ARTICLE IN PRESS

Quaternary International 138–139 (2005) 145–167

Regional synthesis of last glacial maximum snowlines in the tropical

Andes, South America
Jacqueline A. Smitha,, Geoffrey O. Seltzera,y, Donald T. Rodbellb, Andrew G. Kleinc
a
Department of Earth Sciences, 204 Heroy Geology Lab, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY 13244-1070, USA
b
Department of Geology, Union College, Schenectady, NY 12308, USA
c
Department of Geography, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
Available online 18 April 2005

Abstract

The modern glaciers of the tropical Andes are a small remnant of the ice that occupied the mountain chain during past glacial
periods. Estimates of local Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) snowline depression range from low (e.g., 200–300 m in the Junin region,
Peru), through intermediate (600 m at Laguna Kollpa Kkota in Bolivia), to high (e.g., 1100–1350 m in the Cordillera Oriental, Peru).
Although a considerable body of work on paleosnowlines exists for the tropical Andes, absolute dating is lacking for most sites.
Moraines that have been reliably dated to 21 cal kyr BP have been identified at few locations in the tropical Andes. More
commonly, but still rarely, moraines can be bracketed between about 10 14C kyr (11.5 cal kyr BP) and 30 14C kyr BP. Typically,
only minimum-limiting ages for glacial retreat are available. Cosmogenic dating of erratics on moraines may be able to provide
absolute dating with sufficient accuracy to identify deposits of the local LGM. Ongoing work using cosmogenic 10Be and 26Al in
Peru and Bolivia suggests that the local LGM may have occurred prior to 21 cal kyr BP.
r 2005 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction ages that are calibrated to calendar years before present

The primary purpose of this synthesis of snowline
information for tropical South America is to serve as a
resource for climate modelers seeking reliable informa-
tion about equilibrium-line altitudes (ELAs) or snow-
lines to use for comparison with output from climate
simulation of the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). As
used here, the term ‘‘last glacial maximum’’ refers to
the maximum extent of glaciation in the Northern
Hemisphere at about 18,000 14C yr BP (about 21,000
cal yr BP) as interpreted from the marine oxygen isotope
record (Imbrie et al., 1984). Throughout this manu-
script 14C yr BP refers to radiocarbon years before
present (AD 1950) and cal yr BP refers to radiocarbon
Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 315 443 2672;
fax: +1 315 443 3363.
E-mail address: jasmit10@syr.edu (J.A. Smith).
y
Deceased.
(Stuiver and Reimer, 1993).
This synthesis differs from previous studies of
regional snowline change (e.g., Hastenrath, 1967, 1971,
1985; Nogami, 1976; Fox and Bloom, 1994; Klein et al.,
1999, 2001; Dornbusch, 2001) in that it is a critical and
conservative examination of evidence for LGM mor-
aines. It includes an evaluation of the methods used by
workers to establish the age of glaciation, the proximity
of the ages associated with glacial features to the LGM
target age of 21,000 cal yr BP, and an assessment of the
methods used to determine the change in snowline or
ELA. One criterion in the evaluation of chronological
data is the requirement that the feature have radiometric
dating associated with it to be considered useful for
comparison with climate modeling output.
We have focused on the tropical Andes that border
the Pacific Ocean south of the equator as a coherent
geomorphic unit; the Andes of the circum-Caribbean
region are treated separately (see Lachniet and
Vazquez-Selem, this volume). The tropical Andes are

1040-6182/$ - see front matter r 2005 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2005.02.011
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
146 J.A. Smith et al. / Quaternary International 138– 139 (2005) 145–167
characterized by prevailing easterlies that bring moisture
across the Amazon Basin from the Atlantic Ocean
(Johnson, 1976). As a result, there is a general east–west
gradient in snowlines, with the lowest snowlines on east-
facing slopes of the Eastern Cordillera. Increasing
aridity to the south produces a general north–south
gradient in snowlines as well, with the highest snowlines
(6000 m) on the arid Altiplano, although the 01
isotherm lies approximately 1000 m lower. In such areas
of extreme aridity, the location of the ELA is highly
dependent on the availability of moisture, rather than
temperature (Johnson, 1976). In their respective surveys
of geomorphic evidence for Pleistocene glaciations,
Hastenrath (1967, 1971, 1985), Nogami (1976), and
Klein et al. (1999) concluded that a pattern of rising
snowlines from east to west and from north to south
also existed during the Pleistocene in the tropical Andes.
In a study limited to Peru, Fox and Bloom (1994)
concluded that Pleistocene snowlines rose from east to
west in the Peruvian Andes.
The tropical Andes are currently dominated by valley
glaciers located above altitudes of 5 km; only a few ice
caps remain (e.g., Quelccaya Ice Cap in Peru). During
the LGM in the region, glacial ice expanded and
descended up to 1000 m or more from current terminal
positions (e.g., Klein et al., 1999), ice caps were more
common, and many areas now devoid of ice were then
occupied by both valley glaciers and piedmont glaciers
(e.g., Clapperton, 1993). The mass-balance regime of
glaciers in tropical climates with distinct wet and dry
seasons differs from those in high latitudes. On tropical
glaciers, ablation typically occurs year round,
whereas accumulation occurs during the wet season,
which is generally the austral summer in tropical South
America (Benn et al., this volume; Kaser and Osmaston,
2002; Johnson, 1976). This mass-balance regime com-
plicates the determination of snowlines on tropical
glaciers.
Porter (2001) outlined five techniques commonly used
to estimate snowlines: cirque-floor altitude, upvalley
limits of lateral moraines, glaciation threshold, altitude
ratios (including terminus-to-headwall-altitude-ratio, or
THAR), and accumulation-area ratio (AAR). In his
comparison of the five methods, Porter referred to the
conclusions of Meierding (1982) that THAR and AAR
methods produced the most consistent results. Benn
et al. (this volume) discuss the assumptions and
requirements associated with specific techniques used
to estimate snowlines.
2. Major study regions
In tropical circum-Pacific South America, national
boundaries broadly coincide with changes in the
structure and climate of the Andes. It is therefore useful
to group the major study regions by the nations in which
they are located: Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia (Fig. 1).
Table 1 is a compilation of snowline data presented in
this synthesis. Estimates of snowline depression at the
LGM are summarized in Fig. 2. The discussion begins in
the north and proceeds southward through the region.
Our goal has been to include sites where the glaciation
chronology is based on radiometric dating and the
method used to calculate changes in snowline at the
LGM has been specified. These criteria set this study
apart from previous regional syntheses that made
simplifying assumptions about LGM chronology and
incorporated snowline changes estimated by differing
methods.
3. Ecuador
The Ecuadorian Andes consist of two north–south-
trending, near-parallel chains, the Eastern Cordillera
(Cordillera Oriental) and the Western Cordillera
(Cordillera Occidental), which are separated by high-
altitude basins. The highest peaks in the Ecuadorean
Andes are volcanic and include ice-covered Volcán
Chimborazo (6310 m), the highest point in Ecuador, and
Cotopaxi (5900 m), the world’s highest active volcano
(Johnson, 1976). South of about 21S the altitude of the
highest peaks in the Ecuadorian Andes falls below
5000 m and modern glacial ice is absent. Peak altitudes
continue to decrease toward the southern end of
Ecuador and the northern end of Peru, where peak
altitudes are typically in the range of 3000–3500 m
(Instituto Geográfico Militar, 1991).
No LGM moraines have been definitively identified
and dated in the Ecuadorian Andes. Near Papallacta
Pass on the Potrerillos Plateau, moraines have been
loosely constrained to a period that includes the LGM.
Clapperton et al. (1997) have bracketed the Sucus
advance between 13 14C kyr BP (15.5 cal kyr BP) and
30 14C kyr BP, but background information on the
older age is incomplete.
3.1. Volcán Pichincha, Western Cordillera, 01 12.50 S,
781 350 W (Fig. 1, Site 1)
Heine (1995a) identified seven Quaternary moraine
sets in the Ecuadorean Andes: M I–M VII (M I is
oldest). He concluded that the M IV moraines were
deposited at the LGM. On Volcán Pichincha (4784 m;
Fig. 1, Site 1) in the Western Cordillera, the M IV
moraines commonly consist of narrow lateral and
terminal moraines enclosing irregular, hummocky tills,
which Heine inferred to be remnants of ice-cored
moraines. Heine reported that the M IV moraines
descend to altitudes of 3900–4000 m and that deposition
of these moraines ‘‘gave evidence of a depression of the
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
J.A. Smith et al. / Quaternary International 138– 139 (2005) 145–167
Fig. 1. Location of sites in the tropical Andes of South America that are discussed in the text. Thin gray lines are 3000-m contour lines; thick black
lines mark political boundaries.
lower limit of ice-cored moraines of about 800–1000 m
compared with the recent occurrence of similar forms on
Mt. Chimborazo.’’ He did not provide explicit ELA
estimates for the M IV moraines.
Chronological control for the M IV moraines at
Volcán Pichincha is minimal (Fig. 2). No radiocarbon
dates are directly associated with the M IV moraines
themselves. The M V moraines immediately upvalley
from the M IV moraines at 4100–4200 m enclose a basin
containing varved clays and peat from which a
minimum age for deglaciation of 13,010 14C yr BP
(15.6 cal kyr BP) was obtained on peat. Organic-rich
sediments on the inner edge of the M II moraines
(located downvalley from the M IV moraines) were
dated at 449,500 14C yr BP.
3.2. Papallacta Valley, Potrerillos Plateau, Eastern
Cordillera, ca. 01 200 S, 781 120 W
The Potrerillos Plateau (Fig. 1, Site 2) is located in the
Eastern Cordillera of Ecuador, extending northward
approximately 40 km from Volcán Antisana (5758 m).
Whereas Volcán Antisana still supports a small ice cap,
147
the Potrerillos Plateau, with peak altitudes of less than
4400 m, is currently free of glacial ice. Clapperton et al.
(1997) estimated the modern ELA at Volcán Antisana at
4970750 m on the northern and western sides, where
modern glaciers terminate at 4600 m. They did not
describe the specific method used to estimate the modern
ELA.
The Plateau, which lies mostly at altitudes of
3900–4200 m, has been glaciated more than once during
the Quaternary (Clapperton et al., 1997). Weathered
terminal moraines at altitudes of 3000 m on the
leeward west side and 2700 m on the windward east
side mark the most extensive Quaternary ice cover.
Younger moraines upvalley generally terminate above
3600 m on the west side and 3000 m on the east side
of the Plateau. Clapperton et al. (1997) noted that the
radiocarbon age of organic material beneath two tills
separated by a lava flow at 3500 m indicated that glacial
ice had advanced past that point at least twice after
30 14C kyr BP.
Clapperton et al. (1997), working near Papallacta
Pass on the southern side of the Plateau, focused on
moraines in several valleys that showed morphostrati-
 148
Table 1
Summary of published snowline information for each site discussed in the text

Site LGM snowline locality Country Latitude Longitude Aspect Summit Headwall Terminus Glacier type LGM ELA (m) LGM ELA method
altitude (m) altitude (m) altitude (m)

1 Volcán Pichincha, Ecuador 0.21 78.58 S, SE 4784 4784 3900–4000 Valley NA No ELA reported
Western Cordillera

2 Sucus site, Papallacta Ecuador 0.33 78.17 SW 4170 4170 3850 Valley NA No ELA reported
V., Potrerillos Plat., E
Cord.
Potrerillos site, Ecuador 0.33 78.17 SE 4313 4313 3950 Valley 4050 not clear—logic?
Papallacta V.,
Potrerillos Plat., E
Cord.

J.A. Smith et al. / Quaternary International 138– 139 (2005) 145–167

Volcán Antisana, Ecuador 0.50 78.15 N&W 5758 5758 4600 Outlet NA No ELA reported
Eastern Cord.

3 Chimborazo- Ecuador 1.33 78.78 N 5202 5202 3600–3800 Ice cap NA No ELA reported
Carihuairazo Massif,
Site 1, W Cord.
Chimborazo- Ecuador 1.34 78.78 NW 5202 5202 3800–4000 Ice cap NA No ELA reported

ARTICLE IN PRESS
Carihuairazo Massif,
Site 2, W Cord.
Chimborazo- Ecuador 1.36 78.82 N 5202 5202 3800–4000 Ice cap NA No ELA reported
Carihuairazo Massif,
Site 3a, W Cord.
Chimborazo- Ecuador 1.36 78.82 N 5202 5202 3800–4000 Ice cap NA No ELA reported
Carihuairazo Massif,
Site 3b, W Cord.
Chimborazo- Ecuador 1.36 78.82 N 5202 5202 3800–4000 Ice cap NA No ELA reported
Carihuairazo Massif,
Site 4a, W Cord.
%
Chimborazo- Ecuador 1.36 78.82 N 5202 5202 3800–4000 Ice cap NA No ELA reported
Carihuairazo Massif,
Site 4b, W Cord.
Chimborazo- Ecuador 1.45 78.70 E 6313 5800 3800–4000 Ice cap 3880 THAR ¼ 0:5
Carihuairazo Massif,
Chimb. E, W Cord.
Chimborazo- Ecuador 1.45 78.85 W 6313 5800 3800–4000 Ice cap 4090 THAR ¼ 0:5
Carihuairazo Massif,
Chimb. W, W Cord.
Chimborazo- Ecuador 1.45 78.75 S 5202 5202 3800–4000 Ice cap NA No ELA reported
Carihuairazo Massif,
glac. lake, W Cord.

4 Cordillera Oriental-W Peru 7.80 77.50 W 4525 4077 3746 Valley 3827 THAR ¼ 0:2 & 0.4 (ave.)
of local divide
Cord. Oriental-W of Peru 7.60 77.55 W 4350 3911 3452 Valley 3591 THAR ¼ 0:2 & 0.4 (ave.)
main divide; E of local
Cordillera Oriental-E Peru 7.65 77.47 E 4300 3760 3000 Valley 3170 THAR ¼ 0:2 & 0.4 (ave.)
of main divide

5 Rı́o Pumapampa, Peru 9.90 77.25 W 5682 5050 4025 Valley 4333 THAR ¼ 0:2 & 0.4 (ave.)
Cordillera Blanca
Quebrada Gueshque, Peru 9.80 77.30 WSW 5630 4950 4250 Valley 4460 THAR ¼ 0:2 & 0.4 (ave.)
Cordillera Blanca
Quebrada Cotush, Peru 9.75 77.30 WSW 5360 4825 3850 Valley 4143 THAR ¼ 0:2 & 0.4 (ave.)
Cordillera Blanca
 Quebrada Peru 9.70 77.30 WSW 5237 4900 3850 Valley 4165 THAR ¼ 0:2 & 0.4 (ave.)
Queroccocha,
Cordillera Blanca
Rı́o Negro, Cordillera Peru 9.65 77.30 WSW 5720 5070 3900 Valley 4251 THAR ¼ 0:2 & 0.4 (ave.)
Blanca
Quebrada Rurec, Peru 9.60 77.36 SW 5700 5075 3850 Valley 4218 THAR ¼ 0:2 & 0.4 (ave.)
Cordillera Blanca
Quebrada Cashan, Peru 9.58 77.42 SW 5720 5400 3950 Valley 4385 THAR ¼ 0:2 & 0.4 (ave.)
Cordillera Blanca
Quebrada Pariac, Peru 9.54 77.38 SW 6370 5425 3950 Valley 4393 THAR ¼ 0:2 & 0.4 (ave.)
Cordillera Blanca
Quebrada Shallap, Peru 9.51 77.42 SW 6370 5425 3950 Valley 4145 THAR ¼ 0:2 & 0.4 (ave.)
Cordillera Blanca
Quebrada Peru 9.50 77.38 SW 6222 5250 3950 Valley 4078 THAR ¼ 0:2 & 0.4 (ave.)
Quilcayhuanca,
Cordillera Blanca

J.A. Smith et al. / Quaternary International 138– 139 (2005) 145–167

Quebrada Churup, Peru 9.50 77.43 SW 5500 5050 3700 Valley 4105 THAR ¼ 0:2 & 0.4 (ave.)
Cordillera Blanca
Quebrada Cojup, Peru 9.47 77.43 SW 6180 5525 3550 Valley 4143 THAR ¼ 0:2 & 0.4 (ave.)
Cordillera Blanca
Quebrada Llaca, Peru 9.47 77.47 SW 6160 5450 3750 Valley 4260 THAR ¼ 0:2 & 0.4 (ave.)
Cordillera Blanca
Quebrada Tayash, Peru 9.78 77.13 N 5208 5200 4350 Valley 4605 THAR ¼ 0:2 & 0.4 (ave.)

ARTICLE IN PRESS
Cordillera Blanca
Quebrada Pongos, Peru 9.76 77.40 NNE 5580 5100 3725 Valley 4138 THAR ¼ 0:2 & 0.4 (ave.)
Cordillera Blanca
Quebrada Tambillo, Peru 9.67 77.21 NE 5200 4900 3900 Valley 4200 THAR ¼ 0:2 & 0.4 (ave.)
Cordillera Blanca
Quebrada Huamish, Peru 9.65 77.23 E 5240 4900 3700 Valley 4060 THAR ¼ 0:2 & 0.4 (ave.)
Cordillera Blanca
Quebrada Peru 9.60 77.26 NE 5100 4900 4050 Valley 4305 THAR ¼ 0:2 & 0.4 (ave.)
Shancompampa,
Cordillera Blanca
Quebrada Huantsan, Peru 9.55 77.26 E 5425 4900 4050 Valley 4305 THAR ¼ 0:2 & 0.4 (ave.)
Cordillera Blanca
Quebrada Pamparaju, Peru 9.53 77.24 SSE 5100 5000 4000 Valley 4300 THAR ¼ 0:2 & 0.4 (ave.)
Cordillera Blanca
Quebrada Peru 9.47 77.24 ENE 5870 5300 3850 Valley 4285 THAR ¼ 0:2 & 0.4 (ave.)
Carhuascancha,
Cordillera Blanca
Quebrada Rurec, Peru 9.60 77.36 WSW 5700 5075 3850 Valley 42187178 THAR ¼ 0:2 & 0.4 (ave.)
Cordillera Blanca

Site LGM snowline locality Modern Modern ELA method Modern ELA LGM date # Dates DMC DC References
ELA (m) date

14
1 Volcán Pichincha, 44800 Summit is ice-free (4784 m) 1995 4 13,010 C 8 2 7 Heine, 1995a
Western Cordillera
14
2 Sucus site, Papallacta 4970 Apparent ELA, N&W 1996? 4 13,200 C 7 2 7 Clapperton et al., 1997
V., Potrerillos Plat., E. Antisana, 40 km S
Cord.
Potrerillos site, 4970 Apparent ELA, N&W 1996? o10,855,410,035 14
C 22 2 7 Clapperton et al., 1997
Papallacta V., Antisana, 40 km S
Potrerillos Plat., E.
Cord.
Volcán Antisana, 4970 Apparent ELA, N&W 1996? 0 NA NA Clapperton et al., 1997

149
Eastern Cord. Antisana, 40 km S
 150
Table 1 (continued)

3 Chimborazo- 4800–4900 Observation, air photos; ELA 1987 o 38,520 14

C 1 2 7 Clapperton, 1987a, b
Carihuairazo Massif, 80% origin-term.
Site 1, W Cord.
Chimborazo- 4800–4900 Observation, air photos; ELA 1987 o 35,440 14
C 1 2 7 Clapperton and
Carihuairazo Massif, 80% origin-term. McEwan, 1985;
Site 3a, W Cord.
Clapperton, 1987a, b
Chimborazo- 4800–4900 Observation, air photos; ELA 1987 o 40,330 14
C 1 2 7 Clapperton, 1987a, b
Carihuairazo Massif, 80% origin-term.
Site 3b, W Cord.
14
Chimborazo- 4800–4900 Observation, air photos; ELA 1987 4 11,380 C 1 2 7 Clapperton, 1987a, b
Carihuairazo Massif, 80% origin-term.
Site 4a, W Cord.

J.A. Smith et al. / Quaternary International 138– 139 (2005) 145–167

Chimborazo- 4800–4900 Observation, air photos; ELA 1987 4 14,770 1 2 5 Clapperton, 1987a, b
Carihuairazo Massif, 80% origin-term.
Site 4b, W Cord.
Chimborazo- 4800 Observation, air photos; ELA 1987 4 14,770, o35,440 14C 1 2 5 Clapperton, 1987a, b
Carihuairazo Massif, 80% origin-term.
Chimb. E, W Cord.
Chimborazo- 4900 Observation, air photos; ELA 1987 4 14,770, o35,440 14C 1 2 5 Clapperton, 1987a, b

ARTICLE IN PRESS
Carihuairazo Massif, 80% origin-term.
Chimb. W, W Cord.
14
Chimborazo- 4800–4900 Observation, air photos; ELA 1987 4 11,370 C 2 2 7 Clapperton and
Carihuairazo Massif, 80% origin-term. McEwan, 1985
glac. lake, W Cord.
14
4 Cordillera Oriental-W 4661 Modern GT+snowline 1987 412,100 C 3 4 7 Birkeland et al., 1989;
of local divide gradient across E. Cord. Rodbell, 1991, 1992;
Seltzer, 1987
14
Cord. Oriental-W of 4636 Modern GT+snowline 1987 412,100 C 3 4 7 Birkeland et al., 1989;
main divide; E of local gradient across E. Cord. Rodbell, 1991, 1992;
Seltzer, 1987
14
Cordillera Oriental-E 4558 Modern GT+snowline 1987 412,100 C 3 4 7 Birkeland et al., 1989;
of main divide gradient across E. Cord. Rodbell, 1991, 1992;
Seltzer, 1987
14
5 Rı́o Pumapampa, 4950 Approx. midpoint modern 1962 413,280 C 1 3 6 Rodbell, 1991
Cordillera Blanca glacier (map, photo)
14
Quebrada Gueshque, 4975 Approx. midpoint modern 1962 413,280 C 1 3 6 Rodbell, 1991
Cordillera Blanca glacier (map, photo)
14
Quebrada Cotush, 5000 Approx. midpoint modern 1962 413,280 C 1 3 6 Rodbell, 1991
Cordillera Blanca glacier (map, photo)
14
Quebrada 4775 Approx. midpoint modern 1962 413,280 C 1 3 6 Rodbell, 1991
Queroccocha, glacier (map, photo)
Cordillera Blanca
14
Rı́o Negro, Cordillera 4875 Approx. midpoint modern 1962 413,280 C 1 3 6 Rodbell, 1991
Blanca glacier (map, photo)
14
Quebrada Rurec, 4925 Approx. midpoint modern 1962 413,280 C 1 3 6 Rodbell, 1991
Cordillera Blanca glacier (map, photo)
14
Quebrada Cashan, 5075 Approx. midpoint modern 1962 413,280 C 1 3 6 Rodbell, 1991
Cordillera Blanca glacier (map, photo)
14
Quebrada Pariac, 5175 Approx. midpoint modern 1962 413,280 C 1 3 6 Rodbell, 1991
Cordillera Blanca glacier (map, photo)
14
Quebrada Shallap, 4950 Approx. midpoint modern 1962 413,280 C 1 3 6 Rodbell, 1991
Cordillera Blanca glacier (map, photo)
 14
Quebrada 4950 Approx. midpoint modern 1962 413,280 C 1 3 6 Rodbell, 1991
Quilcayhuanca, glacier (map, photo)
Cordillera Blanca
14
Quebrada Churup, 5000 Approx. midpoint modern 1962 413,280 C 1 3 6 Rodbell, 1991
Cordillera Blanca glacier (map, photo)
14
Quebrada Cojup, 5200 Approx. midpoint modern 1962 413,280 C 1 3 6 Rodbell, 1991
Cordillera Blanca glacier (map, photo)
14
Quebrada Llaca, 4975 Approx. midpoint modern 1962 413,280 C 1 3 6 Rodbell, 1991
Cordillera Blanca glacier (map, photo)
14
Quebrada Tayash, 5075 Approx. midpoint modern 1962 413,280 C 1 3 6 Rodbell, 1991
Cordillera Blanca glacier (map, photo)
14
Quebrada Pongos, 5125 Approx. midpoint modern 1962 413,280 C 1 3 6 Rodbell, 1991
Cordillera Blanca glacier (map, photo)
14
Quebrada Tambillo, 5100 Approx. midpoint modern 1962 413,280 C 1 3 6 Rodbell, 1991
Cordillera Blanca glacier (map, photo)
14
Quebrada Huamish, 5030 Approx. midpoint modern 1962 413,280 C 1 3 6 Rodbell, 1991

J.A. Smith et al. / Quaternary International 138– 139 (2005) 145–167

Cordillera Blanca glacier (map, photo)
14
Quebrada 5030 Approx. midpoint modern 1962 413,280 C 1 3 6 Rodbell, 1991
Shancompampa, glacier (map, photo)
Cordillera Blanca
14
Quebrada Huantsan, 5030 Approx. midpoint modern 1962 413,280 C 1 3 6 Rodbell, 1991
Cordillera Blanca glacier (map, photo)
14
Quebrada Pamparaju, 5030 Approx. midpoint modern 1962 413,280 C 1 3 6 Rodbell, 1991

ARTICLE IN PRESS
Cordillera Blanca glacier (map, photo)
14
Quebrada 4850 Approx. midpoint modern 1962 413,280 C 1 3 6 Rodbell, 1991
Carhuascancha, glacier (map, photo)
Cordillera Blanca
Quebrada Rurec, 4925 Approx. midpoint modern 1962 416 cal ka 1 3 6 Rodbell, 1991
Cordillera Blanca glacier (map, photo)

Site LGM snowline locality Country Latitude Longitude Aspect Summit Headwall Terminus Glacier type LGM ELA (m) LGM ELA method
altitude (m) altitude (m) altitude (m)

6,7 Cerros Cuchpanga Peru 10.71 76.67 E 5300 Piedmont 4500 Cirque-floor altitude
Cordillera Callejon- Peru 11.00 76.60 W 5200 Valley 4600 Cirque-floor altitude
West
Cordillera Callejon- Peru 11.20 76.50 E 5200 Piedmont 4500 Limit of bedrock erosion
East
Junin-East Peru 10.69 76.08 W 5000 4200 Ice fields 4300 Cirque-floor altitude

8 Nevado Huaytapallana Peru 11.92 75.05 E 5557 5557 3400 Valley NA No ELA reported

9 Upismayo Valley, Peru 13.76 71.25 NW 6384 5700 4300 Valley 4930 THAR ¼ 0:45
Cordillera Vilcanota
Jalacocha Valley, Peru 13.76 71.33 NW 6384 5700? 4000–4200 Valley NA
Cordillera Vilcanota

10 Huancané Valley, Peru 13.97 70.88 W 5645 5470 4745 Valley 5070 THAR ¼ 0:45
Quelccaya Ice Cap

11 Nevado Sara Sara Peru 15.33 70.44 E 5505 Valley THAR ¼ 0:5, MELM,
(modern-E), Cordillera AAR ¼ 0:6
Ampato
Nevado Sara Sara Peru 15.33 70.44 S 5505 Valley THAR ¼ 0:5, MELM,
(modern-S), Cordillera AAR ¼ 0:6
Ampato
Sara Sara I (NE), Peru 15.33 70.44 NE 5505 4300 Valley 4650 THAR ¼ 0:5, MELM,
Cordillera Ampato AAR ¼ 0:6

151
Sara Sara II (NE), Peru 15.33 70.44 NE 5505 Valley 4800 THAR ¼ 0:5, MELM,
Cordillera Ampato AAR ¼ 0:6
 152
Table 1 (continued)

Sara Sara I (SW), Peru 15.33 70.44 SW 5505 4050 Valley 4500 THAR ¼ 0:5, MELM,
Cordillera Ampato AAR ¼ 0:6
Sara Sara II (SW), Peru 15.33 70.44 SW 5505 Valley 4700 THAR ¼ 0:5, MELM,
Cordillera Ampato AAR ¼ 0:6
C. Huanipaco/ Peru 15.11 73.08 NW 5228 4100 Valley 4800 THAR ¼ 0:5, MELM,
Cocauro/Allcc. (NW), AAR ¼ 0:67
Cord. Ampato
C. Huanipaco/ Peru 15.11 73.08 SW 5228 4400 Valley 4650 THAR ¼ 0:5, MELM,
Cocauro/Allcc. (SW), AAR ¼ 0:67
Cord. Ampato
C. Huanipaco/ Peru 15.11 73.08 SE 5228 4400 Valley 4350 THAR ¼ 0:5, MELM,
Cocauro/Allcc. (SE#1), AAR ¼ 0:67
Cord. Ampato

J.A. Smith et al. / Quaternary International 138– 139 (2005) 145–167

C. Huanipaco/ Peru 15.11 73.08 SE 5228 4400 Valley 4700 THAR ¼ 0:5, MELM,
Cocauro/Allcc. (SE#2), AAR ¼ 0:67
Cord. Ampato
C. Huanipaco/ Peru 15.11 73.08 SE 5228 4400 Valley 4900 THAR ¼ 0:5, MELM,
Cocauro/Allcc. (SE#3), AAR ¼ 0:67
Cord. Ampato
Nevado Solimana Peru 15.40 72.90 N 6093 4600 Valley 5000 THAR ¼ 0:5, MELM,

ARTICLE IN PRESS
(N#1), Cordillera AAR ¼ 0:67
Ampato
Nevado Solimana Peru 15.40 72.90 N 6093 4750 Valley 5250 THAR ¼ 0:5, MELM,
(N#2), Cordillera AAR ¼ 0:67
Ampato
Nevado Solimana Peru 15.40 72.90 N 6093 4850 Valley 5400 THAR ¼ 0:5, MELM,
(N#3), Cordillera AAR ¼ 0:67
Ampato
Nevado Solimana Peru 15.40 72.90 SW 6093 4400 Valley 4725 THAR ¼ 0:5, MELM,
(SW#1), Cordillera AAR ¼ 0:67
Ampato
Nevado Solimana Peru 15.40 72.90 SW 6093 Valley 4850 THAR ¼ 0:5, MELM,
(SW#2), Cordillera AAR ¼ 0:67
Ampato
Nevado Solimana (SE), Peru 15.40 72.90 SE 6093 4500 Valley 4850 THAR ¼ 0:5, MELM,
Cordillera Ampato AAR ¼ 0:67
Nevado Coropuna Peru 15.59 72.39 SW 6377 4450 Valley 4750 THAR ¼ 0:5, MELM,
(SW), Cordillera AAR ¼ 0:67
Ampato
Cerros Jollpa/ Peru 15.59 72.39 SW 5270 3850 Valley 4450 THAR ¼ 0:5, MELM,
Yanahuara (SW), AAR ¼ 0:67
Cordillera Ampato
Cerros Jollpa/ Peru 15.59 72.39 S 5270 4375 Valley 4700 THAR ¼ 0:5, MELM,
Yanahuara (S#1), AAR ¼ 0:67
Cordillera Ampato
Cerros Jollpa/ Peru 15.59 72.39 S 5270 4850 Valley 5000 THAR ¼ 0:5, MELM,
Yanahuara (S#2), AAR ¼ 0:67
Cordillera Ampato
Cerros Jollpa/ Peru 15.59 72.39 E 5270 Valley 4700 THAR ¼ 0:5, MELM,
Yanahuara (E), AAR ¼ 0:67
Cordillera Ampato

12 Nevado Ulla Khaya, Bolivia 15.00 69.00 W 5617 5617 3700–4000 Valley NA No ELA reported
Cordillera
Apolobamba
13 Rı́o San Francisco, Bolivia 15.85 68.60 ? 6382 NA 4000? Valley NA No ELA reported
Cordillera Real

14 Rı́o Palcoco, Cordillera Bolivia 16.17 68.33 SW 46000 5460 4260 Valley 4700 THAR ¼ 0:37 (better
Real estimate)
Rı́o Palcoco, Cordillera Bolivia 16.17 68.33 SW 46000 5460 4260 Valley 4860 THAR ¼ 0:5 (first
Real estimate)

Site LGM snowline locality Modern Modern ELA method Modern ELA LGM date # Dates DMC DC References
ELA (m) date

14
6,7 Cerros Cuchpanga 4900 Map of 1967 based on air 1962 4 13,540 C 4 3 6 Wright Jr., 1983, 1984
photos
14
Cordillera Callejon- 4900 Map of 1967 based on air 1962 4 13,540 C 4 3 6 Wright Jr., 1983, 1984
West photos

J.A. Smith et al. / Quaternary International 138– 139 (2005) 145–167

14
Cordillera Callejon- 4900 Map of 1967 based on air 1962 4 13,540 C 4 3 6 Wright Jr., 1983, 1984
East photos
Junin-East 4800 Map of 1967 based on air 1962 o 42,000 14
C 1 4 7 Wright Jr., 1983, 1984
photos
14
8 Nevado Huaytapallana 4800 GT (+ altitude modern glacier 1987 4 10,960 C 4 2 7 Seltzer, 1987, 1990;
front, 1987) Wright Jr. et al., 1989;
Instituto Geografico

ARTICLE IN PRESS
Nacional, 1983

9 Upismayo Valley, 5100 AAR ¼ 0:5 (inventory data) 1962 4 18.5 cal ka 4 3 4 Mark et al., 2002;
Cordillera Vilcanota Dornbusch, 1998
14
Jalacocha Valley, 5100 AAR ¼ 0:5 (inventory data) 1962 4 14,010 C 1 2 5 Mercer and Palacios,
Cordillera Vilcanota 1977;Dornbusch, 1998

10 Huancané Valley, 5300 AAR ¼ 0:5 (inventory data) 1962 4 14.3 cal ka 5 2 7 Mark et al., 2002;
Quelccaya Ice Cap Mercer and Palacios,
1977; Dornbusch, 1998

11 Nevado Sara Sara 5350 Average, glacier inventory of 1955 No dates 0 5 8 Dornbusch, 2000, 2002
(modern-E), Cordillera Ames et al. (1988)
Ampato
Nevado Sara Sara 5112 Average, glacier inventory of 1955 No dates 0 5 8 Dornbusch, 2000, 2002
(modern-S), Cordillera Ames et al. (1988)
Ampato
Sara Sara I (NE), 5350 Average, glacier inventory of 1955 No dates 0 5 8 Dornbusch, 2000, 2002
Cordillera Ampato Ames et al. (1988)
Sara Sara II (NE), 5350 Average, glacier inventory of 1955 No dates 0 5 8 Dornbusch, 2000, 2002
Cordillera Ampato Ames et al. (1988)
Sara Sara I (SW), 5112 Average, glacier inventory of 1955 No dates 0 5 8 Dornbusch, 2000, 2002
Cordillera Ampato Ames et al. (1988)
Sara Sara II (SW), 5112 Average, glacier inventory of 1955 No dates 0 5 8 Dornbusch, 2000, 2002
Cordillera Ampato Ames et al. (1988)
C. Huanipaco/ NA 1955 No dates 0 5 8 Dornbusch, 2000, 2002
Cocauro/Allcc. (NW),
Cord. Ampato
C. Huanipaco/ NA 1955 No dates 0 5 8 Dornbusch, 2000, 2002
Cocauro/Allcc. (SW),
Cord. Ampato
C. Huanipaco/ NA 1955 No dates 0 5 8 Dornbusch, 2000, 2002
Cocauro/Allcc. (SE#1),
Cord. Ampato
C. Huanipaco/ NA 1955 No dates 0 5 8 Dornbusch, 2000, 2002
Cocauro/Allcc. (SE#2),

153
Cord. Ampato
 154
Table 1 (continued)

C. Huanipaco/ NA 1955 No dates 0 5 8 Dornbusch, 2000, 2002

Cocauro/Allcc. (SE#3)
Nevado Solimana 5588 Average, glacier inventory of 1955 No dates 0 5 8 Dornbusch, 2000, 2002
(N#1), Cordillera Ames et al. (1988)
Ampato
Nevado Solimana 5588 Average, glacier inventory of 1955 No dates 0 5 8 Dornbusch, 2000, 2002
(N#2), Cordillera Ames et al. (1988)
Ampato
Nevado Solimana 5588 Average, glacier inventory of 1955 No dates 0 5 8 Dornbusch, 2000, 2002
(N#3), Cordillera Ames et al. (1988)
Ampato
Nevado Solimana 5413 Average, glacier inventory of 1955 No dates 0 5 8 Dornbusch, 2000, 2002
(SW#1), Cordillera Ames et al. (1988)

J.A. Smith et al. / Quaternary International 138– 139 (2005) 145–167

Ampato
Nevado Solimana 5413 Average, glacier inventory of 1955 No dates 0 5 8 Dornbusch, 2000, 2002
(SW#2), Cordillera Ames et al. (1988)
Ampato
Nevado Solimana (SE), 5432 Average, glacier inventory of 1955 No dates 0 5 8 Dornbusch, 2000, 2002
Cordillera Ampato Ames et al. (1988)
Nevado Coropuna 5558 Average, glacier inventory of 1955 No dates 0 5 8 Dornbusch, 2000, 2002

ARTICLE IN PRESS
(SW), Cordillera Ames et al. (1988)
Ampato
Cerros Jollpa/ NA 1955 No dates 0 5 8 Dornbusch, 2000, 2002
Yanahuara (SW),
Cordillera Ampato
Cerros Jollpa/ NA 1955 No dates 0 5 8 Dornbusch, 2000, 2002
Yanahuara (S#1),
Cordillera Ampato
Cerros Jollpa/ NA 1955 No dates 0 5 8 Dornbusch, 2000, 2002
Yanahuara (S#2),
Cordillera Ampato
Cerros Jollpa/ NA 1955 No dates 0 5 8 Dornbusch, 2000, 2002
Yanahuara (E),
Cordillera Ampato
14
12 Nevado Ulla Khaya, 5300 Not stated explicitly 1984 48812 C 1 3 7 Lauer and Rafiqpoor,
Cordillera 1986
Apolobamba

13 Rı́o San Francisco, ? NA NA o 33–34 14

C ka 2 2 7 Argollo, 1980, 1982;
Cordillera Real Servant and Fontes,
1984
14
14 Rı́o Palcoco, Cordillera 5085 AAR ¼ 0:77&0.6 (ave.); 1962 4 10,460 C 2 2 7 Argollo, 1980, 1982;
Real THAR ¼ 0:37&0.5 (ave.) Seltzer, 1992
14
Rı́o Palcoco, Cordillera 5085 AAR ¼ 0:77&0.6 (ave.); 1962 4 10,460 C 2 2 7 Argollo, 1980, 1982;
Real THAR ¼ 0:37&0.5 (ave.) Seltzer, 1992

Site LGM snowline locality Country Latitude Longitude Aspect Summit Headwall Terminus Glacier type LGM ELA (m) LGM ELA method
altitude (m) altitude (m) altitude (m)

15 Zongo Valley, Bolivia 16.20 68.12 NE 6088 5800? 4100–4140 Valley 4600–4700 2:1 method; moraine group
Cordillera Real Zo5
Milluni Valley, Bolivia 16.32 68.17 SSW 6088 5730 4240 Valley 4800–4980 THAR ¼ 0:37,
Cordillera Real THAR ¼ 0:50

16 Bolivia 17.06 67.24 W 5515 5400 4325 Valley 4800 2.5:1 method; moraine Ck7
 Choco Kkota Valley,
Cordillera Quimsa
Cruz
Choco Kkota Valley, Bolivia 17.06 67.24 W 5515 5400 4280 Valley 4700 2.7:1 method; moraine Ck8
Cordillera Quimsa
Cruz
Choco Kkota Valley, Bolivia 17.06 67.24 W 5515 5400 4000 Valley 4600 3:1 method; moraine Ck10
Cordillera Quimsa
Cruz

17 Rı́o Kollpaña Bolivia 17.35 65.78 ? ? ? ? Valley? ? No ELA reported

Rı́o Kollpaña Bolivia 17.35 65.78 ? ? ? ? Valley? ? No ELA reported

18 Laguna Kollpa Kkota Bolivia 17.43 67.13 W 4560 4560 4400 Cirque 4460 THAR ¼ 0:37

J.A. Smith et al. / Quaternary International 138– 139 (2005) 145–167

Site LGM snowline locality Modern Modern ELA method Modern ELA LGM date ] Dates DMC DC References
ELA (m) date

14
15 Zongo Valley, 5150 Observation, instrumentation 1993 4 9790 C 1 2 7 Müller, 1985; Seltzer et
Cordillera Real of Zongo Glacier al., 1995; Heine, 1996;
Wagnon et al., 1999
14
Milluni Valley, 5150 Observation, instrumentation 1993 4 10,970 C 2 2 7 Seltzer, 1992; Seltzer et
Cordillera Real of Zongo Glacier al., 1995; Heine, 1996;

ARTICLE IN PRESS
Wagnon et al., 1999

16 Choco Kkota Valley, 5050  100 AAR ¼ 0:77 1982 o 8420 14

C 1 2 7 Müller, 1985; Seltzer,
Cordillera Quimsa 1994a
%
Cruz
14
Choco Kkota Valley, 5050  100 AAR ¼ 0:77 1982 4 8420 C 1 2 7 Müller, 1985; Seltzer,
Cordillera Quimsa 1994a
%
Cruz
14
Choco Kkota Valley, 5050  100 AAR ¼ 0:77 1982 4 8420 C 1 2 7 Müller, 1985; Seltzer,
Cordillera Quimsa 1994a
%
Cruz
14
17 Rı́o Kollpaña ? No ELA reported NA 16,610 C 2 2 3 Servant et al., 1981;
Servant and Fontes,
1984; Gouze et al.,
1986; Gouze, 1987
14
Rı́o Kollpaña ? No ELA reported NA 27,000 C 2 2 7 Servant et al., 1981;
Servant and Fontes,
1984; Gouze et al.,
1986; Gouze, 1987

18 Laguna Kollpa Kkota 5100 AAR ¼ 0:77; extrapolated— 1982 4 21 cal kyr BP 3 (basal) 2 1 Seltzer, 1994a, b;
Cord. Quimsa Cruz Seltzer et al., 1995

Site numbers correspond to numbers on Fig. 1. Column DMC refers to dating method control and column DC refers to dating control, and follows the definitions given by Mark et al. (this volume),
where DMC ¼ 1: Chronology based on radiometric dating of terminus position; DMC ¼ 2: Chronology based on geomorphologic correlation of terminus position with radiometrically dated feature
within the glacier valley; DMC ¼ 3: Chronology based on geomorphic correlation with radiometrically dated feature within region, where region may be an individual mountain or mountain range.
In the case of isolated mountains, the dated feature must be within 50 km; in case of a mountain range, the feature must be within 200 km and have the same aspect relative to climate gradients;
DMC ¼ 4: Chronology based on correlation with a radiometrically dated regional sequence; DMC ¼ 5: Chronology based on correlation with a generalized or global glaciation scheme; DC ¼ 1:
Date is less than 500 yr from the target interval; DC ¼ 2: Date is less than 1000 yr from the target interval; DC ¼ 3: Date is less than 2000 yr from the target interval; DC ¼ 4: Date is less than 3000 yr
from the target interval; DC ¼ 5: Date is less than 4000 yr from the target interval; DC ¼ 6: Date is less than 5000 yr from the target interval; DC ¼ 7: Date is greater than 5000 yr from the target
interval; DC ¼ 8: Site is not associated with radiometric date (DMC ¼ 5).

155
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
156 J.A. Smith et al. / Quaternary International 138– 139 (2005) 145–167

Fig. 2. Graphical representation of estimates of snowline depression at the LGM in the tropical Andes of South America. The size of the circle
denotes the amount of snowline depression; the color of the circle ranks the dating associated with the feature used to make the estimate (ranking is
relative to 21 cal kyr BP). Sites with no published estimates of snowline depression at the LGM are symbolized by squares. Thin gray lines are 3000-m
contour lines; thick black lines mark political boundaries.

graphic evidence of previous occupation by valley
glaciers. They identified the older Sucus advance and
the younger Potrerillos advance, which terminated at
3850 and 3950 m, respectively. They speculated that
the paleo-ELA must have been close to 4000–4100 m ‘‘in
order to generate glacier ice’’ for the Potrerillos advance
(Fig. 2), but did not make an estimate for the Sucus
advance. The Potrerillos ELA estimate (suggesting an
ELA depression of 900 m) does not seem to be based
on an explicit method.
Chronological control for the Sucus advance is
provided by seven minimum-limiting radiocarbon
ages averaging 13,070 14C yr BP (15.6 cal kyr BP) on
plant material and peaty organic matter in sedi-
ments overlying till between two Sucus lateral moraines.
Six minimum-limiting radiocarbon ages averaging
11,720 14C yr BP (13.7 cal kyr BP) from sediments un-
derlying the Potrerillos advance date the deglaciation of
the plateau after the Sucus advance. There are no
maximum-limiting ages, so the Sucus advance may be
younger or older than 21 cal kyr BP, though probably
not older than 30 14C kyr BP, as it terminated above the
dated organic material underlying tills at 3500 m.
Chronological control for the Potrerillos advance
is provided by 11 maximum-limiting radiocarbon
ages averaging 10,855 14C yr BP (12.8 cal kyr BP) and
five minimum-limiting radiocarbon ages averaging
10,035 14C yr BP (11.3 cal kyr BP). The Potrerillos
advance thus clearly postdates the LGM.
3.3. Chimborazo-Carihuairazo Massif, Western
Cordillera, 11 300 S, 781 500 W
The Chimborazo-Carihuairazo Massif (Fig. 1, Site 3)
is an ice-capped volcanic complex some 20–30 km in
diameter located near the southern end of the Western
Cordillera of the Ecuadorean Andes. Geomorphic
evidence on Chimborazo (6310 m) and Carihuairazo
(5020 m) suggests a complicated history of volcanic and
glacial activity (Clapperton, 1990). Clapperton (1987a,
b, 1990) identified four generations of glacial deposits on
the basis of field characteristics, obtained radiocarbon
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
J.A. Smith et al. / Quaternary International 138– 139 (2005) 145–167
dates that broadly distinguish Neoglacial, late-glacial,
full-glacial, and older deposits, and calculated paleo-
ELAs and ELA depressions for each generation of
moraines.
Clapperton and McEwan (1985) identified three sets
of moraines in the Rı́o Mocha valley between Chimbor-
azo and Carihuairazo. They assigned the moraines to
the LGM (Group 3), late glacial (Group 2), and
Neoglacial (Group 1) stages based on location, mor-
phological characteristics, and depth of volcanic ash
cover. Group 3 moraines extend to just below 3600 m
altitude, Group 2 moraines to 4050 and 3900 m, and
Group 1 moraines to 4300–4400 m. Clapperton (1987a)
placed the modern ELA on Chimborazo at approxi-
mately 4800 m (eastern slope) and 4900 m (western
slope). Clapperton (1987a), using the median-altitude
method (THAR ¼ 0:5), estimated full-glacial (LGM)
ELAs on Chimborazo at 3880 m (eastern slope) and
4090 m (western slope), indicating an ELA depression of
820–920 m.
Chronological control for the moraine sequences
in the Chimborazo-Carihuairazo Massif is minimal.
Clapperton and McEwan (1985) obtained ages
of 10.6–11.4 14C kyr BP (12.7–13.4 cal kyr BP) from
peat layers from a drained glacial lake basin located at
an altitude of 3900–4000 m between the two volcanic
peaks and upvalley of the Group 2 moraines. Clapper-
ton and McEwan concluded that the lake developed
when glacial ice advanced and formed a dam across the
Rı́o Mocha valley. Clapperton and McEwan (1985) did
not find any datable material associated with the Group
3 (full-glacial) moraines, but they correlated those
moraines with deposits overlying compacted peat on
the northern flanks of Carihuairazo (their site 3a), which
they dated at 35,4407680/630 14C yr BP.
4. Peru
North of about 101 S, the Peruvian Andes consist of
two northeast–southwest-trending, near-parallel chains,
the Eastern Cordillera (Cordillera Oriental, locally
Cordillera Blanca) and the Western Cordillera (Cordil-
lera Occidental, locally Cordillera Negra), which are
separated by incised valleys. South of about 101 S, the
two cordillera of the Peruvian Andes shift closer to
east–west-trending and are more commonly separated
by high-altitude plateaus that increase in width toward
the south, terminating in the plateau that hosts Lago
Titicaca, the Altiplano (3800 m). Unlike the Andes in
Ecuador, the Peruvian Andes are largely non-volcanic;
volcanic peaks reappear south of 151 S. The highest
peaks in the Peruvian Andes include ice-covered Nevado
Huascarán (6768 m) in the Cordillera Blanca (91 100 S,
771 350 W) and Nevado Ausangate (6384 m) in the
Cordillera Vilcanota (131 450 S, 711 150 W).
157
No moraines in the Peruvian Andes have been
definitively dated to the LGM. Careful mapping in the
Cordillera Oriental and Cordillera Blanca (Rodbell,
1991–1993) lacks conclusive bracketing ages to confirm
that the moraines date to the local LGM. Wright Jr.
(1983) obtained bracketing ages of 12 14C kyr BP
(14 cal kyr BP) and 24 14C kyr BP for clayey sediments
in a core from Laguna Junin, which he interpreted to
constrain the age of outwash sediments from LGM
glaciation. This has been updated by Seltzer et al.
(2000), who showed the LGM to be bracketed between
21 cal kyr BP and 30 14C kyr BP. Smith et al. (2001,
2002a, b) have used cosmogenic dating techniques to
identify moraines of the local LGM in valleys bordering
the Junin Plain. Preliminary results indicate that these
moraines are older than 21 cal kyr BP. A maximum age
of about 28 14C kyr BP reported by Mercer and Palacios
(1977) for moraines at 4100–4450 m in the Upismayo
Valley on the north side of the Cordillera Vilcanota
offered the prospect of bracketing ages for LGM
moraines, but Mercer’s later work (Mercer, 1982,
1984) resulted in a revision of the maximum age of the
moraines to about 14 14C kyr BP (16.8 cal kyr BP).
4.1. Cordillera Oriental, North-central Peru, 71 32– 480
S, 771 28– 340 W
The Cordillera Oriental (Fig. 1, Site 4) is located in
the Amazon drainage basin and has also appeared in the
literature as the Cordillera Central (e.g., Birkeland et al.,
1989). The Cordillera has maximum summit elevations
of about 4500 m and is not currently glaciated. Part of
the section of the Cordillera Oriental discussed in
Rodbell (1991–1993) contains two divides: a NW–SE
trending main divide and a minor local divide to the
west of the main divide.
Rodbell interpreted moraines with steep proximal and
distal slopes (25–351) as LGM moraines. In valleys of
the Cordillera Oriental, the LGM terminal moraine
marks a distinct change in valley morphology, from
shallow and U-shaped upvalley to steep, deeply incised,
and V-shaped downvalley.
Topographic map coverage is lacking for much of the
Cordillera Oriental, precluding the use of AAR and GT
methods for ELA reconstruction (Porter, 2001). Rodbell
(1992) estimated LGM ELAs using the THAR method.
Where LGM terminal moraines were absent, he
estimated their location from the change in valley
morphology. He used the elevation ‘‘at the base of the
steep slopes at the heads of cirque basins’’ as the
headwall elevation. In cases where multiple cirques fed
LGM glaciers, Rodbell used the average headwall
elevation of all the major cirques. Where topographic
map coverage was absent, he measured altitudes in
the field with an altimeter, with an estimated accuracy
of 750 m.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
158 J.A. Smith et al. / Quaternary International 138– 139 (2005) 145–167
Rodbell calculated LGM ELAs for the Cordillera
Oriental using THAR values of both 0.2 and 0.4. His
results indicated that average ELAs at the LGM were
3850785–3900770 m for nine glaciers west of the local
divide, 3540780–3640770 m for nine glaciers west of
the main divide, and 3150740–3300780 m for two
glaciers east of the main divide. Rodbell calculated a
S–N slope of 24 m/km and a W–E slope of 45 m/km
for ELA altitude at the LGM.
Rodbell estimated ELA depression in the Cordillera
Oriental at the LGM by comparing his calculated LGM
ELAs with an estimated modern glaciation threshold of
4620 m (Seltzer, 1987). This comparison yielded ELA
depression at the LGM of 750–950 m west of the local
divide, 900–1150 m west of the main divide, and
1100–1350 m east of the main divide (Fig. 2).
Chronological control in the Cordillera Oriental
east of the main divide is provided by a minimum-
limiting radiocarbon date of 12,1007190 14C yr BP
(14–15 cal kyr BP) on the basal 8 cm of a 428-cm
section of lake sediments on top of till in Laguna Baja in
the Manachaque Valley (Birkeland et al., 1989; Rodbell,
1992). This date provides a minimum date for initial
deglaciation of Manachaque Valley. There are no
maximum-limiting dates for the LGM moraines.
4.2. Cordillera Blanca, North-central Peru, 91 28– 540 S,
771 13– 280 W
The Cordillera Blanca (Fig. 1, Site 5) contains
numerous peaks above 6000 m, including the highest
peak in Peru (Nevado Huascarán Sur, 6768 m), and is
extensively glaciated. It forms the Continental Divide in
this section of the Andes. Rodbell (1992) estimated the
modern ELA at 49857120 m for twelve glaciers west of
the Continental Divide and 50307110 m for five glaciers
east of the divide.
In the Cordillera Blanca, Rodbell (1991–1993) identi-
fied the LGM moraines (‘‘Laguna Baja’’) as those lying
between numerous Holocene and late-Quaternary mor-
aines upvalley and two sets of older moraines beyond
the LGM ice limit. LGM moraines are characterized by
steep proximal and distal slopes (25–351) and moderate
development of weathering posts on granite boulders.
Rodbell (1991–1993) estimated LGM ELAs using the
THAR method as constrained by the upvalley limit of
lateral moraines that could be traced in the field or on
1:25,000 aerial photos. Terminus and headwall altitudes
of LGM paleoglaciers were estimated from topographic
maps. Rodbell used the elevation at the base of the steep
slopes at the heads of cirque basins as the headwall
elevation of deglaciated cirques, or the base of the near-
vertical ice walls located above modern cirque glaciers.
In cases where multiple cirques fed LGM glaciers,
Rodbell used the average headwall elevation of all the
major cirques.
Rodbell calculated LGM ELAs for the Cordillera
Blanca using THAR values of both 0.2 and 0.4. He
estimated average ELAs at the LGM of about
42507110–44007100 m for thirteen glaciers west of
the divide, and 42007170–43507150 m for nine glaciers
east of the divide (Fig. 2). Rodbell found that the S–N
and W–E slopes of the ELAs in the Cordillera Blanca
were not significantly different from zero. Rodbell
estimated ELA depressions at the LGM of 400–900 m
west of the divide and 530–970 m east of the divide.
Chronological control on the western side of the
Cordillera Blanca is provided by a minimum-limiting
radiocarbon date of 13,2807190 14C yr BP (15.8 cal
kyr BP) on peat beneath gravel at about 6 m depth in
the Breque Valley (Rodbell, 1992, 1993; Rodbell
and Seltzer, 2000). There are no maximum-limiting
dates for the LGM moraines.
4.3. Junin Plain/Cerros Cuchpanga/Cordillera Callejon,
ca. 101 400 —111 000 S, 76– 771 W
In the Andean Highlands of central Peru between
about 101 300 and 111 100 , a plateau known as the Junin
Plain (Fig. 1, Site 7) separates cordillera to the west and
east. The Junin Plain has an average altitude of 4100 m
and is dominated by Laguna Junin, the second largest
lake in Peru. The higher altitude Western Cordillera
currently has a far greater number of glaciers than the
lower Eastern Cordillera, although both cordillera have
been extensively glaciated in the past. Wright Jr. (1983)
estimated the altitude of the snowline at approximately
4900 m in the Western Cordillera and 4800 m in the
Eastern Cordillera.
The Cerros Cuchpanga and the Cordillera Callejon
(ca. 101 450 S, 761 350 W; Fig. 1, Site 6) are two ridges in
the Western Cordillera that support modern glaciers.
The Cerros Cuchpanga is the farther east and north of
the two ridges, while the Cordillera Callejon to the
southwest has the steeper peaks. Maximum peak
altitudes in the Cerros Cuchpanga are about
5100–5200 m, including existing ice caps. The crest of
the Cordillera Callejon is at an altitude of about
5000–5200 m (Instituto Geográfico Militar, 1969).
Wright Jr. (1983, 1984) identified deposits of two
glaciations in the Junin region, largely on the basis of
morphostratigraphy of moraines and outwash: the
younger Punrun phase and the older Rı́o Blanco phase.
He viewed the Western Cordillera as the source region
for both phases. Wright dated basal lake sediments in
sediment cores and obtained four radiocarbon ages
ranging from 10 to 13.5 14C kyr BP (11.5–16.2 cal
kyr BP), which he interpreted as minimum-limiting ages
for the time of recession of the last (Punrun) glaciation
from the Junin Plain. Wright interpreted radiocarbon
dates of 24 14C kyr BP at the base and 12 14C kyr BP
(14.2 cal kyr BP) at the top of 9 m of clay in a long core
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J.A. Smith et al. / Quaternary International 138– 139 (2005) 145–167
from Laguna Junin as marking the beginning and
end of the Punrun glacial phase. Wright obtained a
radiocarbon age of 442 14C kyr BP on organic lake
sediment beneath the Punrun till, from which he
inferred that the Rı́o Blanco glaciation is older than
42,000 14C yr.
Wright calculated ELAs for the LGM by identifying
cirques containing lakes on aerial photos and topo-
graphic maps and using the cirque altitude as an
estimate of the ELA at the LGM. He estimated ELAs
of about 4600 m in the Western Cordillera and about
4300 m in the Eastern Cordillera, suggesting ELA
depressions of 300 and 500 m, respectively (Fig. 2).
Wright estimated an ELA of 4400 m from a cirque on a
bedrock hill on the Junin Plain (Cerro Quicay), from
which he inferred an ELA depression of 400 m. Wright’s
estimates of ELA depression at the LGM are not
constrained by radiometric dating. Moreover, the
estimates should be considered minimum depressions,
as the lip of the cirque may have been above the ELA at
the LGM.
Seltzer et al. (2000) obtained a 19-m sediment core
from Laguna Junin (111S, 761W). Based on magnetic
susceptibility and radiocarbon dating of lacustrine
sediments in the core, they concluded that the LGM
occurred between 30 14C kyr BP and 21 cal kyr BP.
Radiocarbon dating on mollusks in the sediment
indicated that the first drop in magnetic susceptibility
occurred at about 21 cal kyr BP, which the authors
interpreted as the point at which glaciers retreated
behind their terminal moraines. The authors inferred a
minor readvance between 21 and 16 cal kyr BP, followed
by extensive glacial retreat after 16 cal kyr BP. Mollusks
near the base of the core gave a radiocarbon age of
39,02071045 14C yr BP.
Work by Smith et al. (2001, 2002a, b, 2003a, b, in
press) in deglaciated valleys bordering the Junin Plain
will provide direct dating of moraines by cosmogenic
dating techniques (10Be and 26Al). The valleys are all
relatively shallow in profile (o700 m from bottom to
highest peak) and base level is fixed by the elevation of
the Junin Plain (4100 m). Results to date (10Be) indicate
that terminal moraines of the LGM lie at altitudes of
4250–4400 m in three valleys on the eastern edge of the
Junin Plain. The ELA calculated by the THAR method
for the LGM moraine in the longest valley is
4500–4600 m (THAR ¼ 0:5), indicating an ELA de-
pression of 200–300 m, based on a modern ELA of
4800 m (Wright Jr., 1983).
4.4. Nevado Huaytapallana, ca. 111 550 S, 751 030 W
Nevado Huaytapallana (5557 m; Fig. 1, Site 8) rises
above the dissected plateau east of the city of Jauja and
the northern Rı́o Mantaro Valley, approximately
300 km east of Lima, Peru. Based on field work and
159
analysis of topographic maps and aerial photographs to
develop a glacial history for the region, Seltzer (1987)
concluded that a late-Pleistocene ice cap extended from
the Nevado Huaytapallana onto the plateau to the west
(ca. 4200–4600 m; Instituto Geográfico Nacional, 1983)
and down to elevations as low as 3400 m to the east,
which is some 1400 m lower than the modern ice margin
(4800 m in 1989). Wright Jr. et al. (1989) cited a
modern snowline estimate of 4700–4800 m based on
the glaciation threshold method (Seltzer, 1987) for the
portion of the Eastern Cordillera that includes Nevado
Huaytapallana.
Chronological control for the study was provided
by radiocarbon dating of basal lake sediments at
sites upvalley of late-Pleistocene terminal moraines
(Fig. 2; Seltzer, 1987, 1990). Radiocarbon ages of 10,9607
390 14C yr BP (13 cal kyr BP) from Laguna Jerónimo
(4450–4500 m) and 9,8207130 14C yr BP (11.2 cal
kyr BP) from Laguna Pomacocha (4450–4500 m) pro-
vided minimum-limiting ages for recession from the
LGM moraines (Seltzer, 1987, 1990; Instituto Geográ-
fico Nacional, 1983). There are no maximum-limiting
dates for LGM moraines.
4.5. Cordillera Vilcanota/Quelccaya Ice Cap, ca. 131
300 – 141 000 S, 701 500 W
The Cordillera Vilcanota (Fig. 1, Site 9) and
Quelccaya Ice Cap (Fig. 1, Site 10) region of south-
eastern Peru is located in the Eastern Cordillera of the
Peruvian Andes, about 100 km east of the city of Cusco.
The Cordillera Vilcanota and Quelccaya Ice Cap both
support modern glaciers, including the largest tropical
ice cap in the world. The Cordillera Vilcanota ex-
tends approximately east–west for some 50–60 km. The
highest peak in the Cordillera Vilcanota is Nevado
Ausangate (6384 m), located near the western end of the
cordillera. The Quelccaya Ice Cap is located about
10 km south of the eastern end of the cordillera and
about 40–50 km east–southeast of Nevado Ausangate.
The Quelccaya Ice Cap has a summit altitude of 5743 m
(Nevado Joyllor Puñuna). There is evidence suggesting
that the two massifs were covered by an expanded and
continuous ice cap during the LGM (e.g., Mercer and
Palacios, 1977).
4.5.1. Cordillera Vilcanota, Upismayo and Jalacocha
Valleys, 131 440 S, 711 170 W
On the north side of the Cordillera Vilcanota (Fig. 1,
Site 9), Mercer and Palacios (1977) found evidence of
glaciation down to 3600 m, more than 1000 m below the
termini of existing glaciers. In the Upismayo Valley,
seven sharp-crested moraines are grouped between
4150 and 4350 m, about midway between the limit of
glaciation and the modern termini. Mercer and Palacios
(1977) obtained radiocarbon ages of 28,650 (+700/
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160 J.A. Smith et al. / Quaternary International 138– 139 (2005) 145–167
770) 14C yr BP and 31,170 (+1330/1600) 14C yr BP
on samples of a 10-m-thick peat layer buried by the
outermost moraine of the group of seven moraines.
The peat samples were collected at 4450 m directly
beneath glacial sediments and were interpreted as a
maximum age for the moraine (Mercer and Palacios,
1977).
Mercer (1982, 1984) reported radiocarbon dates
ranging from about 22 to 27.5 14C kyr from peat located
beyond the outermost moraine (but apparently contin-
uous with the peat buried by the moraine) in Upismayo
Valley and a date of 20,7807250 14C yr on peat
interbedded with sediment presumed to have eroded
from the moraine surface. The latter date was originally
thought to approximate the age of the moraine, but
subsequent excavation and sampling of the original
surface of the peat layer within the front of the moraine
yielded several radiocarbon ages of 14 14C kyr BP
(16.8 cal kyr BP; Mercer, 1982, 1984). The younger
ages caused Mercer to revise downward the original
estimate of the age of the moraine by at least 6000 yr.
This revised age for the outermost moraine of the
group of seven sharp-crested moraines in the Upismayo
Valley is in accordance with a radiocarbon age of
14 14C kyr BP (16.8 cal kyr BP) on a peat lens located
between till layers at 4020 m in the adjacent Jalacocha
Valley (Mercer and Palacios, 1977).
Mark et al. (2002) completed additional radiocarbon
dating on the 10-m-thick peat layer that was overridden
by the outermost moraine of the group of seven nested
moraines in the Upismayo Valley. They reported a
radiocarbon date of 41,52074430 yr BP on a sample
collected at 4450 m from the bottom of the peat layer;
this date provides a minimum age for the outer limit of
glaciation farther downvalley (ca. 3600 m). Mark et al.
(2002) dated the upper section of the peat layer at
13,8807150 14C yr BP (16.7 cal kyr BP), which is a
maximum age for the group of nested moraines. Peat
accumulating over glacial silts in a bog 0.8 km upvalley
from the terminus of the local LGM moraines was dated
at 10,362773 14C yr BP (12.3 cal kyr BP).
Mark et al. (2002) cored Laguna Casercocha, which
is located at 4010 m on the northwestern side of
Cordillera Vilcanota in a tributary valley northeast
of Upismayo Valley. The lake is not dammed by a
terminal moraine but lies downvalley of a number of
large, cross-cutting moraines. Mark et al. (2002) dated
organic material overlying glacial silts in the core at
15,6407100 14C yr BP (18.5 cal kyr BP), indicating a
transition from glacial to non-glacial sedimentation
beginning shortly after 20,000 cal yr BP. Mark et al.
(2002) also cored moraine-dammed Laguna Comerco-
cha, which is located about 6 km east of the Upismayo
Valley at 4580 m. They dated basal lacustrine organic
material from the core at 14,5007220 14C yr BP
(17.4 cal kyr BP).
Mercer and Palacios (1977) estimated the modern
ELA at about 5100 m on the north side of the Cordillera
Vilcanota, where existing glaciers terminate at about
4600 m. They did not specify how they arrived at
that estimate. Mark et al. (2002) calculated an ELA
depression (relative to modern) of 170 m for the
maximum ice extent at the local LGM and 560 m at
the Cenozoic maximum in the Upismayo Valley (Fig. 2).
They used the THAR method (THAR ¼ 0:45) to
calculate ELAs.
4.5.2. Quelccaya Ice Cap, Huancané Valley, 131 550 S,
701 500 W
The presence of sandy till and outwash above 4500 m
on the plain between Cordillera Vilcanota and the
Quelccaya Ice Cap (Fig. 1, Site 10) suggests that the two
massifs were covered by a continuous mass of ice during
the LGM (Mercer and Palacios, 1977; Mark et al.,
2002). Mercer and Palacios (1977) identified three end-
moraine belts in the Huancané Valley on the west side of
the massif that postdate the retreat of ice from the plain
between the Cordillera Vilcanota and the Quelccaya Ice
Cap. Mercer and Palacios referred to the belts as
Huancané III, II, and I, in order of decreasing distance
from the present ice margin (8, 4, and 1 km, respec-
tively). Radiocarbon dating provided a minimum-limit-
ing age for the outermost moraine of 12,2407170 14C yr
(14.3 cal kyr BP) at 4750 m, but no maximum-limiting
age (Mercer and Palacios, 1977).
Lake records have supplied minimum-limiting ages
but no maximum-limiting ages for the Huancané
advances. Rodbell and Seltzer (2000) reported an age
of 10,870770 14C yr BP (12.8 cal kyr BP) from basal
organic material in Laguna Paco Cocha (4940 m), which
is located 1 km downvalley from the modern ice limit
and is impounded by a Huancané II moraine. Mark
et al. (2002) reported an age of 11,1837109 14C yr BP
(13.1 cal kyr BP) from basal organic material in
Laguna Aconcancha (4780 m), which is located in a
tributary valley to Huancané Valley and shares the
Huancané III terminus.
The modern snowline at the Quelccaya Ice Cap has
been estimated at 5250 m (Thompson, 1979) to 5300 m
(Mercer and Palacios, 1977). Mark et al. (2002)
calculated an ELA depression (relative to modern) of
230 m at the Huancané III ice extent and 360 m at the
Cenozoic maximum in the Huancané Valley (Fig. 2).
They used the THAR method ðTHAR ¼ 0:45Þ to
calculate ELAs.
4.6. Cordillera Ampato, Western Cordillera, 151 f150 – 450
S, 721 150 – 731 300 W
The Cordillera Ampato (Fig. 1, Site 11) is located in
the Western Cordillera of southern Peru and includes
several glaciated volcanoes that are extinct or dormant.
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Dornbusch (2002) reported recent (AD 1955) mean
ELAs for three glaciated peaks, Nevado Sara Sara
(altitude 5505 m; ELA 5200 m), Nevado Solimana
(altitude 6093 m; ELA 5430 m), and Nevado Coropuna
(altitude 6377 m; ELA 5640 m), based on averages of
data for individual glaciers taken from the glacier
inventory prepared by Ames et al. (1988).
Dornbusch (2002) used aerial photographs, topo-
graphic maps, and limited fieldwork to distinguish
four sets of moraines on peaks in the Cordillera
Ampato. Dornbusch estimated Pleistocene ELAs
ranging from 4300 to 5400 m on the peaks that he
studied. This implies ELA depressions of 200–800 m
(Fig. 2). However, as Dornbusch reported no
radiometric dating information for these peaks,
chronological control for these moraines is limited to
relative dating among sets of moraines and comparison
with moraine sequences of similarly uncertain
age elsewhere in the southern Peruvian Andes (e.g.,
Dornbusch, 2000).
5. Bolivia
The Bolivian Andes consist of two northwest–
southeast-trending, near-parallel mountain chains, the
Eastern Cordillera (Cordillera Oriental, locally Cordil-
lera Apolobamba, Cordillera Real, and Cordillera
Quimsa Cruz) and the Western Cordillera (Cordillera
Occidental), which are separated by a high-altitude
plateau referred to as the Altiplano (3800 m). The
Western Cordillera of the Bolivian Andes, which is
volcanic, includes the tallest peaks in Bolivia (46500 m).
The Eastern Cordillera, which borders the Amazon
Basin to the east and receives more precipitation
(Johnson, 1976), is generally lower in altitude and more
dissected than the Western Cordillera. Extreme aridity
south of about 181S has limited the development of
glaciers to peaks in excess of 6000 m altitude
(Clapperton, 1993).
No moraines in the Bolivian Andes have been
definitively dated to the LGM. Inferred maximum-
limiting radiocarbon ages of 33–34 14C kyr BP from
the Rı́o San Francisco drainage in the northern
Cordillera Real (e.g., Argollo, 1980) need to be
confirmed. Bracketing dates of 16.6 14C kyr BP
(19.8 cal kyr BP) and 27 14C kyr BP from Rı́o Kollpaña
(e.g., Servant et al., 1981; Gouze, 1987) are difficult
to evaluate because of the lack of information
about the sample locations, geomorphic setting, and
analytical procedures. Seltzer (1994a) dated basal
sediments in a core from moraine-dammed Laguna
Kollpa Kkota in the Eastern Cordillera and concluded
that the lake had not been glaciated since at least
20 cal kyr BP.
161
5.1. Cordillera Apolobamba (Bolivia), 141 450 – 151 150 S,
681 450 – 691 150 W
The section of the Eastern Cordillera known as the
Cordillera Apolobamba (Fig. 1, Site 12) spans the
Peru–Bolivia border north of Lago Titicaca. The
Cordillera Apolobamba is separated from the Cordillera
Real to the southeast by the lower-altitude Cordillera
Muñecas and the valley of the eastward-flowing Rı́o
Conzata. The three cordillera form the watershed
between the Altiplano to the west and the Amazon
Basin to the east (Lauer and Rafiqpoor, 1986). Ice-
covered peaks in the Cordillera Apolobamba include
Nevado de Apolobamba (5999 m) and Nevado Ulla
Khaya (5617 m). Lauer and Rafiqpoor (1986) reported
the modern snowline as 5300 m, but did not state how
this was determined.
Lauer and Rafiqpoor (1986) conducted a glaciomor-
phologic study in several valleys in the western
foreland of the Cordillera Apolobamba between
Nevado Ulla Khaya and the Rı́o Suches to the west.
They classified groups of moraines as middle or
young Pleistocene on the basis of morphological criteria.
Their middle Pleistocene advance reached the base of
the foreland of the cordillera (3200 m). They distin-
guished three young Pleistocene advances that were
confined to valleys and did not extend below
3700–4000 m.
Chronological control for the Lauer and Rafiqpoor
study (Fig. 2) was limited to radiocarbon ages that were
o9 14C kyr BP (10.2 cal kyr BP). A sample of fossil soil
collected at 4460 m in the Jankho Khala valley (down-
valley from Laguna Jankho Khala) gave an age of
8,812745 yr BP (presumably 14C yr BP) for a fossil soil
layer in a late-glacial fluvial terrace deposit bordering
morainal material of their Canlaya stade (which they
refer to as ‘‘Hochglaziel’’). All other radiocarbon dates
were younger than 8.8 14C kyr BP.
5.2. Cordillera Real, 151 450 – 161 400 S, 671 400 – 681 350 W
5.2.1. Overview
The Cordillera Real extends approximately 100 km
northwest from the city of La Paz, terminating at the
Rı́o Sorata/Rı́o Conzata drainage basin. The Cordillera
Real is bordered on the southwest by the Altiplano and
Lago Titicaca (3810 m) and on the northeast by the
forested Yungas region perched above the Beni lowlands
at the western edge of the Amazon Basin. Summit
altitudes in the Cordillera Real exceed 6000 m and much
of the range is currently glaciated. Ice-covered peaks
in the Cordillera Real include Nevado Ankohuma
(6388 m) and Nevado Huayna Potosı́ (6088 m). Jordan
and Finsterwalder (1992) mapped glaciers and estimated
modern ELAs ranging from 5040 m (east side) to 5550 m
(west side) for the Illampu-Ancohuma region of the
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northern Cordillera Real. Seltzer (1992) calculated an
average modern ELA of 5100 m in the Rı́o Palcoco
valley on the western side of the Cordillera Real.
Francou et al. (1995) estimated a modern ELA of
5300 m in 1991–1992 [El Niño Southern Oscillation
(ENSO) year] and 5100–5150 m in 1992–1993 (non-
ENSO year) for the Zongo Glacier on the eastern side of
Nevado Huayna Potosı́; the altitude of the ELA under
steady-state conditions is 5150 m (Wagnon et al., 1999).
Early workers in the Cordillera Real identified four
major glaciations in the vicinity of La Paz (Servant and
Fontes, 1978), from oldest to youngest: Calvario,
Kaluyo, Sorata, and Choqueyapu, for which two
advances (I and II) were identified (Troll, 1929; Troll
and Finsterwalder, 1935; Dobrovolny, 1962; Servant,
1977). The oldest moraines descend to 3800–3900 m,
approximately 1000 m below modern glacier termini
(Servant and Fontes, 1978).
5.2.2. Rı´o San Francisco, 151 510 S, 681 360 W
The Rı́o San Francisco (Fig. 1, Site 13) is located
near Nevado Illampu (6382 m) at the northern end of
the Cordillera Real. Argollo (1980) reported radio-
carbon ages of 33,5207460 14C yr BP and 33,6507500
14
C yr BP (shown on the cross-section of the valley as
35,6507500) on samples of peat in the valley of the Rı́o
San Francisco (Fig. 2). Argollo (1980) described the
samples as peat reworked by a glacial deposit, which he
classified as a moraine or mudflow, and commented that
‘‘at any rate we still do not have sufficient dates with
respect to the age of this deposit’’ [translated here from
the original Spanish]. Argollo (1982) reported the
same radiocarbon ages with additional details about
the sample materials. Sample ]453 (reported as
35,6507500 14C yr BP in the text, 35,6207500 in the
Appendix) was a fragment of reworked peat from within
a moraine. Sample ]458 (33,5207460 14C yr BP) was
collected from a peat layer between two clay layers
overlain by the moraine.
Argollo (1980, 1982) provided only latitude and
longitude for the sample locations. Servant and Fontes
(1984) included Rı́o San Francisco ages of 33,5207460
and 35,6507500 14C yr BP in a compilation table and
provided a sample altitude of 4020 m for both samples.
It seems likely that these are the same samples as those
reported by Argollo (1980, 1982), although both the
latitude and longitude in Servant and Fontes’
table differ from those in Argollo (1982) by 1’, the
sample ID for the age of 33,5207460 14C yr BP was
listed as 558 instead of 458, and the sampler was listed as
Servant.
Argollo (1980) interpreted the radiocarbon ages of
33–35 14C kyr BP as maximum-limiting ages for the
Choqueyapu II phase of glaciation. Several factors [the
lack of detail about the sample settings, the slight
confusion over the radiocarbon age of the older sample,
and the comment by Argollo (1980) suggesting that
existing dates for the deposit are not adequate]
suggest that additional sampling of the peat deposits
would increase confidence in these dates as
definitive maximum-limiting ages for the Choqueyapu
II phase.
5.2.3. Rı´o Palcoco, 161 100 S, 681 200 W
Argollo (1980, 1982) and Seltzer (1992) worked in the
Rı́o Palcoco valley (161 100 S, 681 200 W; Fig. 1, Site 14),
which has an extensive moraine system in its lower
reaches. Argollo divided the moraines into two groups,
Sorata and Choqueyapu. He assigned a mid-Pleistocene
age to the lower, rounded, more weathered Sorata
moraines, largely on the basis of morphostratigraphic
characteristics, and a late-Pleistocene age to the young-
er, sharp-crested Choqueyapu moraines, based on a
radiocarbon age of 16.6 14C kyr BP (19.8 cal kyr BP)
on peat in Choqueyapu moraines from the Rı́o
Kollpaña valley (see separate discussion below; e.g.,
Servant et al., 1981).
Seltzer (1992) mapped glacial limits in the Rı́o
Palcoco drainage and in several other valleys on the
western side of the Cordillera Real. He calculated the
modern and late-Pleistocene ELAs using the THAR
and AAR methods. He calculated an average modern
ELA of 5100740 m (AAR ¼ 0:6) to 5140740 m
(THAR ¼ 0:5), based on the dimensions of four existing
small glaciers in the valley. He used the upper limit of
lateral moraines (4700 m) as a means of making a
direct estimate of paleo-ELAs. He reconstructed a late-
Pleistocene paleoglacier terminating 0.4 km down-
valley of Lago Taypi Chaka Kkota (4300 m) and
calculated an ELA of 4880 m (AAR ¼ 0:6) to 4860 m
(THAR ¼ 0:5). These calculations indicate a late-
Pleistocene ELA depression of 220–280 m, based on
ELAs above the upper limit of lateral moraines (Fig. 2).
Using THAR and AAR values of 0.37 and 0.77,
respectively, the paleo-ELA estimates approach 4700 m
and the calculated late-Pleistocene ELA depression
increases to about 340–360 m.
Seltzer (1992) cored sediments in five lakes and
collected seven peat samples within the Choqueyapu
moraine limits. Chronological control for the Rı́o
Palcoco valley moraines was provided by radiocarbon
dates on material from basal lake sediments in cores
from four lakes. The oldest radiocarbon age
(10,4607140 14C yr BP, 12.5 cal kyr BP) was on sedi-
ments from the lake located farthest downvalley (Lago
Taypi Chaka Kkota), which provided a minimum-
limiting age for the Choqueyapu moraines. There are
currently no maximum-limiting ages for LGM moraines
in the Rı́o Palcoco valley. No moraines corresponding
to the LGM age of 21 cal kyr have been identified in the
Rı́o Palcoco valley.
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5.2.4. Milluni and Zongo Valleys, 161 12– 210 S, 681
7– 100 W
The Milluni and Zongo Valleys (Fig. 1, Site 15) are
located 10–40 km north of the city of La Paz in the
Cordillera Real. Müller (1985) completed a detailed
map of moraines in Zongo Valley and tributary valleys.
She assigned moraines in Zongo Valley to nine groups,
Zo1–Zo9, in order of increasing distance downvalley.
As shown on Müller’s moraine map for Zongo
Valley, moraines located between altitudes of 4500 and
4000 m were assigned to groups Zo3–Zo5; moraines
located between 4000 and 3000 m were assigned to
groups Zo6–Zo9. Müller calculated snowline depres-
sions for groups Zo3–Zo6 and group Zo9 using the ‘‘2:1
method’’, relative to a modern snowline of 5050–5110 m
that she determined using geomorphic features: 195 m
(Zo3), 270 m (Zo4 and Zo5), 360 m (Zo6), and 520 m
(Zo9). Müller considered the group Zo5 moraines,
which terminate at 4100–4140 m (Instituto Geográfico
Militar, 1996) to be the LGM moraines (Heine, 1995b).
Müller (1985) included a figure illustrating the extent of
the glacier that produced the Zo5 moraines. The
snowline for the glacier is shown lying between the
4600-m and 4700-m contour lines.
Seltzer (1992) estimated a late-Pleistocene ELA of
4800 m (THAR ¼ 0:37) to 4980 m (THAR ¼ 0:50) for
Milluni Valley (Fig. 2). Seltzer calculated ELA depres-
sions of 300–400 m relative to his calculated modern
ELA of 5200–5300 m. Seltzer’s late-Pleistocene ELA
estimates indicate a smaller ELA depression of
200–350 m relative to the modern steady-state ELA
of 5150 m based on glaciological observations of
Zongo Glacier (Wagnon et al., 1999).
Heine (1996) mapped moraines in both Milluni Valley
and Zongo Valley and assigned them to seven age
groups based on morphostratigraphy and periglacial
features: M I (Little Ice Age) through M VII (older than
marine isotope stage 5); Heine had previously presented
the age groups in the reverse order (i.e., M I oldest, M
VII youngest; Heine, 1995b). Heine (1996) assigned the
moraines that dam Lago Jankho Kkota (altitude
4570 m) in Milluni Valley, multiple small moraines at
altitudes of 4100–4200 m in the axis of Zongo Valley
[group Zo5 of Müller (1985)], and moraines damming
Laguna Viscachani at altitudes of 3700–3800 m in
Zongo Valley to group M IV (LGM).
Seltzer et al. (1995) reported radiocarbon ages for
three sites close to the modern ice front in Milluni
and Zongo Valleys. The basal age of peat beside
Lago Milluni (4540 m, Milluni Valley) was 10,9707
230 14C yr BP (13 cal kyr BP). The base of Charquini
peat bog (4700 m, Milluni Valley) farther upvalley
near Laguna Jankho Kkota was 9,5607120 14C yr BP
(11 cal kyr BP). The basal age of peat in Laguna
Viscachani (3760 m, Zongo Valley) was 97907
70 14C yr BP (11.2 cal kyr BP).
163
Smith et al. (2003a, b, in press) have obtained
preliminary cosmogenic dating results (10Be) for mor-
aines in the Milluni and Zongo Valleys. Moraines
located about 5 km south of Lago Milluni in the Milluni
Valley have been sampled at 4600 m and dated to
34–23 10Be kyr BP. Moraines located near Laguna
Jankho Kkota at 4650 m in the Milluni Valley have
been dated to 13–10 10Be kyr BP. Moraines located
near Laguna Viscachani at 3800–4100 m in the Zongo
Valley have been dated to 15–11 10Be kyr BP, which is
consistent with the basal age of the peat in the lake
(11 cal kyr BP; Seltzer et al., 1995). The cosmogenic
dating results for Zongo Valley (Smith et al., 2003b, in
press) suggest that the LGM glacier terminus extended
farther downvalley than previous authors (e.g., Müller,
1985; Heine, 1995b, 1996) have suggested.
5.3. Cordillera Quimsa Cruz, 161 470 – 171 060 S, 671
120 – 671 350 W
Müller (1985) mapped moraines over a large area of
the Cordillera Quimsa Cruz (Eastern Cordillera; Fig. 1,
Site 16), including the glaciated Choco Kkota Valley
(161 550 1600 , 671 290 3800 W) on the southwest side of the
cordillera. Müller listed modern snowline in the Choco
Kkota Valley as 5050 m, with the headwall at approxi-
mately 5400 m and the terminus at 4620 m. She noted,
however, that the lateral moraines extended more than
100 m higher than the snowline calculated by the ‘‘2:1
method’’. Müller presented the altitudes of ten older
terminal moraines, including those of a sharp-crested
moraine (Ck7, 4325 m) about 6 km from the modern
glacier and two older moraines (Ck8, 4280 m, and Ck10,
4000 m) located farther downvalley. Müller calculated a
snowline depression of 250 m for moraine Ck7
(4800 m; ‘‘2.5:1 method’’) and snowline depressions
of 345 m (4700 m; ‘‘2.7:1 method’’) and 455 m
(4600 m; ‘‘3:1 method’’) for the two older moraines
downvalley (Fig. 2).
Chronological control for Müller’s study was pro-
vided by radiocarbon dating. The oldest radiocarbon
age obtained in the Choco Kkota Valley was reported as
84207130 yr BP (presumably 14C yr BP) on peat from
an altitude of 4335 m. The sample was collected from a
peat layer exposed in a stream cut on the downvalley
side of moraine Ck7. This date is a maximum age for
moraine Ck7 and a minimum age for moraines Ck8 and
Ck10, but there are no bracketing ages for the older
moraines.
5.4. Rı´o Kollpaña, 171 210 S, 651 470 W
A compilation table in Servant et al. (1981) included
an age of 16,6107130 14C yr BP (19.8 cal kyr BP) for a
sample (sample number MS-79-2A) collected in the Rı́o
Kollpaña valley at 171 210 S, 651 470 W (Fig. 2). The
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164 J.A. Smith et al. / Quaternary International 138– 139 (2005) 145–167
stratigraphic setting of the 16.6 14C kyr sample was
described as ‘‘peat reworked (or overrun) at the base of
moraines of the last full-glacial’’ [translated here from
the original French]. The sample altitude was not
given, nor was the sample discussed in the text. A
compilation table in Servant and Fontes (1984) included
ages of 16,6107130 14C yr BP (MS-79-2A) and
27,00071200 14C yr BP (MS-79-5) for samples collected
at 3700 m in the Rı́o Kollpaña valley. Different,
probably erroneous, coordinates were given: 171 210 S,
681 480 W, which placed the samples on the Altiplano.
The site was not discussed in the paper; a note indicated
only that the samples were collected by Servant and that
they consisted of peat or organic silt. A compilation
table in Gouze et al. (1986) again included the 16.6 and
27 14C kyr BP ages, but gave the same coordinates as in
Servant and Fontes (1984). Gouze et al. noted that the
16.6 14C kyr age required confirmation. Gouze (1987)
included the 16.6 and 27 14C kyr BP ages [also with the
Servant and Fontes (1984) coordinates] in a compilation
table in his dissertation and again noted that the
16.6 14C kyr age required confirmation. Servant et al.
(1995) provided coordinates close to those published in
1981 (171 180 S, 651 450 N[sic]) in a discussion of work in
progress in Rı́o Kollpaña. The lack of published
information about the correct sample locations, geo-
morphic setting, and analytical procedures reduces the
utility of these radiocarbon ages, as do the cautionary
statements of the authors themselves.
5.5. Laguna Kollpa Kkota, 171 260 S, 671 080 W
Laguna Kollpa Kkota (Fig. 1, Site 18) is a cirque lake
located at 4400 m on the western slope of the Eastern
Cordillera of the Bolivian Andes, about 60 km southeast
of the Choco Kkota Valley in the Cordillera Quimsa
Cruz (Müller, 1985). Laguna Kollpa Kkota is dammed
by a moraine, but there are no moraines between the
lake and the headwall of the valley (4560 m) or below the
lake-damming moraine (o4400 m). The snowline during
the late Pleistocene (12–14 kyr BP; extrapolated from
the Cordillera Quimsa Cruz; Müller, 1985) was about
4620 m, which is above the headwall of the Kollpa
Kkota valley. Modern snowline, also extrapolated from
the Cordillera Quimsa Cruz (Müller, 1985), is approxi-
mately 5100 m.
Seltzer (1994a) dated basal lacustrine sediments from
cores collected in Laguna Kollpa Kkota. Seltzer
interpreted dates of 17,6707120, 17,5807170, and
17,6907780 14C yr BP as minimum dates for the glacial
advance that predated the late Pleistocene advance of
12–14 ka BP seen in the Cordillera Quimsa Cruz.
Calibrated ages for these dated sediments are
420,000 cal yr BP. Seltzer concluded that the coring site
had not been glaciated since at least 20,000 cal yr BP.
At present this may be the closest limiting age for the
LGM in Bolivia. Seltzer calculated an ELA depression
of about 600 m for the glaciation that produced the
moraine that dams Laguna Kollpa Kkota at 4400 m
more than 20,000 cal yr BP (Fig. 2).
6. Discussion and conclusions
The modern glaciers of the tropical Andes are a small
remnant of the ice that occupied the mountain chain
during past glacial periods. Glacial ice has descended
more than a kilometer in altitude from present ice limits
in many locations at least once during the Quaternary
(e.g., Clapperton, 1993). We know of no moraines in
tropical South America that have been definitively dated
to 21 cal kyr BP. Although rare, there are examples of
moraines that can be bracketed between about
10 14C kyr and 30 14C kyr BP. Typically, only mini-
mum-limiting ages are available. Many moraines have
been associated with minimum-limiting ages of about
9–12 14C kyr BP (10.2–14 cal kyr BP).
The extent of the LGM in the equatorial Andes of
Ecuador is loosely constrained. Radiocarbon dates
suggest that LGM terminal moraines were deposited
below 4200 m on deglaciated Volcán Pichincha (4784
m; Heine, 1995), at least 750 m below modern glacier
termini near Papallacta Pass northwest of Volcán
Antisana (Clapperton et al., 1997), and at least 550 m
below modern glacial termini in the Rı́o Mocha valley
between Chimborazo and Carihuairazo (Clapperton
and McEwan, 1985).
Many workers have concluded that the most extensive
glacial features in the Peruvian Andes were deposited
before the LGM (e.g., Wright Jr., 1983, 1984; Rodbell,
1991; Smith et al., 2001; Dornbusch, 2002), but no single
value for snowline depression at the LGM emerges from
the literature. In the Junin region, cosmogenic dating of
moraines has demonstrated that the local LGM was a
relatively minor event in which glaciers descended
400–500 m below the terminus of the one remaining
small glacier in the neighboring crest and only about
half as far downvalley as previous glaciers (Smith et al.,
2001, 2002a, b). Workers relying on minimum-limiting
radiocarbon ages have concluded that LGM snowline
depression may have been as small as 300 m (Wright Jr.,
1983, 1984) and as large as 1350 m (Rodbell,
1991–1993), suggesting that local conditions affected
glacier expansion.
As in the Peruvian Andes, the most extensive
glaciations in the Bolivian Andes are widely assumed
to predate the LGM (e.g., Servant and Fontes, 1978;
Lauer and Rafiqpoor, 1986; Heine, 1996). Direct dating
of moraines in the Milluni and Zongo valleys (Cordillera
Real) using cosmogenic isotopes suggests that LGM
ice extended below 4650 m in the Milluni Valley
and below 3800 m in the Zongo Valley (Smith et al.,
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
J.A. Smith et al. / Quaternary International 138– 139 (2005) 145–167
2003a, b). Minimum-limiting radiocarbon ages place the
terminus of the LGM glacier below 4300 m in Rı́o
Palcoco valley (Cordillera Real), suggesting that the
LGM snowline depression was probably greater than
220 m (Seltzer, 1992). Minimum-limiting radiocarbon
dating in the Choco Kkota valley (Cordillera Quimsa
Cruz) suggests that the LGM glacier terminated below
4300 m and that the LGM snowline depression was
greater than 250 m (Müller, 1985). About 60 km south-
east of the Cordillera Quimsa Cruz, minimum-limiting
radiocarbon dating at Laguna Kollpa Kkota indicates
that the maximum glaciation prior to 20 cal ka
terminated at 4400 m, suggesting a snowline depres-
sion of 600 m (Seltzer, 1994a).
Two things emerge from this review of the LGM
snowline literature for tropical South America. First,
there is considerable variation in the magnitude of LGM
snowline depression in the tropical Andes. Estimates of
snowline depression at individual locations vary by
about a factor of four. Both precipitation gradients and
local factors such as topography, debris cover, cloudi-
ness and shading probably played significant roles in
determining LGM glacier extent, as they do today
(Kaser and Osmaston, 2002). Second, there is still no
robust radiometric chronology for the LGM in the
tropical Andes. We must generally rely on minimum-
limiting radiocarbon dating and a small but growing
number of cosmogenic ages.
Cosmogenic dating of moraines may be able to
provide absolute dating with sufficient accuracy to
identify deposits of the local LGM. Ongoing work in
Peru and Bolivia by Smith et al. (2001, 2002a, b, 2003a,
b) demonstrates the utility of cosmogenic dating in
expanding the existing glacial chronologies. Results to
date suggest that the local LGM may have occurred late
in marine isotope stage 3 (30–35 cal kyr BP) rather
than at 21 cal kyr BP (Smith et al., in press).
Extensive areas of the tropical Andes that once hosted
glaciers are now completely deglaciated. As a result,
modern snowline estimates for much of the Andes must
rely on extrapolation from a few locations in which
existing glaciers have been observed. Reliance on
information from remote glaciers increases the uncer-
tainty associated with paleosnowline estimates. In the
absence of reliable dating and consistent methodology,
use of paleosnowline estimates in climate modeling
efforts and comparison of snowline estimates should be
undertaken with caution. Additional research efforts are
needed to augment the inventory of paleosnowline
estimates and their paleoclimate implications.
Acknowledgements
The authors offer their appreciation to Sandy
Harrison and Bryan Mark for organizing the LGM
165
Snowline Workshop in Glasgow, Scotland, 19–22
September, 2002, which provided the impetus for this
paper. We thank D. Sugden, S. Harrison, and an
anonymous reviewer for careful reviews of the manu-
script.
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