BATAAN HEROES COLLEGE

Module 1

Introduction to Electricity
and Basic Fundamentals
BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

ENGR. GIAN ANGELO D. GARDUCE

Department of Electrical Engineering

MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICITY AND BASIC FUNDAMENTALS

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Module 1: Introduction to Electricity and Basic Fundamentals

This module discusses the basic concepts of electricity, basic principles

regarding resistance, current and voltage, ohm’s law, electrical power and energy.

Learning Objectives
After studying this module, students should be able to:
a. To familiarize students with the basic principles of electric circuits.
b. Learn to analyze and solve different problems regarding Ohm’s Law
c. To determine different conversions regarding electrical power and energy.

1.1 ELECTRICITY: BASIC PRINCIPLES

Electricity is a form of energy that can give things the ability to move and work. Everything in
the world around us is made of particles called protons, neutrons and electrons. These three tiny
particles are found in everything around us. When the electrons move, they create electricity.
The word "electricity" is sometimes used to mean "electrical energy".

Electric Charge (Q) – a body is said to be charge, if it has either an excess or deficit of electrons
from its normal values due to sharing.

➢ Coulomb (C) – unit of electric charge, named after the French physicist, Charles A.
Coulomb.
• 1 electron/ proton = 1.6 x 10^-19 or 1.6 x10 -19 coulombs

Voltage/Potential Difference (V) - any charge has the capability of doing work of moving
another charge either by attraction or repulsion.

➢ Volt (V) – unit of potential difference, which is equal to one joule of work done per one
coulomb of charge named after the Italian physicist, Alessandro C. Volta

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• W = QV where: W = work (joule)

Q = charge (coulomb)
V = voltage / potential difference (volt)

Electric Current (I) - When the potential difference between two charges forces a third charge
to move, the charge in motion is called the electric current.

➢ Ampere (A) – a unit of charge flow equal to one coulomb of charge past a given point in
one second. Named after the French physicist and mathematician, Andre M. Ampere

• Q = It where: Q = charge (coulomb)

I = current (ampere)
t = time (seconds)

Resistance (R) - The fact that carrying a current can become hot, it is evident that the work done
by the applied force in producing the current must be accomplished against some opposition or
resistance.

➢ Ohm (Ω) - practical unit of resistance. Named after the German physicist, Georg S. Ohm.

ƿL ƿV ƿL2
• R= = 2 =
A A V

where: R = Resistance (Ω)

A = Cross sectional area (sq. meter)
ƿ= Resistivity (Ω-m or Ω-CM per feet)
L = Length (meter)
V = Volume (cu. meter)

Specific Resistance or Resistivity (ƿ ) – is the amount of change of resistance in a material per

unit change in temperature.

• for copper, ƿ = 1.72 x 10-8 Ω-m / 10.37 Ω-CM per feet

• for aluminum ƿ = 2.83 x 10-8 Ω-m / 17.02 Ω-CM per feet

Circular mil (CM) - area of circle having a diameter (d) of one mil.
• CM = d2

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1000 mil = 1 inch Note: MCM is an abbreviation

1MCM = 1000CM for “thousands of circular mils”

If we look at the diagram and observe how electricity behaves, we can compare electricity to a water
flowing thru a garden hose analogy where the hose itself acts like a wire.

The opposition that blocks

or reduces the flow of water
Pressure that pushes the
acts like Resistance
water acts like Voltage

The flow rate of water or

Water itself acts like
how fast the water flows
Electrons inside the wire
acts like Electric Current

Effect of Temperature in Resistance

Experiments have shown that the resistance of all wires generally used in practice in electrical
systems, increases as the temperature increases.

R2 T + t2
• = R2/R1= 1 + αt1 Δt
R1 T + t1

• αt0 = 1 / T αt1 = 1 / (T + t1) Δt = t2 - t1

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where: R1 = initial resistance (ohm)

R2 = final resistance (ohm)
T = absolute temperature (temp. when resistance of a given materials is zero)
t1 = initial temperature (deg. C)
t2 = final temperature (deg. C)
Δt = change in temperature (deg. C)
α = temperature coefficient of resistance (ohmic change per degree per ohm at
some specified temperature)

Material T(deg. C) α at 20 deg. C

Copper 234.5 0.00393
Aluminum 236 0.0039

Sample Problems:

1. Determine the magnitude of the voltage required to accelerate an electron to kinetic

energy of 8x10 -15 joules?
➢ We all know that the problem is asking for the magnitude of the voltage (V) we need for
an electron.
➢ We can use the formula
W = QV

where: W = 8x10 -15 joules

Q = 1.6 x 10 -19 coulombs

Note: 1.6 x 10 -19 coulombs is the constant charge of a single electron

➢ By rearranging the formula, we can solve the voltage using

W
V= ;substituting the given we get
Q

8 x 10−15 J
V=
1.6 x 10−19 C
V = 50 000 volts or 50 000 V

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2. A car battery supplies a current of 50 A to the starter motor. How much charge passes
through the motor in 1/2 minute?

➢ The problem is asking for the charge (Q) in a motor having a supply current of 50
amperes for ½ minute.
➢ We can use the formula
Q = It
where: I = 50 A
60 secs
t = ½ minute x
1 minute
t = 30 secs
Note: In the formula given, time must be in terms of seconds, so we need to convert ½
minute into seconds.
➢ By using the formula, we can solve the charge
Q = It ;substituting the given we get
Q = (50 A)(30 secs)
Q = 1500 coulomb or 1500 C

3. Determine the resistance of a bus bar of copper if the length is 10 meters long and the
cross section is a 4x4 cm.
➢ The problem is asking for the resistance (R) of bus bar copper having a length of 10
meters and cross sectional area of 4x4 cm.
➢ We can use the formula
ƿL
R=
A

where: ƿ= 1.72 x 10-8 Ω-m

Note: 1.72 x 10-8 Ω-m is the specific resistance or resistivity of copper

L = 10 m
A = 4x4 cm = 16 cm2

2
(1 m)2
A = 16 cm x
(100 cm)2

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Note: Since the length and resistivity is in terms of meter, we need to convert the Area
from cm2 to m2 to properly solve the equation.

➢ By using the formula, we can solve the resistance

ƿL
R= ;substituting the given we get
A
(1.72 x 10−8 Ω m)(10 m)
R=
(1 m)2
16 cm2 x
(100 cm)2

R = 1.075 x 10 -4 ohms or 1.075 x 10 -4 Ω

4. How many circular mils does a round copper rod 0.25 inch diameter has?

➢ In here, we just need to get the area of the given diameter 0.25 inch into circular mils
(CM)
➢ We can use the formula
CM = d2
where: d = 0.25 inch
1000 mils
d = 0.25 inch x = 250 mils
1 inch
Note: We need to convert the given diameter inch into mils for us to solve the area in
CM, and we know that 1 inch is 1000 mils
➢ By using the formula, we can solve the area in CM
CM = d2

CM = (250 mils)2

CM = 62 500 circular mils or 62 500 CM

5. What is the equivalent size in square millimeter (mm2) of a 250 MCM cable?
➢ In here, we need to convert the area from MCM into square millimeters.
➢ We can use the formula

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CM = d2 to get the equivalent diameter in mils. We all know that 1 MCM is equal to 1000
CM, so
1000 CM
250 MCM x = 250 000 CM ;by rearranging the formula we can get the diameter
1 MCM
in mils

d = √CM
d = √250 000 CM
d = 500 mils
➢ After getting the diameter in mils, we just need to convert it into millimeter and solve its
area.
1 inch 25.4 mm
d = 500 mils x x = 12.7 mm
1000 mils 1 inch
Note: 1inch is 1000 mils (refer to page 2)
recall that 1 inch is equal to 25.4 mm
➢ To get its area, recall area of circle which is

πd2
A= = πr 2 ;substituting the given we get
4
π(12.7mm)2
A=
4

A = 126.677 mm2

6. A copper rod of 10m long has a diameter of 1000 mils. Find the resistance.
➢ We need to solve for the resistance (R) of copper rod having a length of 10 meters and
diameter of 1000 mils
➢ We can use the formula
ƿL
R=
A

where: ƿ= 10.37 Ω-CM per feet

L = 10 m
d = 1000 mils

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Note: We can use 10.5 Ω-CM per feet as the resistivity of copper since the given
diameter is in mils
3.281 ft
L = 10 m x
1m

Area in CM = (1000 mils)2

Note: We need to convert the length from meter to feet and also compute the area in
circular mils.
➢ By using the formula, we can solve the resistance

ƿL
R= ;substituting the given we get
A

3.281 ft
(10.37 Ω−CM per feet)(10 m x )
1m
R=
(1000 mils)2

R = 3.402 x 10 -4 ohms or 3.402 x 10 -4 Ω

7. A one-meter rod of 2-cm diameter is drawn until its resistance is 100 times the initial
resistance. Its length afterward is?
➢ We need to solve for the final length (L) of copper rod after being drawn down.
Note: drawn or drawn down means to pull or “binabanat”, if we drawn down a wire its
length increases, its cross sectional area decreases but the volume of the wire stays the
same
➢ We can use the formula

ƿL2
R=
V
➢ To solve the problem we create an equation by using ratio between the final and initial
circumstances

ƿ(L2)2
R2 V
= ƿ(L1)2
R1
V

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where: R2 = final resistance

R1 = initial resistance
L2 = final length
L1 = initial length

Note: We can simply cancel out the resistivity since the material is still the same as
well as the volume.

➢ Simplifying the equation we get,

R2 (L2)2
=
R1 (L1)2

➢ By rearranging the formula, we can solve the final length using

R2(L1)2
L2 = √
R1

where: R2 = 100 R1
L1 = 1 m

Note: From the problem, it is said that the final resistance is 100 times the initial
resistance.

(100R1)(1m)2
L2 = √
R1

L2 = 10 meters or 10 m

8. A kilometer of wire having a diameter of 11.7 mm and a resistance of 0.031 ohm is

drawn down so that its diameter is 5.0 mm. What does its resistance become?

➢ We need to solve for the final resistance (R) of copper rod after being drawn down.
Note: drawn or drawn down means to pull or “binabanat”, if we drawn down a wire its
length increases, its cross sectional area decreases but the volume of the wire stays the
same

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➢ We can use the formula below since the given in the problem are the initial and final
diameters
ƿV
R=
A2
➢ To solve the problem we create an equation by using ratio between the final and initial
circumstances

ƿV 1 π
R2 (A2)2 (A2)2 (A1)2 [ 4 (d1)2 ]2
= ƿV = 1 = = π
R1 (A2)2 [ 4 (d2)2 ]2
(A1)2 (A1)2

where: R2 = final resistance

R1 = 0.031 ohm (initial resistance)
A2 = final area
A1 = initial area
d2 = 5.0 mm (final diameter)
d1 = 11.7 mm (initial diameter)

Note: We can simply cancel out the resistivity since the material is still the same as
well as the volume

➢ By simplifying and rearranging the formula, we can solve the final resistance using

R1(d1)4
R2 = ;substituting the given we get
(d2)4

0.031 Ω(11.7mm)4
R2 =
(5mm)4
R2 = 0.929 ohms or 0.929 𝛀

9. The resistance of a copper wire at 300C is 50 ohms, what will be its resistance at 100 oC?
➢ We need to solve for the final resistance (R) of copper wire for the given change in
temperature.
➢ We can use the formula

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R2 T + t2
=
R1 T + t1
where: R2 = final resistance
R1 = 50 ohm (initial resistance)
t2 = 100 oC (final temp.)
t1 = 30 oC (initial temp.)
T = 234.5 oC (absolute temperature)
Note: 234.5 oC is the absolute temperature of copper when resistance of a given
materials is zero

➢ By rearranging the formula, we can solve the final resistance using

T + t2
R2 = (R1) ;substituting the given we get
T + t1
234.5 + 100
R2 = (50 ohm)
234.5 + 30
R2 = 63.233 ohms or 63.233 𝛀

1.2 OHM’S LAW

Ohm’s law states that the impressed emf, voltage or potential difference between two points is
directly proportional to the current or electricity passing through the resistance, and directly
proportional to the resistance of the circuit. This relationship between current, voltage, and
resistance was discovered by German scientist Georg Simon Ohm.

Note: EMF means electromotive force measured in volts which is also similar to voltage.

• V = IR

where: V = voltage (volts,V)

I = current (ampere, A)
R = resistance (ohm, 𝛀)

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1.3 ELECTRICAL POWER

Electric power is the rate, per unit time, at which electrical energy is transferred by an electric
circuit. Electric power is usually produced by electric generators, but can also be supplied by
sources such as electric batteries.

➢ Watt (W) - unit of electrical energy equal to one joule of energy per second. Named after
the British engineer and inventor James Watt.
V2
• P = VI P=I R2
P=
R

where: P = power (watt, W)

V = voltage (volts,V)
I = current (ampere, A)
R = resistance (ohm, 𝛀)

ELECTRICAL ENERGY
Electrical energy is a form of energy resulting from the flow of electric charge. Energy is the
ability to do work or apply force to move an object. In the case of electrical energy, the force is
electrical attraction or repulsion between charged particles.

• W = Pt

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where: P = electrical power (watt, W)

W = electrical energy (joule, J)
t = time (second)

Units of Energy

Gram-calorie or simply Calorie - the energy required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water
by 1 degree Celsius.

British Thermal Unit (BTU) - the energy required to raise the temperature of 1 pound of water by
1 degree Fahrenheit.

Joule - SI unit of energy and work. One (1) joule is the work done by a force of one (1) Newton
acting through a distance of one (1) meter.

Erg - is a unit of energy equal to 10−7 joules. It originated in the centimeter–gram–second (CGS)
system of units. It has the symbol erg. Its name is derived from ergon, a Greek word meaning
'work' or 'task'

• Energy Conversions
1 cal (calorie) = 4.186 Joules
1 BTU (British Thermal Unit) = 252 calories
1 hp (horsepower) = 746 watts
1 kWhr (kilowatt-hour) = 3600 kJ = 3413 BTU = 860 kcal
1 joule = 1 x 107 ergs
1 day = 24 hours
1 month = 30 days = 720 hours
1 year= 365 days = 8760 hours

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Sample Problems:

1. A circuit has a resistance of 8 ohms. If a voltmeter connected across its terminals reads
10 V, how much current is flowing through the circuit?
➢ The problem is asking for the current (I) in the circuit.
➢ We can use the formula of ohm’s law
V = IR
where: V = 10 volts
R = 8 ohms
➢ By rearranging the formula, we can solve the current using
V
I= ;substituting the given we get
R
𝟏𝟎 𝐕
I=
𝟖𝛀
I = 1.25 amperes or 1.25 A

2. A 200 V lamp has a hot resistance of 400 ohms. The power rating in watts of the lamp is

➢ The problem is asking for the power (P) rating of the lamp.
➢ We can use the formula

V2
P=
R
where: V = 200 volts
R = 400 ohms
➢ By substituting the given we get

(200V)2
P=
𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝛀
P = 100 watts or 100 W

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3. An electric motor drives a mechanical load, taking 18.8 A from a 230 V source.
Calculate the power input of the motor.
➢ The problem is asking for the power (P) input of the motor.
➢ We can use the formula
P = IV
where: V = 230 volts
I = 18.8 amperes
➢ By substituting the given we get
P = (18.8 A)(230 V)
P = 4324 watts or 4324 W

4. A 10 hp motor runs at rated load for 5 hours. How many kWh is consumed?
➢ We need to solve the equivalent kilowatt-hour (kWh) energy used by the motor.
➢ From the unit itself kilowatt-hour, we simply need to multiply the power in watts and the
time in hours.
➢ We can use the formula of electrical energy

W = Pt
746 W 1 kW
where: P = 10 hp = 10 hp x x
1 hp 1000 W
t = 5 hours

Note: We need to convert horsepower into kilowatt, 1 hp is equal to 746 W

➢ By substituting the given we get

746 W 1 kW
W = (10 hp x x ) (5 hours)
1 hp 1000 W
W = 37.3 kilowatt-hour or 37.3 kWhr

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5. A residential house has a lighting load 1000 W and a small appliance load of 2000 W. If
they are used at the same time, what will be the monthly bill at an energy cost of P 0.40
per kilowatt-hour?
➢ The problem is asking for the monthly bill (Peso) of the residential house at a price of P
0.40 per kilowatt-hour.
➢ In order to solve for the monthly bill, first we need to find the total energy consumption of
the residential house for the whole month.
➢ We can use the formula of electrical energy
W = Pt
1 kW
where: P = (1000 W + 2000 W) x
1000 W
t = 1 month = 720 hours
Note: 1000 W and 2000 W are the loads of the household. We need to convert it to kW
as well as the time from months to hours to be able to find the total energy
consumption
➢ By substituting the given we get
1 kW
W = (3000 W x )(720 hours)
1000 W
W = 2160 kWhr
➢ Since we already know the total energy consumption for the whole month, we can now get
the total cost by simply multiplying the price per kilowatt-hr and the total energy

Monthly Bill or Total Cost = (P 0.40 / kWhr)(2160 kWhr)

Monthly Bill or Total Cost = P 864

6. Ten kW is equal to how many calories per second.

➢ We just simple need to convert or get the equivalent calories per second
➢ First we need to convert it to watts (W), since we already know that watts is equal to
Joules per second.

1000 W
10 kW x = 10 000 W or 10 000 J/s
1 kW

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J 1 cal
10 000 x
s 4.186 J

Note: Since it is already in per second, we just simply need to convert Joules into
calories. 1 cal is equal to 4.186 J
𝐜𝐚𝐥
= 2388.915 calories per second or 2388.915
𝐬

7. A certain generator has an output power of 1012 ergs per second. What is the output in
kW?
➢ Just like the previous problem, we need to convert it first into Joules per second in order
for us to find the kilowatt (kW) output

ergs 1J
1012 x
s 1 x 107 ergs

Note: Since it is already in per second, we just simply need to convert ergs into joules.

1 J is equal to 1 x 107 ergs

J
= 100 000 or 100 000 W
s

1 kW
= 100 000 W x
1000 W

= 100 kilowatt or 100 kW

Practice Problems:

1. A cloud of 2.5 x 1019 electrons move past a given point every 2 seconds. How much is
the flow rate of the electrons?

2. A heater draws 2 A at 12 volts dc. How many joules does it consume in 15 minutes?

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3. A bus bar is made up of 2-inch diameter round copper bars 20 ft. long. What is the
resistance of each bar?

4. A nichrome ribbon resistor elements each must have a resistance of 1 ohm. Each element
is made from sheet of nichrome alloy, 0.025 cm thick and width of 0.3 cm. What is the
length required to achieve the said resistance. Assume resistivity of nichrome alloy to be
109 µ𝛀 – cm.

5. A copper wire of unknown length has a resistance of 0.8 ohm. By successive drawn, the
1
length of the wire is increased 2 2 times its original value. Assuming that the resistivity

remains unchanged during the drawing process, determine the new value of its resistance.

6. A conductor whose diameter is 0.175 inch has a resistance of 0.5 ohm. The wire is drawn
down until its diameter is reduced to 0.08 inch. What is the resistance of the lengthened
conductor?

7. A 500 MCM cable has 37 strands. Determine the diameter in mils of each strand.

8. The windings of a motor has a resistance of 120 ohms at 15 oC. After running for two
hours, the resistance increases to 140 ohm. Find the new temperature of the windings if
its temperature coefficient at 0 oC is 0.004.

9. Find the Resistance and Power in the given circuit.

= 30 mA

5.8V =

10. A circuit has a resistance of 75 micro-ohms. If a voltmeter connected across its terminals
reads 57 mV, how much current and power is flowing through the circuit?

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11. An aluminum conductor draws a current of 100 A and has a length of 1000 ft. If the
diameter of the aluminum conductor is 0.45 inch, what is the voltage across the
conductor?

12. Convert 8 hp to kcal/s.

13. A motor has used a 9000 BTU of energy, what is its equivalent energy in kWhr?

14. A certain factory machine uses 75 BTU/s to operate. If there are 3 identical machines
running at the same time in the factory for 8hrs a day, what is the annual cost of energy at
P 0.7 per kilowatt-hour?

End of Module 1

References:

Romeo A. Rojas Jr. (May 2001). 1001 Solved Problems in Electrical Engineering. Excel Review
Center, Jaime R. Tiong.

Romeo A. Rojas Jr. (January 2004). Complete Electrical Engineering Formulas and Principles.
Excel Review Center.

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cCegQIABAA&oq=ohm%27s+law+&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQARgAMgQIIxAnMgQIIxAnMgQIA
BBDMgQIABBDMgQIABBDMgQIABBDMgQIABBDMgQIABBDMgQIABBDMgQIABBD
UIEPWIEPYLsVaABwAHgAgAFniAFnkgEDMC4xmAEAoAEBqgELZ3dzLXdpei1pbWfAA
QE&sclient=img&ei=PH0RX8SpKL-ar7wP-OuW-
AM&bih=586&biw=1263&rlz=1C1CHBD_enPH904PH905&hl=en-
GB#imgrc=q7t5utu_Pj42gM

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erg

MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICITY AND BASIC FUNDAMENTALS

ENGR. GIAN ANGELO D. GARDUCE Page 21 of 21