3) Effector neuron (4) All the above

175. The nerve related with diaphragm is
(1) Vagus (2) Phrenic (3) Trigeminal (4) Glossopharyngeal
176. Which cranial nerves has the highest number of branches
(1) Trigeminal (2) Facial nerve (3) Vagus nerve (4) None of these
177. Secretion of which of the following is under neurosecretory nerve axons
(1) Pineal (2) Adrenal cortex (3) Anterior pituitary (4) Posterior pituitary
178. Sympathetic nerves in mammals arise from
(1) Sacral region (2) Cervical region
(3) Thoraco-lumbar region (4) 3rd, 7th, 9th and 10th cranial nerves
179. Conditioned reflexes are different than unconditioned reflexes in that
(1) Conditioned reflexes are limited to brain (2) Unconditioned reflexes are limited to brain
(3) Both (1) and (2) (4) None of the above
180. Which is a sensory nerve
(1) Trigeminal (2) Vagus (3) Opthetic nerve (4) Auditory nerve
181. Each spinal nerve in a mammal arises from the spinal cord by two roots, a dorsal and a ventral. Of these the
ventral root is composed of
(1) Somatic motor and visceral motor fibres (2) Somatic sensory and visceral motor fibres
(3) Somatic motor and visceral sensory fibres (4) Somatic sensory and visceral sensory fibres
Eye
182. Modified sebaceous glands on the eyelid of mammal are known as
(1) Lachrymal gland (2) Meibomian gland (3) Pituitary gland (4) Retinal gland
183. The fovea centralis is located in
(1) Blind spot (2) Yellow spot (3) Macula lutea (4) (2) and (3) both
184. Iris of an eye is an extension of
(1) Cornea (2) Sclerotic (3) Retina (4) Both choroid and retina
185. Acute vision is found in
(1) Vulture (2) Frog (3) Shark (4) Bat
186. Rhodopsin (visual purple) of eye will require
(1) Guava (2) Mango (3) Carrot (4) Wheat
187. How many types of cones are present which are responsible for the colour differentiation
(1) Only one (2) 7 types for seven fundamental colours
(3) 3 types (4) 4 types
188. The spot where no image is formed is known as blind spot because it has
(1) Nerves but no cones
(2) Nerves and rods
(3) No cones, rods and nerves
(4) Cones and rods but contains no photochemical substance within them

189. In eyes the bipolar cells are present in
(1) Sclerotic (2) Choroid (3) Retina (4) Yellow spot
190. Mid point of yellow spot contains only cones. This point is known as
(1) Fovea centralis (2) Macula corpus (3) Macula lucidium (4) Macula rotendus
191. Vitamin A is necessary for the proper physiological function of eye because
(1) It is necessary for nerve impulses in retina
(2) Rhodopsin is made up of vitamin A
(3) Oxidation of rhodopsin requires vitamin A
(4) None of the above
192. The vitreous chamber is perforated from front to behind by a narrow tube which is known as
(1) Vitreous canal (2) Hyaloid canal
(3) Vitreous aqueous canal (4) Posterior canal
193. Cones contain a photosensitive chemical known as
(1) Rhodopsin (2) Acetylcholine
(3) Acetylcholinesterase (4) Iodopsin
194. The nictitating membrane plica semilunaris is a vestigial organ and is present in
(1) Inner to the middle layer of eye (2) Outer to the middle layer of eye
(3) Inner corner of eyes (4) Outer corner of eyes
195. In mammals, the colour is perceived by or which is responsible for colour detection
(1) Rod cells of retina (2) Cone cells of retina
(3) Cornea lens complex of eye (4) Rods and cones
196. Rhodopsin pigment is found in
(1) Bile juice (2)Retinal cells (3) RBC (4) Skin
197. Function of ciliary muscles
(1) To contract pupil when one move in sunlight (2) To keep valve in position
(3) To rotate eye ball (4) To change shape of lens
198. Human eye lens is
(1) Spherical and can be moved forward (2) Biconvex and cannot be moved forward
(3) Spherical and cannot be moved forward (4) Biconvex and can be moved forward
199. Eye ball will not be moved inwards on the damage of which of following muscles
(1) Internal rectus (2) External rectus (3) Inferior oblique (4) Superior oblique
200. Vitreous humour is seen in
(1) Ear (2) Eye (3) Brain (4) Bone marrow
201. The space between the lens and the cornea of the human eye is
(1) Vitreous chamber (2) Aqueous chamber (3) Retina (4) Iris
202. Glaucoma is an eye disease arising from
(1) Increased pressure of fluid in eye ball (2) Elongation of eye ball
(3) Shortening of eye ball (4) Irregularity in the surface of cornea
203. The movement of eye ball is brought about by the
(1) Adductor muscle (2) Rectus muscle (3) Biceps (4) Peroneus

204. The hollow of the eye is divided into aqueous chamber and vitreous chamber by
(1) Optic nerve (2) Retina (3) Lens (4) Iris
205. The central opening of iris is called as
(1) Pupil (2) Cornea (3) Lens (4) Fovea centralis
206. In the retina of human eye, the cones are concentrated more at the
(1) Blind spot (2) Edges of retina (3) Fovea (4) Choroid
207. Chief functions of the rods and cones in the eye of a vertebrate are
(1) Rods are important for vision in bright light and cones in dim light
(2) Rods are important for vision in dim light and cones in bright light
(3) Rods are involved in colour vision and cones in distinguishing intensities of light
(4) Rods and cones are both important for vision in dim light
208. Only rods are present in the eyes of one of the following animals
(1) Pigeon (2) Squirrel (3) Fowl (4) Owl
209. In man, the image formation occur on retina for most bright vision it should form on
(1) At the place of entry of optic nerve (2) Blind spot
(3) Yellow spot (4) At the junction of ciliary body and lens
210. Which of the following have “ommatidia” as unit of eye
(1) Pheretima (2) House fly (3) Pila (4) Sepia
211. The human eye is sensitive only to light having wave length ranging from
(1) 80 to 280 nanometres (2) 380 to 760 nanometres
(3) 780 to 870 nanometres (4) 880 to 980 nanometres
212. Which of the following nerve supplies organ of corti
(1) Auditory (2) Olfactory (3) Trochlear (4) Vagus
213. The lens and cornea is not having blood supply. So the nutrients are supplied by
(1) Retina (2) Blind spot (3) Vitreous body (4) Aqueous humour
214. In the following abnormalities of the eye which one is a serious condition that leads to blindness
(1) Presbyopia (2) Myopia (3) Hypermetropia (4) Glaucoma
215. Retina is most sensitive at
(1) Optic disc (2) Macular lutea (3) Fovea centrealis (4) Periphery
216. If the circular ciliary muscles of the eye are unable to contract, the
(1) Lens will become more convex (2) Lens will be thin and stretched
(3) Vision will be lost completely (4) Bright light will have no adverse effect on retina
217. The muscles surrounding the pupil of eye are
(1) Unstriated and involuntary (2) Striated and voluntary
(3) Unstriated and voluntary (4) Striated and involuntary
Ear
218. The site from which the nerve impulse for hearing originates
(1) Ear ossicles (2) Cochlea (3) Auditory nerve (4) Tympanum
219. The sense of equilibrium by ear is the function of
(1) Sensory cells of the organ of corti (2) Sensory crista of the ampulla
(3) Tectorial membrane of cochlea (4) Basilar membrane of cochlea
220. Loudness of sound is discriminated by
(1) Intensity of movement of basilar fibres of cochlea
(2) Vibration of semicircular canals
(3) Vibration of endolymphatic sac
(4) Vibration of tympanic bulla
221. Columella auris is a modified
(1) Articular (2) Sphenthmoid (3) Hyomandibular (4) Quadrate
222. A person going upto 10,000 feet high in a hot air balloon may develop severe pain in the ear due to
(1) Blocked eustachian tube (2) Rupture of fenestra rotundus
(3) Endolymph getting into semicircular canals (4) Fear of great height
223. Sensation of hearing is produced as a result of the
(1) Presence of the helicotrema
(2) Vibrations set in the external auditory meatus
(3) Vibrations of the ear ossicles
(4) Nerve impulses generated by the hair cells of the organ of corti
224. Main function of eustachian tube is to
(1) Protect tympanic membrane
(2) Support the bones of middle ear
(3) Equalize pressure on two sides of tympanic membrane
(4) Prevent infection entering ear drum
225. In the auditory canal which one of the following glands is present
(1) Ceruminous gland (2) Meibomian gland (3) Perineal gland (4) Sebaceous gland
226. Helicotrema is
(1) An aquatic mammal
(2) An aperture in between the III and IV ventricle of brain
(3) An aperture in between two scalae of cochlea of mammal
(4) A disease of internal ear
227. Ear drum is known as
(1) Tympanic membrane (2) Tensor tympani (3) Scala tympani (4) Scala vestibuli
228. In the ear of man, the perilymph passes from middle to inner ear through
(1) Foraman ovale (2) Fenestra ovalis (3) Fenestra rotundus (4) Tympanic membrane
229. Organ of corti is found in
(1) Internal ear (2) External ear (3) Both (1) and (2) (4) None of these
230. Otoconium is found in
(1) Perilymph (2) Haemolymph (3) Synovial fluid (4) Otolithic membrane
231. In mammalian ear, a membranous structure which separate the scala vestibuli and scala media is
(1) Basilar membrane (2) Reissner’s membrane
(3) Autolith membrane (4) Tectorial membrane

232. During hearing mechanism in humans the sense cells which perceive the sound vibrations are present in
(1) Sacculus (2) Utriculus (3) Cochlea (4) Semicircular canals
233. Human ear ossicles are
(1) Incus and stapes (2) Stapes
(3) Incus, malleus and stapes (4) Incus and malleus
234. Internal ear is filled with
(1) Perilymph (2) Endolymph (3) Lymph (4) Both (1) and (2)
235. Utriculus is the part of internal ear or membranous labyrinth which forms
(1) Lower chamber and is concerned with maintenance of equilibrium
(2) Lower chamber and is concerned with transmission of sound waves
(3) Upper chamber and is concerned with maintenance of equilibrium
(4) Upper chamber and is concerned with perception
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. If the vagus nerves (main nerves of the parasympathetic nervous system) were cut, which of the following
would be true ? (8th CBO)
(1) The heart would stop beating
(2) The diaphragm would be paralysed
(3) Adrenalin secretion by the adrenal gland would cease
(4) None of (1), (2) and (3)
(5) All of (1), (2) and (3)
2. Which statement about the vertebrate nervous system is false ? (4th CBO)
(1) Relaxation of a muscle is caused by nerve impulses in inhibitory neurons going to the muscle from the
spinal cord
(2) After completely sevring the brain from the spinal cord, reflex withdrawal of the foot from a painful
stimulus could still occur
(3) In a simple reflex, the sequence followed by information is sensory receptor, sensory neuron, interneu-
ron, motor neuron, muscle cells
(4) The sympathetic nervous system activates the body’s responses to stress for example, by increasing
heart beat and decreasing blood flow to the gut
(5) The spinal cord and the brain contain many synapses and both function in the processing of information
3. In a car accident a person has the sensory neurous to their hand severed with no other damage being
recorded. This person will (4th ABO)
(1) Regain felling as the motor neurons will adapt and carry sensory impulses
(2) Be unable to feel and move their hand as feeling and movement is carried by the same neurons
(3) Regain feeling as the motor nerves replicate and the replace the damaged neurons
(4) Be unlikely to regain feeling in the hand but will be able to move it

4. In an experiment, the hypothalamus of a rat is artificially cooled to 2°C below normal body temperature.
Which of the following would occur ? (8th CBO)
(1) An increase in blood flow to the skin
(2) An increase in general metabolic activity
(3) Increased excretion of water by the kidneys
(4) Increased sweating
(5) Decreased activity of skeletal muscles
5. Which sequence best describes a simple reflex are such as the knee-jerk reflex ? (2th CBO)
(1) Sensory neuron interneuron motor neuron effector cell
(2) Sensory neuron interneuron effector cell motor neuron
(3) Sensory neuron motor neuron interneuron
(4) Sensory neuron effector cell motor neuron
(5) Sensory neuron motor neuron effector cell
6. Diagrammatic representation of an eye of an Octopus is shown below. The major mistakes in the drawing is
/ are (2th INBO)
(1) Lens should be biconcave

(2) The retinal cells should be covered with a layer of neural cells
(3) There should not be a blind spot in the eye
(4) All of the above

AIIMS CORNER
1. One 'Common example of simple reflex is (AIIMS 2008)
(1) tying your shoe laces while talking to another person and not looking at them
(2) watering of mouth at the sight of a favourite food
(3) climbing up a stairs in dark without stumbling
(4) closing of eyes when strong light is flashed across them
2. Injury to vagus nerve in humans is not likely to affect (AIIMS 2008)
(1) tongue movements (2) gastrointestinal movements
(3) pancreatic secretion (4) cardiac movements
3. A person who shows unpredictable moods, outbursts of emotions, quarrelsome behaviour and conflicts with
others is suffering from (AIIMS 2009)
(1) borderline personality disorder (BPD)(3) mood disorder
(3) addictive disorder (4) schizophrenia
4. Which one of the following depresses brain activity and produces feelings of calmness, relaxation and
drowsiness? (AIIMS 2009)
(1) morphine (2) valium (3) amphetamines (4) hashish
5. Which of the following nerves arises from organ of Corti ? (AIIMS 2009)
(1) olfactory nerve (2) cochlear-nerve (3) abducens nerve (4) None of These
6. Bipolar nerve cells are present in (AIIMS 2012)
(1) Skin tactile corpuscles (2) Spinal cord
(3) Retina of eye (4) All the above
7. Fenestra ovalis is the opening of – (AIIMS 2012)
(1) Cranium (2) Tympanum (3) Tympanic cavity (4) Brain
8. Multipolar nerve cells are present in (AIIMS 2012)
(1) Cochlea (2) Dorsal root ganglia of spinal cord
(3) Retina of eye (4) Brain
ASSERTION / REASONING
In each of the following questions a statement of Assertion (A) is given followed by a corresponding
statement of Reason (R) just below it. Of the statements, mark the correct answer as
(1) If both assertion and resaon are true and reason is the correct explanation of assertion
(2) If both assertion and reason are true but reason is not the correct explanation of assertion
(3) If assertion is true but reason is false
(4) If both assertion and reason are false
9. Assertion : Vitamin A deficiency produces night blindness.
Reason: Photosensitive pigment rhodopsin is synthesised from vitamin A.
(1) (2) (3) (4)

10. Assertion : The brain stem contains centres for controlling activities.
Reason: Brain stem is very sensitive.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
11. Assertion : Spinal cord has a column of both grey and white matter.
Reason: Grey matter forms the central spinal canal.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
12. Assertion : Circular smooth muscles of iris contract when bright light falls on the eye.
Reason: Pupil gets constricted by the contraction of circular smooth muscles of iris.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
13. Assertion : The auditory ossicles help in hearing.
Reason : Auditory ossicles maintain the balance of air pressure between two sides of the eardrum.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
14. Assertion : All motor neurons are efferent neurons.
Reason: Motor neurons conduct nerve impulses from the spinal cord to the brain.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
15. Assertion : Anterior lobe of pituitary is attached to hypothalamus by a vein.
Reason: This attachment is done through a portal vein. [AIIMS 1993]
(1) (2) (3) (4)
16. Assertion : Medulla oblongata causes reflex actions like vomiting, coughing and sneezing.
Reason: It has many nerve cells which control autonomic reflexes. [AIIMS 1994]
(1) (2) (3) (4)
17. Assertion : Transmission of the nerve impulse across a synapse is accomplished by neurotransmitters.
Reason: Transmission across a synapse usually requires neurotransmitters because there is small space
i.e. synaptic cleft, that separates one neuron from another. [AIIMS 1999]
(1) (2) (3) (4)
18. Assertion : Rabies is acute infectious disease of warm blooded mammals characterized by involvement of
central nervous system resulting in paralysis and finally death.
Reason: This is caused due to neuotropic filterable bacteria in saliva of rabid animals. [AIIMS 2000]
(1) (2) (3) (4)
19. Assertion : Tongue is a gustatoreceptor.
Reason: Receptors for gustatory sensations are located in the taste bund. [AIIMS 2000]
(1) (2) (3) (4)
20. Assertion : Connective tissue inside the brain is essential for conduction of nerve impulse.
Reason : Connective tissue hold together the nerve cells of brain (AIIMS 2009)
(1) (2) (3) (4)
21. Assertion : Auditory ossicles are small bones present in the cavity of inner ear. (AIIMS 2010)
Reason : Auditory ossicles maintain the balance of air pressure between two sides of ear drum.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
22. Assertion : Cataract is the condition on which lens become completely opaque. (AIIMS 2011)
Reason : In this condition, a person can see only near objects.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
23. Assertion : The brain stem contains centres for controlling activities. (AIIMS 2012)
Reason : Brain stem is very sensitive.
(1) (2) (3) (4)

PART- 1
1. Acute vision is present in (AIPMT 1989)
(1) vulture (2) shark (3) bat (4) frog

2. Which of the following cranial nerves can regulate heart beat ? (AIPMT 1989)
(1) X (2) IX (3) VIII (4) VII

3. Sensitive pigmented layer of eye is (AIPMT 1989)
(1) Cornea (2) retina (3) sclerotic (4) iris

4. Third ventricle of brain is also known as (AIPMT 1990)
(1) metacoel (2) rhinocoel (3) paracoel (4) diacoel

5. One function of parasympathetic nervous system is (AIPMT 1990)
(1) contracoel of hair muscles (2) stimulation of sweat glands
(3) acceleration of heart beat (4) constrion of pupil

6. Iris is part of (AIPMT1992)
(1) sclerotic (2) choroid/uvula (3) choroid and retina (4) sclerotic and choroid
7. Vagus nerve is (AIPMT1992,97)
(1) X (2) IX (3) VII (4) V

8. Afferent nerve fibres carry impulses from (AIPMT 1992)
(1) effecror organs to CNS (2) receptors to CNS
(3) CNS to receptors (4) CNS to muscles

9. Retina is most sensitive at (AIPMT 1993)
(1) optic disc (2) periphery (3) macula lutea (4) fovea centralis
10. Function of iris is to (AIPMT 1993)
(1) move lens forward and backward (2) refract light rays
(3) bring about movements of eye lids (4) alter the size of pupil
11. CNS is mostly made of (AIPMT 1993)
(1) motor neurons and sensry neurons (2) sensory neurons and association neurons
(3) association neurons (4) motor neurons and association neurons

12. Light rays entering the eye are controlled by (AIPMT 1993)
(1) pupil (2) iris (3) cornea (4) lens

13. Ivan Pavlov performed experiments on (AIPMT 1993)
(1) Simple reflexes (2) conditioned reflexes (3) cardiac reflexes (4) origin of life

14. Respiratory centre is situated in (AIPMT 1994,99)
(1) cerebellum (2) medulla oblogata (3) hypothalamus (4) cerebrum

15. The sympathetic nerves, in mammals arise from (AIPMT 1995)
(1) sacral nerves
(2) cervical nerves
(3) thoraco– lumbar nerves
(4) III, VII,IX and X cranial nerves
16. Cornea transplantation is outstandingly successful because (AIPMT 1996)
(1) cornea is easy to preseve
(2) cornea is not linked up with blood vascular and immune systems
(3) the technique involed is very simple
(4) cornea is easily aveilable
17. In humans, viseceral organs are innervated by (AIPMT 1996)
(1) sympatheic nerves and are under conscious control
(2) parasympathetic nerves and are under conscios control
(3) Both (1) and (2)
(4) both sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves but are not under coscios control
18. The Nissl’s grsnules of nerve cell are made up of (AIPMT 1997)
(1) ribosomes (2) protein (3) DNA (4) RNA
19. In the chemistry of vision in mammals the photoseitive substance is called (AIPMT 1997)
(1) slcerotin (2) retinal (3) rhodopsin (4) melanin
20. Sympathetic nervous system induces (AIPMT 1997)
(1) heart beat (2) secretion of digestive juices
(3) secretion of saliva (4) All of the above
21. Which cranial nerve has the highest number of branches ? (AIPMT 1999)
(1) Facial nerve (2) Trigeminal (3) Vagus nerve (4) None of these
22. Which of the following is regaarded as a unit of nevrous tissue ? (AIPMT 1999)
(1) Myelin sheath (2) Axons (3) Dendrites (4) Neurons

23. The junction between the axon of one neuron and the dendrite of the next is called (AIPMT1999)
(1) junction point (2) a synapse (3) a joint (4) constant bridge
24. An action potential in the nerve fibre is produced when positive and negative charges on the outside
and the inside of the axon membrane are reversed,because (AIPMT 2000)
(1) more potassium ions enter the axon as compared to sodium ions leaving it
(2) more sodium ions enter the axon as compared to potassium ions leaving it
(3) all potassium ions leave the axon
(4) all sodium ions enter the axon

25. A person suffering from the deficiency of the visual pigment rhodopsin is advised to take more
(1) radish and potato (AIPMT 2000)
(2) apple and grapes
(3) carrot and ripe papaya
(4) guava and ripe banana

26. What is the intensity of sound in normal conversation ? (AIPMT 2001)
(1) 10-20 dB (2) 35-60 dB (3) 70-90 dB (4) 120-150 dB

27. Characteristic feature of human cornea is that (AIPMT 2001)
(1) it is secreted by conjunctiva and gladular tissue
(2) it is lacrimal gland which secretes tears
(3) blood circulation is absent in cornea
(4) in old age it become hard and white layer deposits on it which causes the cataract
28. When we migrate from dark to light, we fall to see for some time but after a time visibility become normal. It
is an example of (AIPMT 2001)
(1) accommodation (2) adaptation (3) mutation (4) photoperiodism

29. Which of the following statements is correct about node of Ranvier ? (AIPMT 2002)
(1) Axolemma is discontinuous
(2) Myelin sheath is discontinuous
(3) Both neurilemma and myelin sheath are discontnuous
(4) Covered by myelin sheath

30. In which animal nerve cell is present but brain is absent ? (AIPMT 2002)
(1) Sponge (2) Earthworm (3) Cockroach (4) Hydra

31. What used to be described as Nissl’s granules in a nerve cell are now identified as (AIPMT2003)
(1) ribosomes (2) mitochondria (3) cell metabolites (4) fat granules
32. Ommatidia serve the purpose of photoreception in (AIPMT 2003)
(1) human (2) sunflower (3) cockroach (4) frog
33. Injury to vagus nerve in human is not likely to affect (AIPMT 2004)
(1) tongue movements (2) gastrointestinal movements
(3) pancreatic secretion (4) cardiac movements
34. In the resting state of the neural membrane, diffusion due to concentration gradients, if allowed,would drive
(1) K+into the cell (2) K+ and Na +out of the cell (AIPMT 2004)
(3) Na+ into the cell (4) Na+ out of the cell
35. In a man, abducens nerve is injured. Which one of the following functins will be affected ?
(1) Movement of the eye ball (AIPMT 2005)
(2) Swallowing
(3) Movement of the tongue
(4) Movement of the neck

36. One of the examples of the action of the autonomous nervous system is (AIPMT 2005)
(1) knee-jerk response (2) pupillary reflex
(3) swallowing of food (4) peristalsis of the intestine
37. Parkinson’s disease (characterized by tremors and progressive rigidity of limbs) is caused by
degeneration of brain neurons that are involved in movement control and make use of neurotransmitter
(AIPMT 2005)
(1) acetycholine (2) norepinephrine (3) dopamine (4) GABA
38. Four healthay people in their twenties got involved in injuries resulting in damage and death of a faw calls of
the following. which of the cells are least likely to be replaced by new cells ? (AIPMT 2005)
(1) Osteocytes (2) Melpighian layer of the skin
(3) Liver cells (4) Neurons
39. Which one of the following statements is correct? (AIPMT 2006)
(1) Neurons regulate endocrine activity, but not vice versa
(2) Endocrine glands regulate neural activity and nervous system regulates endocrine glands
(3) Neiter hormones control neural activity nor the neurons control endocrine activity
(4) Endocrine glands reguate neural activity, but not vice verse
40. Which one of the following not act as a neurotransmitter ? (AIPMT 2006)
(1) Acetylcholine (2) Epinephrine (3) Norepinephrine (4) Cortisone
41. During the transmission of nerve impulse through a nerve fibre, the potenial on the inner side of the plasma
membrane has which type of electric charge ? (AIPMT 2007)
(1) First negative, then positive and again back to negative
(2) First positive, then negative and continue to be negative
(3) First negative, then positive and continue to be positive
(4) First positive, then negative and again back to positive
42. Bowman’s glands are located in the (AIPMT 2007)
(1) proximal end of urinitferous tubules
(2) anterior pituitary
(3) female reproductive system of cockroach
(4) olfactory epithelium of our nose
43. Which one of the following pairs of structures distinguishes a nerve cell from other types of cell?
(1) perikaryon and dendrites (2) Vacuoles and fibres
(3) Flagellum and medullary sheath (4) Nucleus and mitochondria

44. Given below is diagrammatic cross cection of a songle loop of human cochlea . (AIPMT 2008)
Which one of the following options correctly represnts the names of three different parts ?
(1) B : Tectorial membrane , C : Perilymph , D : Secretroy cells
(2) C: Endolymph , D:Sensory hair cells , A : Serum
(3) D: Sensory hair cells , A : Endolymph , B : Tectorial membrane
(4) A: Perilymph , B: Tectorial membrane , C: Endolymph
45 Which one of the following is the correct difference between rod cells and cone cells of our retine ?
Rod cells Cone Cells (AIPMT 2008)
(1) Visual acuty High Low
(2) Visual pigment containad Iodopasin Rhodopsin
(3) Overall function Vision in poor light Colour vision and detailed vision bright light
(4) Disitri bution More concentraed in Evenly distributed all over retina
centre of retina
46. During the propagation of a nerve impulse , the action potential results from the movement of
(1) K+ ions from extracellular fluid to intracellular fluid (AIPMT 2008)
(2) Na+ ions from intracellular fluid to extracellular fluid
(3) K+ ions from intracellular fluid to extracellular fluid
(4) Na+ ions from extracellular fluid to intracellular fluid
47. Cornea transplant in human is almost never rejected. This is because (AIPMT 2008)
(1) its cells are least penetrable by bacteria (2) it has no blood supply
(3) it is composed of enucleated cells (4) it is a non-living layer
48. Which part of human brain is concerned with the regulation of body temperature? (AIPMT 2009)
(1) cerebellum (2) cerebrum (3) hypothalamus (4) medulla oblongata
49. The nerve centres which control the body temperature and the urge for eating are contained in
[AIPMT Pre 2010]
(1) Pons (2) Cerebellum (3) Thalamus (4) Hypothalamus

50. Select the answer with correct matching of the structure, its location and function.
[AIPMT Mains 2010]
Structure Location Function
Near the place Rods and cones are
1 Blind spot W here optic nerve present but inactive
leaves the eye here
Equaliz es air press ure

Anterior part of
2 Eustachian tube on either sides of
internal ear
ty mpanic mem brane
Controls respiration
3 Cerebellum Mid brain
and gastric s ecretion
Controls Body
temperature, urge for
4 Hy pothalamus Fore brain
eating and drinking
51. 'Bundle of His' is a part of which one of the following organs is humans [AIPMT Pre 2011]
(1) Brain (2) Heart (3) Kidney (4) Pancreas
52. The purplish red pigment rhodopsin contained in the rods type of photoreceptor cells of the human eye,
is a derivative of: [AIPMT Pre 2011]
(1) Vitamin B1 (2) Vitamin C (3) Vitamin D (4) Vitamin A
53. The human hind brain comprises three parts, one of which is : [AIPMT Pre 2012]
(1) Spinal cord (2) Corpus callosum (3) Cerebellum (4) Hypothalamus
54. Which part of the human ear plays no role in hearing as such but is otherwise very much required ?
[AIPMT Pre 2012]
(1) Eustachian tube (2) Organ of corti
(3) Vestibular apparatus (4) Ear ossicles
55. The supportive skeletal structures in the human external ears and in the nose tip are examples of :
[AIPMT Mains 2012]
(1) ligament (2) areolar tissue (3) bone (4) cartilage
55 (a) Parts A, B, C and D of the human eye are shown in the diagram. Select the option which gives correct
identification along with its functions/characteristics: (NEET 2013)
(1) B-Blind spot-has only a few rods and cones

(2) C-Aqueous chamber-reflects the light which does not pass through the lens.
(3) D- Choroid- is anterior part forms ciliary body
(4) A-Retina - contains photo receptors - rods and cones.

55 (b) A diagram showing axon terminal and synapse is given. Identify correctly at least two of A-D. (NEET 2013)
(1) B - Synaptic connection D - K+ (2) A - Neurotransmitter B - Synaptic cleft
(3) C - Neurotransmitter D - Ca++ (4) A - Receptor C- Synaptic vesicles
56. Taste buds detect the substance only when the substance is - [CPMT 1988]
(1) Solid (2) Semisolid (3) Semiliquid (4) Liquid
57. Organs of Ruffini are receptors of [BHU 1995]
(1) Heat (2) Cold (3) Pressure (4) Touch
58. Bats have special sensory system called [KCET 1994; CPMT 2003]
(1) Ecobalancing system (2) Echo–location system
(3) Ecoflying system (4) Econervous system
59. When the intensity of light is low during night, the light is detected by [MP PMT 1996, 02]
(1) Rods (2) Cones (3) Lens (4) Both rods and cones
60. Fovea centralis of retina perceives [MP PMT 1992]
(1) Diffused light (2) Dim light (3) Coloured light (4) Coloured and dim light
61. Eye is said to be near-sighted when a [MP PMT 1992]
(1) Near object is focussed in front of the retina
(2) Distant object is focussed in front of retina
(3) Near object is focussed behind the retina
(4) Distant object is focussed behind the retina
62. The pupil becomes bigger to allow more light during dark by the [CPMT 1990]
(1) Contraction of radial muscles of the iris (2) Relaxation of radial muscles of the iris
(3) Contraction of circular muscles of the iris (4) Contraction of suspensory ligaments
63. The part of an eye which acts like a diaphragm of a photographic camera is [CPMT 1978, 81]
(1) Pupil (2) Iris (3) Lens (4) Cornea
64. If the light source infront of an eye becomes bright suddenly [CPMT 1977]
(1) Focus of lens will change (2) Retinal blood supply will cut
(3) Vitreous humour becomes fluid (4) Pupil will contract

65. The defect of eye develops in the old age because [CPMT 1981]
(1) Lens becomes opaque (2) Eye ball becomes small
(3) Eye ball becomes long (4) Lens looses its elasticity
66. The colour of eye is due to the pigmentation in [CPMT 1978]
(1) Iris (2) Cornea (3) Retina (4) Pupil
67. In vision, photons are converted into [BHU 1985]
(1) Chemical energy (2) Mechanical energy (3) Electrical energy (4) Physical energy
68. Visual purple is a pigment concerned with [CPMT 1976]
(1) Colour of the eye (2) Colour blindness (3) Perception of image (4) Formation of image
69. Suppose a person wears convex glasses for proper vision. Where you think the image of the object is
formed in his eyes when he is not using the glasses [MP PMT 1990]
(1) On the blind spot (2) On the yellow spot (3) Behind the retina (4) In front of the retina
70. In cataract [JIPMER 2002; RPMT 2001]
(1) Due to ageing or some infection eye lens becomes opaque
(2) Elasticity of eye lens is lost
(3) There is irregular curvature of lens
(4) Eye ball becomes shorter
71. The defective condition of accommodation of the eye in which distant objects are seen distinctly but near
objects are indistinct is [AFMC 1994]
(1) Astigmatism (2) Presbyopia (3) Myopia (4) Hypermetropia
72. The chief function of the utriculus in vertebrates is - [CPMT 1982]
(1) To perceive sound vibration (2) To help in body equilibrium
(3) To perceive pressure (4) To act as shock absorber
73. Lateral line sense organs occur in [MH CET 2004]
(1) Salamander (2) Frog (3) Water snake (4) Scoliodon
74. ‘Adaptation’ of eyes in dark is due to [BHU 2005]
(1) Depletion of vision pigment in rod (2) Depletion of vision pigment in cones
(3) Repletion of vision pigment in rods (4) Repletion of vision pigment in cones
75. Which part of the brain is involved in loss of control when a person drinks alcohol [Kerala CET 2003]
(1) Cerebellum (2) Cerebrum (3) Medulla oblongata (4) Pons varoli
76. In reflex action the reflex arc is formed by [DPMT 1984; CPMT 1980, 81; AFMC 1985]
(1) Brain – spinal cord – muscles
(2) Receptor – spinal cord – muscles
(3) Muscles – receptor – brain
(4) Muscles – spinal cord – muscles
77. The cerebellum is concerned with the [CPMT 1971]
(1) Co-ordination of muscular movements
(2) Perception
(3) Memory
(4) Vision

78. A motor nerve carries impulses from [CPMT 1980]
(1) CNS to the effectors
(2) Effectors to the CNS (central nervous system)
(3) Cranial nerves to the effectors
(4) Effectors to the cranial nerves
79. The genu and splenium in brain are associated with [BHU 1985]
(1) Cerebellum (2) Cerebrum (3) Medulla oblongata (4) Vermis
80. The ventricles of the brain are filled with [DPMT 1993]
(1) Cerebro–spinal fluid (2) Lymph (3) Blood (4) Amniotic fluid
81. Foramen of Monro provides a passage connecting [CPMT 1972, 78, 82]
(1) Brain and spinal cord (2) Lateral ventricles with third ventricles in brain
(3) Fourth ventricles with optic ventricle (4) Middle ear with pharynx
82. Vagus nerve is [CPMT 1989; CBSE PMT 1992; BVP 1997, 2001; KCET 1998]
(1) Spinal nerve (2) Sympathetic nerve
(3) X–cranial nerve (4) Parasympathetic nerve
83. Which one is the function of parasympathetic nervous system in mammals [CPMT 1990; CBSE PMT 1990]
(1) Acceleration of heart beat (2) Constriction of pupil
(3) Stimulation of sweat glands (4) Contraction of arrector pilli muscles
84. Which cranial nerve carries in excitation from the ear [MP PMT 1994]
(1) Optic (2) Auditory (3) Olfactory (4) Trigeminal
85. The centre for sense of smell in brain is [MP PMT 1999, 2003; AFMC 2003]
(1) Cerebellum (2) Cerebrum (3) Olfactory lobes (4) Midbrain
86. Brain depends on blood for the supply of [CPMT 1999; RPMT 1999; JIPMER 2001]
(1) Oxygen and ATP (2) Oxygen and electrolytes
(3) Oxygen and glucose (4) ATP and glucose
87. Which of the following communicates with the central canal of spinal cord [JIPMER 2002]
(1) Lateral ventricles (2) Third ventricle (3) Fourth ventricle (4) Fifth ventricle
88. The venom of cobra affects the [JIPMER 1994]
(1) Digestive system (2) Circulatory system (3) Nervous system (4) Respiratory system
89. The jumping of action potential from node to node (of Ranvier) in a fibre is called [CPMT 1992]
(1) All or none principle (2) Threshold stimulus (3) Nodal conduction (4) Saltatory conduction
90. Where the Nissl’s granules are found and what is their function [CPMT 1989, 90]
(1) In nerve cells and helps in excretion and nutrition
(2) In blood and helps in excretion and nutrition
(3) In sarcoplasm and helps in contraction
(4) In mucous cells and secret mucous
91. The conduction of nerve impulse is a [CPMT 1975, 80]
(1) Biochemical phenomenon (2) Electrochemical phenomenon
(3) Physical phenomenon (4) Bio-physiological phenomenon

92. Synaptic fatigue is due to [CPMT 1990]
(1) Exhaustion of neurotransmitter (2) Release of more acetylcholine
(3) Release of more adrenaline (4) None of these
93. A touch on the right hand stimulates neurons in [Orissa JEE 2005]
(1) Left somatic sensory area (2) Right somatic sensory area
(3) Both (1) and (2) (4) None of these
94. Small lesions on spinal tissue, slip disc in spinal column and micro cancer like tumour are detected by
[AMU 2005]
(1) Magnetic resonance imaging method
(2) Sonography method
(3) Positron Emission Tomography method
(4) X-ray Radiography method
95. Manifestation of increase in the blood pressure of a person is called [J & K CET 2005]
(1) Hypertension (2) Atherosclerosis (3) Arteriosclerosis (4) None of these
96. Mouth becomes watery when we look on the delicious food is due to [J & K CET 2005]
(1) Olfactory response (2) Hormonal response (3) Neural response (4) Optic response

BOARD LEVEL EXERCISE : HINT & SOLUTIONS
1. Inhibitory - GABA
Excitatory - Acetyleholine
2. Cranial nerve = 12 pairs
Spinal nerve = 31 pairs
3. dendrities, cell body, Axon , Axon terminal, Synaptic knob
4. Cones
5. Cerebellum
6. Neuron or Nerve cell
7. Medulla Oblongata
8. Hypothalamus
9. Brain is protected by a bony box called cranium, within which are present 3 layers of fluid-filled (called
cerebrospinal fluid) membranes (called meninges) for absorbing shock.
10. Brain has no role to play in creation of reflex action response. Instead spinal cord is the control centre of a
reflex action. In fact brain becomes aware after the reflex arc has been formed.
11. Followling are the reasons :
(1) Increase the chances of survival by responding to stimuli.
(2) Different body parts function as a single unit
(3) To maintain homeostasis.
12. (A) Cerebrum
(B) Hypothalamus
(C) Cerebellum
(D) Medulla Oblongata
13.
14. Follow Page No. 36

15. External auditory canal, ear drum, malleus, incus, stapes, cochlea , Cochlear nerve
16. Follow Page No. 29-30
17. Nervous system in human body works or communicates using nerve impulses which are form of electrical
impulses. Electrical impulses are an excellent means of communication in human body but they have
following limitations :
(1) They reach only those cells that are connected by nervous tissue, not each and every cell in the
animal body
(2) Cells cannot continually create and transmit electrical impulses. Once an electrical impulse is
generated in a cell and transmitted, the cell will take some time to reset its mechanisms before it
can generate and transmit a new impulse.
Due to above said limitations most multicellular organisms use another means of communication between
cells, namely, chemical communication i.e., hormone or endocrine system. It is slower than nerve cells but
potentially reach all cells of the body.

19. Follow Page No. 4-5
EXERCISE - 1
1. (1) 2. (1) 3. (4) 4. (3) 5. (3)
6. (4) 7. (4) 8. (2) 9. (4) 10. (1)
11. (2) 12. (1) 13. (3) 14. (4) 15. (4)
16. (3) 17. (2) 18. (4) 19. (1) 20. (2)
21. (4) 22. (3) 23. (2) 24. (1) 25. (2)
26. (1) 27. (4) 28. (1) 29. (1) 30. (4)
31. (3) 32. (1) 33. (1) 34. (4) 35. (1)
36. (3) 37. (1) 38. (2) 39. (2) 40. (2)
41. (2) 42. (1) 43. (2) 44. (4) 45. (1)
46. (4) 47. (3) 48. (1) 49. (4) 50. (1)
51. (3) 52. (3) 53. (1) 54. (3) 55. (2)
56. (2) 57. (1) 58. (2) 59. (1) 60. (1)
61. (4) 62. (3) 63. (4) 64. (1) 65. (2)
66. (2) 67. (4) 68. (4) 69. (4) 70. (3)
71. (4) 72. (1) 73. (1) 74. (3) 75. (4)
76. (3) 77. (1) 78. (4) 79. (1) 80. (4)
81. (4) 82. (3) 83. (4) 84. (4) 85. (3)
86. (1) 87. (1) 88. (3) 89. (1) 90. (4)
91. (3) 92. (4) 93. (3) 94. (1) 95. (4)
96. (3) 97. (3) 98. (1) 99. (3) 100. (4)
101. (1) 102. (3) 103. (2) 104. (1) 105. (3)
106. (1) 107. (3) 108. (3) 109. (2) 110. (2)
111. (2) 112. (1) 113. (1) 114. (1) 115. (3)
116. (2) 117. (2) 118. (2) 119. (4) 120. (4)
121. (2) 122. (1) 123. (2) 124. (1) 125. (2)
126. (4) 127. (2) 128. (2) 129. (4) 130. (1)
131. (3) 132. (1) 133. (3) 134. (4) 135. (1)
136. (4) 137. (3) 138. (1) 139. (4) 140. (2)
141. (3) 142. (1) 143. (1) 144. (3) 145. (2)
146. (3) 147. (3) 148. (3) 149. (1) 150. (1)
151. (1) 152. (2) 153. (4) 154. (4) 155. (4)
156. (3) 157. (3) 158. (3) 159. (3) 160. (1)
161. (2) 162. (3) 163. (3) 164. (3) 165. (4)
166. (3) 167. (1) 168. (2) 169. (3) 170. (3)
171. (2) 172. (4) 173. (2) 174. (4) 175. (2)
176. (3) 177. (3) 178. (3) 179. (1) 180. (4)
181. (1) 182. (2) 183. (4) 184. (4) 185. (1)
186. (3) 187. (3) 188. (1) 189. (1) 190. (1)
191. (2) 192. (2) 193. (4) 194. (3) 195. (2)
196. (2) 197. (4) 198. (2) 199. (1) 200. (2)
201. (2) 202. (1) 203. (2) 204. (3) 205. (1)
206. (3) 207. (2) 208. (3) 209. (4) 210. (2)
211. (2) 212. (2) 213. (1) 214. (4) 215. (3)

216. (3) 217. (2) 218. (2) 219. (2) 220. (1)
221. (3) 222. (2) 223. (4) 224. (3) 225. (1)
226. (3) 227. (1) 228. (2) 229. (1) 230. (4)
231. (2) 232. (4) 233. (3) 234. (4) 235. (3)
EXERCISE - 2
1. (4) 2. (1) 3. (4) 4. (2) 5. (5)
6. (2)
EXERCISE - 3
1. (4) 2. (1) 3. (1) 4. (4) 5. (4)
6. (3) 7. (3) 8. (2) 9. (1) 10. (2)
11. (2) 12. (2) 13. (3) 14. (3) 15. (2)
16. (1) 17. (1) 18. (3) 19. (1) 20. (4)
21. (4) 22. (3) 23. (2)
EXERCISE - 4
1. (1) 2. (1) 3. (2) 4. (4) 5. (4)
6. (3) 7. (1) 8. (2) 9. (4) 10. (4)
11. (3) 12. (1) 13. (2) 14. (2) 15. (3)
16. (2) 17. (4) 18. (1) 19. (3) 20. (1)
21. (3) 22. (4) 23. (2) 24. (2) 25. (3)
26. (2) 27. (3) 28. (2) 29. (2) 30. (4)
31. (1) 32. (3) 33. (1) 34. (3) 35. (1)
36. (4) 37. (3) 38. (4) 39. (1) 40. (4)
41. (1) 42. (4) 43. (1) 44. (4) 45 (3)
46. (4) 47. (2) 48. (3) 49. (4) 50. (4)
51. (2) 52. (4) 53. (3) 54. (3) 55. (4)
55 (a) (4) 55 (b) (4) 56. (4) 57. (1) 58. (2)
59. (1) 60. (3) 61. (2) 62. (1) 63. (2)
64. (4) 65. (1) 66. (1) 67. (3) 68. (4)
69. (3) 70. (1) 71. (4) 72. (2) 73. (4)
74. (3) 75. (1) 76. (2) 77. (1) 78. (1)
79. (2) 80. (1) 81. (2) 82. (3) 83. (2)
84. (2) 85. (3) 86. (3) 87. (3) 88. (3)
89. (4) 90. (1) 91. (2) 92. (2) 93. (1)
94. (1) 95. (1) 96. (3)

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Human Physiology

(Neural control and Coordination)

NEET_Neural Control and Coordination - 1

3.2 Types of neurons : Neurons are divided into

NEET_Neural Control and Coordination - 2

(a) (b) (c)

Types of Neurons (a) Unipolar ; (b) Bipolar ; (c) Multipolar

NEET_Neural Control and Coordination - 3

4.3 Mechanism of conduction of nerve impulse

NEET_Neural Control and Coordination - 4

Diagrammatic representation of impulse conduction through an axon (at points A and B)

(b) Depolarization (Action membrane potential or AMP) :

NEET_Neural Control and Coordination - 5

Diagram showing axon terminal and synapse

NEET_Neural Control and Coordination - 6

(1) Neurotransmitters : As explained in the discussion of synapses, neurotransmitters are chemicals

S.No. Excitatory Inhibitory

2 Norepinephrine (NE) Glycine

NEET_Neural Control and Coordination - 7

Nervous system is divided into three parts –

Central Nervous Peripheral Nervous Autonomic Nervous

Brain Spinal Cranial Spinal Sympathetic Parasymp-

Sensory Nerves Motor Nerves Mixed Nerves

6.1 Central nervous system (CNS) :

NEET_Neural Control and Coordination - 8

Diagram showing sagital section of the human brain

Olive Cranial nerve XI (accessory)

Ventral view of brain

NEET_Neural Control and Coordination - 11

Functions of Diencephalon – It is a centre for :

NEET_Neural Control and Coordination - 12

NEET_Neural Control and Coordination - 13

T.S. of the thoracic spinal cord of mammal

(2) Cavities or ventricles of the brain :

NEET_Neural Control and Coordination - 15

(4) Hydrocephalus : The enlargement of head, a pathological condition characterized by an abnormal

NEET_Neural Control and Coordination - 16

8.1 Component of reflex action :

Diagrammatic Presentation of reflex action (showing knee jerk reflex)

8.2 Mechanism of reflex action :

NEET_Neural Control and Coordination - 17

(v) Acquired reflex :

NEET_Neural Control and Coordination - 18

NEET_Neural Control and Coordination - 19

Lateral geniculate nuclei of Stimulus of light is carried to optic

Eye ball muscles like superior

From in between the

(ii) Cochlear nerve ,, — Cochlea Impulses associate with hearing.

NEET_Neural Control and Coordination - 20

Autonomic nervous system was discovered by Langley.

NEET_Neural Control and Coordination - 21

S.No. Name Sympathetic Parasympathetic

7 Lacrymal gland Stimulate Inhibits

8 Heart beat Increase Decrease

12 Urinary bladder Relax Constrict

13 Iris Constrict Dilate

14 Salivary gland Decrease Increase

15 Digestive gland Decrease Increase

16 Gut peristalsis Decrease Increase

17 Ejaculation Increase Decrease

18 Bile Decrease Increase

19 Renin (kidney) Increase Decrease

20 Bronchi Dilate Constrict