UNIT – VI MOTION OF SYSTEM OF PARTICLES & RIGID BODY:

Centre of Mass of Two Particle System:

The centre of mass of a body (or system of particles) is defined as a point at which the entire mass of the
body is supposed to be concentrated.
The centre of mass of two particle system is the point where the system (two masses) can be balanced
in a uniform gravitational field.
Consider a system of two particles having masses m1 & m2 with position vectors 𝑟⃗1 & 𝑟⃗2.
Then by definition, location of centre of mass (COM) for this system is given by:
𝑚1 𝑟⃗ 1 + 𝑚2 𝑟⃗ 2
𝑅⃗⃗ C.M =
𝑚1 +𝑚2
𝑚1 𝑥 1 + 𝑚2 𝑥 2
In terms of components; 𝑥C.M =
𝑚1 +𝑚2
𝑚1 𝑦 1 + 𝑚2 𝑦 2
& 𝑦C.M =
𝑚1 +𝑚2

Velocity & Acceleration of COM of Two Particle System:

𝑚1 𝑟⃗ 1 + 𝑚2 𝑟⃗ 2
We know that; 𝑅⃗⃗ C.M =
𝑚1 +𝑚2
Or M 𝑅⃗⃗ C.M = 𝑚1 𝑟⃗ 1 + 𝑚2 𝑟⃗ 2 ; where M = m1 + m2 (total mass of the system)
Differentiating both sides w. r. t. time; we find
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
M (𝑅⃗⃗C.M) = m1 (𝑟⃗ 1 ) + m2 (𝑟⃗ 2 )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
⇒ M 𝑉⃗⃗C.M = m1⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑣 1 + m2⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑣 2
Again differentiating both sides w. r. t. time; we find
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
M (𝑣⃗C.M) = m1 (𝑣⃗ 1 ) + m2 (𝑣⃗ 2 )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
⇒ M 𝑎⃗C.M = m1 𝑎⃗ 1 + m2 𝑎⃗ 2

Note:
𝑚1 𝑟⃗ 1 + 𝑚2 𝑟⃗ 2 + ………………… + 𝑚𝑁 𝑟⃗ 𝑁
For N particle system; 𝑅⃗⃗ C.M =
𝑚1 +𝑚2 + ……… + 𝑚𝑁
Or M 𝑅⃗⃗ C.M = 𝑚1 𝑟⃗ 1 + 𝑚2 𝑟⃗ 2 + … … … … … + 𝑚𝑁 𝑟⃗ 𝑁 ; where M = m1 + m2 + ………. + mN
⇒ M 𝑅⃗⃗ C.M = ∑𝑖=𝑁
𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑟
⃗𝑖

Motion of Centre of Mass:

Consider a system consisting of N particles having masses m1, m2, m3……, mN. Let 𝐹⃗ 1, 𝐹⃗ 2, 𝐹⃗ 3, ………, 𝐹⃗ N be
external forces acting on masses m1, m2, m3……, mN respectively.
We know that; M 𝑅⃗⃗ C.M = ∑𝑖=𝑁 𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑟 ⃗𝑖
Differentiating both sides w. r. t. time, we find
𝑑 𝑑
M (𝑅⃗⃗C.M) = (∑𝑖=𝑁
𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑟
⃗𝑖)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
⇒ M 𝑉⃗⃗C.M = ∑𝑖=𝑁
𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑣
⃗𝑖
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Again differentiating both sides w. r. t. time; we find
𝑑 𝑑
M (𝑣⃗C.M) = (∑𝑖=𝑁
𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑣
⃗𝑖 )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
⇒ M 𝑎⃗C.M = ∑𝑖=𝑁
𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑎 ⃗𝑖
⇒ M 𝑎⃗C.M = 𝑚1 𝑎⃗ 1 + 𝑚2 𝑎⃗ 2 + ………… + 𝑚𝑁 𝑎⃗ 𝑁
Or M 𝑎⃗C.M = 𝐹⃗ 1 + 𝐹⃗ 2 + ………… + 𝐹⃗ 𝑁 → (using Newton’s second Law)
Or M 𝑎⃗C.M = 𝐹⃗ 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ; where 𝐹⃗ 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 is net external force acting on the system.
Or 𝐹⃗ 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = M 𝑎⃗C.M
So, centre of mass (COM) moves like a particle of mass equal to M under the influence of the net external
force (Ftotal) on the system. Hence we can replace the whole body (system) by a single particle of mass M
located at the centre of mass of the system.

Linear Momentum, its Conservation and Centre of Masss:

For N particle system; we can write
M 𝑅⃗⃗ C.M = ∑𝑖=𝑁 𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑟⃗𝑖
After differentiating, we find
M𝑉 ⃗⃗ C.M = ∑𝑖=𝑁
𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑣⃗𝑖
Or M 𝑉 ⃗⃗ C.M = 𝑚1 𝑣⃗ 1 + 𝑚2 𝑣⃗ 2 + ………… + 𝑚𝑁 𝑣⃗ 𝑁
⃗⃗ C.M = 𝑃⃗⃗ 1 + 𝑃⃗⃗ 2 + ………… + 𝑃⃗⃗ 𝑁
Or M 𝑉 → 𝑃⃗⃗ 1 = 𝑚1 𝑣⃗ 1 is linear momentum of m1 & so on.
⃗⃗ C.M =𝑃⃗⃗ 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 …………. (1)
Or M 𝑉
Thus total linear momentum of the system is equal to the product of the total mass and velocity of COM of the system.
Differentiating equation (1), we get
𝑑 𝑑
M (𝑣⃗C.M) = (𝑃⃗⃗ 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
⇒ M 𝑎⃗C.M = 𝐹⃗ 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ……… using Newton’s second law
Now if net external force on the system is zero i.e., 𝐹⃗ 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 0
𝑑
Then M 𝑎⃗C.M = 0 or M (𝑣⃗C.M) = 0 ⇒ M 𝑣⃗C.M = constant
𝑑𝑡
If net external force on the system is zero, then velocity of COM of the system remains constant and hence its
linear momentum remains conserved.

Example: A bomb initially at rest has its COM as rest. If it explodes into pieces due to internal forces so
that the net external force on the system is zero. To conserve linear momentum of the system, the two pieces
must fly off in opposite directions, so that its COM is still at rest.

COM of a Rigid Body:

A rigid body can be thought to be made up of continuous distribution of mass
(i.e., N approaches to infinity). Treating the mass element dm at a position 𝑟⃗ as
a point mass. Now replacing summation by integration, the location of
COM of a rigid body can be found as:
1
𝑅⃗⃗ C.M = ∫ 𝑟⃗ 𝑑𝑚
𝑀

2
 1
In terms of components; 𝑥C.M = ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑚
𝑀
1 1
𝑦C.M = ∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑚 & 𝑧C.M = ∫ 𝑧 𝑑𝑚
𝑀 𝑀
Note:
 Position of COM depends upon the shape and size of the body. Also on the distribution of its mass.
 The COM of a body may lie within or outside the object.
 The net force applied on the COM produces only linear motion but no rotation.

Center of Gravity:
Center of gravity of a body is that point at which the entire weight (gravitational force of earth) of the
body acts irrespective of the position and orientation of the body. The center of gravity and center of mass of
a rigid body coincides when the gravitational field is uniform across the body.

Center of mass of a uniform rod:

Consider a uniform rod of mass M and length L placed along x-axis such that origin of the coordinate
system coincides with one end of the rod.
𝑀
Then linear mass density (mass per unit length) of rod λ = 𝐿 …………. (1)
Consider an infinitesimal element dx of this rod at a distance of x units from the origin O.
The Mass of this element dm = λ dx
1 𝐿 1 𝐿 𝝀 𝐿
Now 𝑥C.M = ∫0 𝑥 𝑑𝑚 = ∫0 𝑥 𝜆 𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑀 𝑀 𝑀
𝝀 𝑥2 𝐿 𝝀 𝑳𝟐 𝑀 𝑳
𝟐
Or 𝑥C.M = [2] 0
= = ……….. Using 1
𝑀 2𝑀 𝐿 2𝑀
𝐿
Or 𝑥C.M =
2
By symmetry 𝑦C.M = 𝑧C.M = 0
𝐿
∴ The coordinates of COM of uniform rod are (2 , 0, 0).
Thus center of mass of uniform rod lies at its geometrical centre.

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Note: for non- uniform rod 𝑥C.M = 3 𝐿

Center of mass of a circular ring:

Consider a circular ring of mass M and radius R in x-y plane.
𝑀 𝑀
Then linear mass density (mass per unit length) of ring λ = = 2 𝜋 𝑅 …………. (1)
𝐿
This ring can be thought to be made up of large number of small elements each of mass dm. consider one
such element of angular width d𝜃 making an angle θ with the x- axis.
𝑀 𝑀 𝑑𝜃
Now length of this element = R d𝜃 and mass dm = 2 𝜋 𝑅 R d𝜃 = 2𝜋
Also coordinates of this element are ( x, y) = (R cos𝜃 , R sin𝜃)
1 2𝜋 1 2𝜋 𝑀
Now 𝑥C.M = ∫0 𝑥 𝑑𝑚 ⇒ 𝑥C.M = ∫0 𝑅 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑀 𝑀 2𝜋
𝑅 2𝜋 𝑅 2𝜋 𝑅
Or 𝑥C.M = ∫0 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = [sin 𝜃] 0
= [0 − 0]
2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋
∴ 𝑥C.M = 0
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 1 2𝜋 1 2𝜋 𝑀
And 𝑦C.M = ∫0 𝑦 𝑑𝑚 ⇒ 𝑦C.M = ∫0 𝑅 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑀 𝑀 2𝜋
𝑅 2𝜋 𝑅 2𝜋 −𝑅
Or 𝑦C.M = ∫0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = [− 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃] 0
= [1 − 1]
2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋
∴ 𝑦C.M = 0
Hence coordinates of COM of circular ring are (0, 0). Hence its COM lies at its geometrical centre.

Center of mass of circular disc:

Consider a circular disc of radius R and mass M .
𝑀 𝑀
Then mass per unit area of disc σ = = …………. (1)
𝐴 𝜋 𝑅2
This disc can be thought to be made up of large number of small circular rings each of mass dm of radii
ranging from r = 0 to r = R.
Area of this ring = 2 𝜋 r dr
𝑀 𝑀 𝑑𝜃
Now length of this element = R d𝜃 and mass dm = 2 𝜋 𝑅 R d𝜃 = 2𝜋

Equilibrium of rigid bodies:

A rigid body is said to be in mechanical equilibrium when both its linear momentum and angular
momentum remains constant.
When net force acting on a rigid body is zero, its linear momentum remains constant. Hence the body is
said to be in translational equilibrium. Similarly, when net torque acting on a rigid body is zero, its angular
momentum remains constant. Hence the body is said to be in rotational equilibrium.

Types of equilibrium:

Translational Equilibrium  Linear momentum is constant.

 Net force is zero.

Rotational Equilibrium  Angular momentum is constant.

 Net torque is zero.

Static Equilibrium  Linear momentum and angular momentum are zero.

 Net force and net torque are zero.

Dynamic Equilibrium  Linear momentum and angular momentum are constant.

 Net force and net torque are zero.

Stable Equilibrium  Linear momentum and angular momentum are zero.

 The body tries to come back to equilibrium if slightly disturbed and
released.

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  The COM of the body shifts slightly higher if disturbed from
equilibrium.
 Potential energy of the body is minimum and it increases if disturbed.

Unstable Equilibrium  Linear momentum and angular momentum are zero.

 The body cannot come back to equilibrium if slightly disturbed and
released.
 The COM of the body shifts slightly lower if disturbed from
equilibrium.
 Potential energy of the body is not minimum and it decreases if
disturbed.

Neutral Equilibrium  Linear momentum and angular momentum are zero.

 The body remains at the same equilibrium if slightly disturbed and
released.
 The COM of the body does not shift higher or lower if disturbed from
equilibrium.
 Potential energy of the body remains same even if disturbed.

Rotational Motion:
Under the application of external forces, a rigid body can have:
1) Translational Motion: In translational motion; all the particles of the rigid body possess same
displacements and same velocities.
2) Rotational Motion: In rotational motion; angular velocities of all the particles are equal but linear
velocities are different. Here all the constituents of the rigid body execute circular motion. The
constituents lying on the rotational axis have zero linear velocities. E.g., motion of blades of a fan,
motion of a wheel is rotational motion.
Rotational kinematics is same as translational kinematics. However,
 We need to specify axis of rotation.
 Objects return to their original orientations. Hence number of revolutions matters.

Equations of Rotational motion:

𝒅𝝎
1) We know that; 𝜶 =
𝒅𝒕
⇒ d𝝎 = 𝜶 dt ………… (1)

Integrating equation (1) between suitable limits, we find

𝝎 𝒕 𝝎 𝒕
𝒇
∫𝝎 𝒅𝝎 = ∫𝟎 𝜶 𝒅𝒕 ⇒ [𝝎] 𝝎𝒇𝒊 = 𝜶 [𝒕] 𝟎 ⇒ 𝝎f – 𝝎i = 𝜶 (t – 0) ⇒ 𝝎f = 𝝎i + 𝜶 t
𝒊

𝒅𝜽
2) We know that; 𝝎 =
𝒅𝒕
⇒ d𝜽 = 𝝎 dt ⇒ d𝜽 = (𝝎i + 𝜶 t) dt ……….. using 𝝎f = 𝝎i + 𝜶 t

Integrating above equation between proper limits, we find

𝜽 𝒕 𝜽 𝒕 𝒕
∫𝟎 𝒅𝜃 = ∫𝟎 (𝜔𝑖 + 𝛼 𝒕)𝒅𝒕 ⇒ ∫𝟎 𝒅𝜃 = ∫𝟎 𝝎𝒊 𝒅𝒕 + ∫𝟎 𝜶𝒕 𝒅𝒕

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 𝒕𝟐 𝒕𝟐 𝟎𝟐 𝟏
⇒ [𝜽] 𝜽𝟎 = 𝝎i [𝒕] 𝟎𝒕 + 𝜶 [ 𝟐 ] 𝟎𝒕 ⇒ 𝜽 - 0 = 𝝎i (t – 0) + 𝜶 [ 𝟐 − ] ⇒ 𝜽 = 𝝎i t + 𝟐 𝜶 𝒕𝟐
𝟐

𝒅𝝎 𝒅𝝎 𝒅𝜽 𝒅𝝎 𝒅𝜽 𝒅𝝎
3) We know that; 𝜶 = or 𝜶 = ⇒ 𝜶 = 𝒅𝜽 ⇒ 𝜶 = 𝝎 𝒅𝜽 ⇒ 𝜶 d𝜽 = 𝜔 d𝜔
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝜽 𝒅𝒕

Integrating above equation between suitable limits, we find

𝜽 𝒇 𝝎 𝒇 𝜽 𝝎
∫𝟎 𝜶 𝒅𝜽 = ∫𝝎 𝝎 𝒅𝝎 ⇒ 𝜶 ∫𝟎 𝒅𝜽 = ∫𝝎 𝝎 𝒅𝝎
𝒊 𝒊
𝝎𝟐 𝝎𝒇 𝟐 𝝎𝒊 𝟐 𝝎𝒇 𝟐 − 𝝎𝒊 𝟐
⇒ 𝜶 [𝜽] 𝜽𝟎 = [ 𝟐 ]𝝎
𝝎𝒊
𝒇
⇒𝜶𝜽=[ − ] ⇒ 𝜶𝜽 = ⇒ 𝝎𝒇 𝟐 − 𝝎𝒊 𝟐 = 2 𝜶 𝜽
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

Couple:
A pair of forces which are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction and are not collinear, such a
pair of forces is known as Couple. It tends to produce an angular acceleration (turning effect) but its net force
is zero.

Torque (Moment of Force or Moment of Couple):

When a force is applied on a rigid body pivoted about some axis, and the line of action of force does
not pass through the pivot, the body tends to rotate about the axis.
The tendency of force to rotate an object about some axis is measured by a vector quantity called
torque. Thus torque is the cause of change in rotational motion.
Consider a wrench pivoted about an axis through O as shown in figure.
Force acts at an angle θ w. r. t position vector r. Torque (τ) resulting from the
Force F is defined as:
τ = r F sin θ ……. (1)

Equation 1 can be interpreted into two ways:

 τ = r (F sin𝜃) i.e., torque is product of distance from the axis of rotation to the point of
application of force and perpendicular component of force.
 τ = (r sin𝜃) F or 𝜏 = F d …. where d = r sin𝜃 known as moment arm or lever arm of force F.
this represents perpendicular distance from the rotation axis to the line of action of force F.
Thus, rotating tendency increases as F and d increases. Torque depends on force and also on where the force
is applied. Torque tending to produce anticlockwise rotation is positive and vice versa. It is a vector
quantity. Its SI unit is Newton-metre.

In terms of components,
τ = r F sin θ ⇒ 𝜏⃗ = 𝑟⃗ × 𝐹⃗
or, 𝜏𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝜏𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝜏𝑧 𝑘̂ = (𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑧𝑘̂ ) × ( 𝐹𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐹𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐹𝑧 𝑘̂)
𝝉𝒙 = y 𝑭𝒛 − z 𝑭𝒚 ; 𝝉𝒚 = z 𝑭𝒙 − x 𝑭𝒛 & 𝝉𝒛 = x 𝑭𝒚 − y 𝑭𝒙

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Angular Momentum (Moment of Linear Momentum):
Angular momentum is defined as quantity of motion associated with a body due to its rotation about
some origin. Consider a particle of mass m with position vector r and moving with linear momentum p. Its
instantaneous angular momentum relative to origin O is defined as vector product of instantaneous position
vector and instantaneous linear momentum.
⃗⃗ = 𝑟⃗ × 𝑝⃗ ……….. (1)
𝐿
Or L = r p Sin𝜃 where 𝜃 is angle b/w 𝑟⃗ & 𝑝⃗
Both magnitude and direction of angular momentum depends on choice of origin.
 If 𝜃 = 00 or 1800 ⇒ L = 0. i.e., when a particle moves along a line that passes through origin, it has
zero angular momentum w. r. t origin.
 If 𝜃 = 900; L = r p = m v r (maximum)
The S I unit of angular momentum is kg m2/s. It is a vector quantity.
Differentiating eq. (1) w. r. t time, we find
⃗⃗
𝑑𝐿 𝑑
= (𝑟⃗ × 𝑝⃗ )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐿⃗⃗ 𝑑 𝑝⃗ 𝑑 𝑟⃗
Or 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑟⃗ × 𝑑𝑡
+ 𝑑𝑡
× 𝑟⃗ = 𝑟⃗ × 𝐹⃗ + 𝑣⃗ × 𝑝⃗
⃗⃗
𝑑𝐿
Or
𝑑𝑡
= 𝑟⃗ × 𝐹⃗ + 0 (Because 𝑣⃗ 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑝⃗)
But 𝑟⃗ × 𝐹⃗ = 𝜏⃗
⃗⃗
𝑑𝐿
∴ 𝜏⃗ = (valid only if 𝜏⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐿⃗⃗ ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛).
𝑑𝑡
Hence torque is required to change angular momentum like force is required to change linear momentum.

Note: A particle moving in a straight line also possess angular momentum about any axis displaced from
the path of particle. In general, a particle has non zero angular momentum about some point, if r of the
particle from that point rotates about the point as the particle moves.

Moment of Inertia (Rotational Inertia):

Moment of inertia is a measure of object’s resistance to rotational acceleration. Moment of inertia is
rotational equivalent of mass. Greater the moment of inertia, harder is to spin the object.
Suppose a particle of mass m is rotating at a particular distance r from the axis of rotation. Then its
Moment of Inertia is defined as:
I = m r2
Greater the mass of object, greater will be moment of inertia. Also larger the distance from the rotation axis,
larger will be moment of inertia. Its SI unit is kg m2. It is a tensor.
 for a system of particle; I = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖 2
 for a rigid body about an axis, I = ∫ 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑚

Rotational Kinetic Energy:

Kinetic energy possessed by a body due to its rotation about an axis is known as rotational kinetic energy.
Consider a rigid body rotating about an axis with an angular speed ω as shown in figure. Let this
body is made up of N small mass elements of masses m1, m2, …………, mN. Let 𝑣⃗1 , 𝑣⃗2 , ……. , 𝑣⃗𝑁 be their
linear velocities and 𝑟⃗1, 𝑟⃗2 , ……… , 𝑟⃗𝑁 be their perpendicular distances from rotation axis.
1 1
∴ Rotational Kinetic energy of m1 = 2 𝑚1 𝑣1 2 = 𝑚1 𝑟1 2 𝜔2 ……. (Because v = r 𝜔)
2
1 1
And Rotational Kinetic energy of m1 = 2 𝑚2 𝑣2 2 = 2
𝑚2 𝑟2 2 𝜔2
7
 1 1
Similarly Rotational Kinetic energy of m1 = 𝑚𝑁 𝑣𝑁 2 = 𝑚𝑁 𝑟𝑁 2 𝜔2
2 2
1 1 1
Hence rotational kinetic energy of the body (K.ER )= [
2
𝑚1 𝑟1 2 𝜔2 + 𝑚2 𝑟2 2 𝜔2 + 𝑚𝑁 𝑟𝑁 2 𝜔2 ]
2 2
1
K.ER = [ 𝑚1 𝑟1 2 𝜔2 + 𝑚2 𝑟2 2 𝜔2 + 𝑚𝑁 𝑟𝑁 2 𝜔2 ]
2
1 1
K.ER = (∑𝑁
𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖 )𝜔 = I𝜔
2 2 2
……… (Because I = ∑𝑁 2
𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖 )
2 2

Radius of Gyration:
Radius of Gyration (K) of an object is defined as the distance from the given axis of rotation at which if
whole mass of the object were supposed to be concentrated, the moment of inertia would be the same as the
actual distribution of mass. The radius of gyration of a body of mass M about an axis is defined by the
equation:
I = M K2, where I = moment of inertia about the given axis.
𝐼 𝐼
Or, K2 =
𝑀
⇒ K = √𝑀
Its SI unit is metre. Radius of gyration is a measure of the distribution of mass of a body relative to the given
axis of rotation. Large K means on the average the mass is relatively far away from the given axis of
rotation.

Theorems on Moment of Inertia:

It states that the moment of inertia of a body about any axis is equal to the sum of its moment of
inertia about a parallel axis through its centre of mass and the product of the mass of the body and the square
of perpendicular distance between the two axes.