27.

Carbonatation

Action of carbon dioxide on juice

Carbonatation was originated in the beet sugar factory by Perier and Possoz, in 1859. They
reported that, if a precipitate of calcium carbonate be formed in the juice , it entraps colour-
ing matter and gums, if the reaction remain s alkaline, and thus furnishes a marked additional
degree of clarification. The precipitate so for med is granular and filters easily:

The same reaction has been utilised in the cane sugar factory. However, though carbonata-
tion is general practice with beet, it remains the exception with cane.

Procedures
There are various ways of operating, the most impo rtant of which are :
Single carbonatation
Double carbonatation
De Haan carbonatation
Middle-juice carbonatation
Double carbonatation, which is more effective than single, compri ses in general:
Heavy liming
Carbonatation leaving a very high alkalinity
Filtration
Second carbonatation until the alkalinity falls to a very low value
Boiling
Second filtration.
Carbo nata tion shou ld never be carried out at a temperature above 55°C (] 31°F), th e max-
imum permissible if destruction of reducing sugars is to be avoided. Reducing sugars, apart
from their value in the distillery, serve to prevent the loss of a correspond ing quantity of
sucrose in the molasses.
On the ot her hand, below 45°C ( 1I 3°F), the reaction is very slow and incompl ete. On e
must be careful, therefore, to approach 55°C (l 31°F), and to conserve a margin of safety
in both directions, a temperature of 50°C (122°F) is generally maintained.
This temperature is obtained either by passing the ju ice through a heater, or by means of
steam pipes in the bottom o f the carbonating tanks.
In the course of the first carbonatation, there is formed by the lime, the CO2 and the juice,
a sucro-carbonate of lime:
-
418 CARBONATATION Ch. 27

which is gelatinous and insoluble, and would hold a large quantity of sugar in combinat ion.
Fortunately, it is decomposed after a certain time .
This viscous compound also promotes the formation of abundant froth .
The juice will therefore be held in the carbonating tank for a time of 25 min for the first
carbonatation, say 30 min including filling and emptying, and a total of 15 min for the se-
cond. The capacity of the 2nd carbonatation tanks should therefore be half that of the first.

Double carbonatation. The considerations which have given rise to double carbonatation
are the following:
(I) If the action of CO 2 were pushed to the limit, the insoluble lime salts formed would
be decomposed, and would thus be re-dissolved in the juice. Hence the carbonatation is stop-
ped at the degree of alkalinity desired to prevent this decomposition . After filtration, which
removes these salts, carbonatation may be continued, or rather a second carbonatation com-
menced, which will then be carried practically to neutrality.
(2) Large pieces of poorly mixed lime would continue to dissolve slowly after a first car-
bonatation, and would gradually render the reaction alkaline. When the juice passes to the
heaters, the reducing sugars would suffer decomposition (since such decomposition occurs
at high pH and high temperatures), and the juices would again develop colour. The first
filtratiC?nand the second carbonatation eliminate the se pieces of lime and so stabilise the pH.
In beet sugar work, sometimes even 3 successive carbonatations are carried out.

Sulphitation. With the same object of removing all alkalinity, sulphitation may be combin -
ed with carbonatation by sulphiting after the first filtration, to neutrality or slight acidity.
This is the process which would give the best white sugar.
It renders the second carbonatation superfluous.
In Formosa 1, double carbonatation is operated with double sulphitation. The juice is
heated to 55°C (131°F), carbonated batchwise for IO- 15 min in a vertical tower, while the
milk of lime at 15° Beis introduced at the top of the tower, in the ratio of about 2% on
weight of juice; the juice thu s reaches a pH of 10.5, which gives a copious precipitate of lime
salts entraining colloids. The further steps are as follows: 1st filtration (using 0.7-0.8
m 2/ t.c.h . (75-85 sq.ft./t.c.h.)); heating to 85°C (185°F); second (continuous) carbonata-
tion, to remove the excess lime salts, to a pH of 8.5; second filtration (2.8 - 3.2 m 2 /t.c .h.
(30- 35 sq. ft. /t.c. h.) of filter-press area); !st sulphitation to neutrality; evaporation to 60°
brix; 2nd sulphitation and 3rd filtration. This gives a clear and colourless syrup which goes
to the vacuum pans. The process gives a sugar of 99.6- 99. 9% pol, 0.04% moisture, 0.04%
reducing sugars and 0.06% ash .

De Haan carbonatation. De Haan has conceived the idea of adding the lime and CO2
simultaneously, so that the alkalinity remains relatively low.
This procedure has the great advantages of:
(I) Supp ressing the frothing
(2) Avoiding the formation of the gelatinous sucro -carbonate .
The ju ice is heated to 55°C (131 °F) in the heaters and sent to the carbonating tanks. Gas
is introduced at the same time as the milk of lime is run in, so maintaining the pH at a cons-
 QUANTITIES OF LIME NECESSARY 419

tant value, which is checked with the a id of a special phenolphthalein paper treated with ox-
alic acid, and which change s colou r at a given alkalinity. When the desired quantity of lime
has been introduced, the carbonatation is continued to neutrality to phenolphthalein, and is
finished as for single carbonatation.
This process permit s of a substantial economy in space, while increasing the capacity of
[he heaters, and giving a marked economy in lime consumption, with a slight rise in purity,
and gives a better quality sugar. It is, according to Douwes Dekker 2 , the process which
assures the best elimination of non-sugars.

Middle-juice carbonatation. The term "middl e juice" is used to designate juice which has
been partially concentrated, and withdrawn from the evaporators at a point where it has
reached 35 - 42" brix.
Middle-juice carbona1a1io11 commenced about 1938 in Java, but is today confined to For -
mosa, where it is gradually extending (Chou 3 ). It consists of the following stages:
(1) Heat the juice to 101.5°C (2!5 °F)
(2) Add lime to pH 7 .0 - 7 .2
(3) Send the juice thus limed to the evaporators, where it is passed through vessels I, 2 and
4;
It leaves at about 35 - 42° brix and 55°C; the choice of the latter vessel is made because this
temperature is the optimal for carbonatation
(4) Lime and carbonate to pH of 9.8- 10.3
(5) Filter
(6) Second carbonatation to pH or 8.2 or 8.5
( 7) Heat to 77 - 80°C (170 - l 75°F)
(8) Second filtration
(9) Sulphitation to pH of 7 .0 or 7 .3
(10) Return to the evaporators, to 3rd vessel
(11) Second sulphitation to pH of 6.0 - 6.2.
This process would offer the advantage of reducing substa ntiall y th e cons umption of lime,
by abo ut 40%; of giving a better purification and a greater elimination of non -suga rs; of giv-
ing a better-quality sugar; of considerably decreasing scale formation in the multiple effects,
with conse quent economy in soda ash for cleaning of the vessels.
On the other hand, it is very sensitive to operate and necessitates close control.

Quantities of lime necessary

Table 27.1, after Prinsen Geerligs4, gives the quantities, in kg/ tonne cane, of lime required
for the principal clarification procedures, also for the correspo nding quantities of limestone
and other primary materials.
We have completed this table by adding the last line.
Honig 5 estimates 25 - 30 kg (55 -65 lb.) of limestone per t.c. (probably for de Haan car-
bonatation); 15 kg/ t.c . (33 lb. / t.c. ) in the case of middle- juice carbonatation.
Rault 6 states that the more lime used, the better is the elimination of gums.
 420 C A RBONAT ATION Ch. 27

TABLE 27. 1

MATERIALS USED FOR THE VARIO US CL ARIFI CA TION METHODS (kg/ t.c .• X 2.2 for lb.lJ.C.)

CaO Limestone Coke Sulphur Pi 0)

Sulphi lalio n 0.8- 1.5 0.5

Sulphilation and phosphoric acid I 0.1 0 .1
Single carbonatation 18 35 4 0.2
Co ntinuou s double carbonatatio n 18 35 4 0.2
Ordinary double carbonatation 20-23 40-45 4 .4 0.2
De Haan carbonalation 12 23 2.5
M idd le-juice carbonatation 9 20 2
----- ---·---- -------- ------------
Lime kiln
The CO2 necessary for the carbonatation is produced at the same time as the lime, in a lime
kiln adjacent Lo the factory.
As lime is a solid material and compar atively easy to store, defecation factories can buy
it from outside supp liers . Carbon dioxide being a gas, it has so far not been possible to pro-
cure it other than by preparing it on the site, using as raw mate rial limestone or coral, which
consists of more or less pure calcium carbonate; quicklime is obtained at the same time:

Fuel. In order to promote this dissociation, it is necessary to supply in practice about 700
kca l/ kg (1, 260 B.T.U ./ lb.) of limesto ne. This heat is obtained by burning coke or other fuel
in the kiln. To ensure the proper distribution of the heat in the mass of limestone, layers of
coke and of limestone are fed into the kiln alternately.
Generally, 8- 10 kg of coke are used per 100 kg of limestone. In exceptional cases, this
is red uced to 7 kg.
The coke contains 75-900/o carbon, averaging 85% . Its calorific value is about 7,000
kcal/ kg (12,600 B.T .U./ lb.).
In Java, a mixtur e of coke and char coal is used as fuel, in the prop ortion of l of coke
to 10 of charco al. On sta rting the kiln, the first two layers are prepared using l of coke to
5 o f charcoa l.
Tromp 7 report s that bagasse has been used successfully as fuel in lime kilns, with excellent
results.

Limestone. The limestone is obtained either from limestone quarries or from coral
deposits.
Limesto ne general ly con ta ins 85 - 98% of CaCO 3, averaging 90% . Coral deposits, such as
those normally used in lime kilns in Mauritius and Reunio n, contain 87 - 94% of CaCO3.
Again , 90% may be taken as an average figure.
Coral limestone, if recently recovered from the sea, should be washed or left in the rain,
to remo ve the sa lt which it contains. It is recommended that coral lime with a high propo rtion
of magnesia shou ld be avoided. This recommendation is rather inconsis1en1 with the pro-
cedures described in Chapter 28.
 LIME KILN 421

It is desirable to use scones of approximately the same size, otherwise the large pieces will
be insufficiently burnt ("underburnt"), and the smaller ones overburnt. The pieces of coke
should be about half the size of the pieces of limestone (0.5 - 0.6).

Operation of the kiln. The temperature in the kiln should be maintained between certain
limits: if it exceeds I ,350°C (2,460°F) it gives what is known as "dead -burnt" lime, i.e. an
inert and unsuitable lime.
The dissociation of limestone begins at about 600°C (I, 110°F). The temperature of a good
lime kiln is maintain ed between 1,100 and I ,300°C (2,000 and 2,400°F).

Kiln. We give in Fig. 27 .1 a view of a Khern lime kiln, which is the type most used. Charg-
ing (by skip) is effected at the top, also removal of the CO2; ignition of the fuel, and removal
of the lime, from the bottom.
The gas leaves at a temperature of 70 - 120°C (160 - 250°F), and passes through a washer-
cleaner and dust remover which reduces it to about 60°C (140°F). At this temperature, 1 kg
of CO2 occup ies 617 litres under atmospheric pressure (10 cu.ft. / lb.).

Capacity of lime kilns. This capacity is very variable. Tromp 8 estimates a produ<.:tion of

-_-_
___ _-_-_
LJl!:'..J

Fig. 27. l. Lime kiln (sectional view).

422 CARBONATATION Ch. 27

370 - I ,235 kg Ca0/24 h/m 3 (23 - 77 lb. Ca0 / 24 h/ cu . ft.) of volume. A figure of 480
kg/m 3/2 4 h (30 lb./cu.ft./24 h) may be taken as an average.

Composition of gas. Let us assume the following conditions:

Limestone at 900Jo CaCOJ
Coke at 850Jo carbon
Proportion of coke to stone = 80Jo.
The dissociation gives:

CaC03 CaO + CO2

% of limestone: 100 56 44 (27 . I)
Theoretical weights: 90 g 50.4 g 39.6 g

This decomposition is endothermic and absorbs 42.5 kcal per mol, or say 425 kcal/kg
CaCOJ (765 B.T.U./lb.).
This 39.6 g CO2 will occupy a volume of:

22.4 X !4 =
3 6
20.16

The combustion of the 8% of coke used to furnish the necessary heat for the di ssoc iation
will give:

C + 02 - CO2
% of limestone (0.08 x 0.85 = 0.068): 12 32 44 (27.2)
Theoretical weights: 6.8 g 18.1 g 24.9 g
In volume: 12.67 I 12.67 I

since:

22.4 lB. l = 224 24 9

X
. X
44· = 12.671
32

But the 12.67 I of oxygen bring with them:

79 6
12.67 x ·1 = 48.13 I of nitrogen
20.84

The maximum proportion of CO2 therefore is:

(20.16 + 12.67) 100 32.83 X 100

= = 40%
20.16 + 12.67 + 48.13 80.96

In practice, it is not possible to operate with the exact theoretical quantit y of air, and it
- ::x:=---:

CO2 PUMP 423

is necessary to tolerate a certa in excess of air. It follows that in pra ctice the proportion of
CO2 by volume in the kiln gases varies from 25 to 33%, averaging 30%.
The uncombined oxyge n in the gas varies from 0.5 to 8%.
An exceptional perf or mance is that of Tirlcmont Refine ry 9 , in Belgium, giving 38% CO2
in a very modern and improved kiln, a nd reducin g the co ke to 7%.
We may comment that, for the conditions adopted above, we obtain:

39.6 + 24.9 = 64.5 g

of CO 2 for 50.4 g of Ca 0, or about 128 g CO2 / I 00 g Ca 0. Even allowing for the low efficien-
cy af the carbonating tanks, this quantity is amply sufficient 10 suppl y the carbonatation .

CO2 pump
Th e CO 2 gas leaving the washer is at a temperature of about 60 °C (140° F). Its pressure, at
the suc1io11or the pump, varies from - 5 10 - 12 cm ( - 2 10 - 5 in.) or mercury, most often
- 7.5 10 - 10 cm (-3 10 -4 in.).
The delivery pre ssure varies from 0.3 to 0 .7 kg/ cm 2 (4- 10 p. s .i.) . As an average, we may
take 0.4 kg/ cm 2 (6 p.s.i .).
Pumps for CO 2 are fully analogous to air pumps, which we shall discuss later (Chapter
40). However, they do not require water cooling, thanks to the sma ll difference between suc-
tion and delivery pre ssures.

Specification of a CO2 pump. To fix our ideas, let us take a concrete example . Given:

Cru sh ing rate: 100 t.c.h.

Consumption of CaO : 18 kg/ t.c. (40 lb./ t.c.)
Proportion of CaCO 3 in limestone: 90%

Limestone. Basing our calculati ons on the CaO required, we see from the reaction (27.1)
that we shall require per tonne cane:

100 I
18 x 56 x - = 35.7 kg (79 lb .) limestone
0.90

To allow for losses and unburnt, we sha ll allow for

35 .7 x 1.05 = 37.5 kg/ t.c. (83 lb./t.c.)

Density of CO2. Let us assume that rhe wirhdrawal of gas from the lime kiln is carried out
at an ab so lute pre ssure of 68 cm (27 in.) of mercur y (8 cm vacuum). Th e density of CO2
relative to a ir is 1.529. At 60°C (140°F) and 68 cm absolute, the densit y of the gas will be:

68
1.293 X 1.529 X X = 1.450 kg/ m 3 (0.091 lb ./c u. ft.)
76 I + (0.00367 X 60)
-
424 CARBONATATION Ch. 27

Volume of CO2. Our calculation ror Lhe composition of gas has shown that 100 kg of
limestone or 90% CaCOJ, with coke or 85% C, would produ ce about 64.5 kg of CO 2; or,
per t.c.:

37.5 x = 24.2 kg (53.5 lb.) CO2

occupying a volume of

24.2
= 16.68 m 3 (588 cu.ft.)
1.450

Volume of gas. We have seen that the gas contains on an average only 25 - 33 % CO2. Bas-
ing our figures on 30%, we shall have a gas volume of:

--16.68 -- 55.6 m3/ t.c. ( 1,96 0 cu. f t. / t.c.)

0.30

Total volume. For 100 t.c.h., we shall have:

V1 = 5,560 m3 / h (196,000 cu.ft. / h)

Increas ing this by 100/o for safety :

V2 = 5,560 x I. 10 = 6,116 m 3 / h (215,600 cu. ft./ h)

The volumetric efficiency of CO2 pumps varies from 0.60 to 0 .75 . Taking 0.70, we shall re-
quire:

6,116
= 8,737 m3 / h (308,000 cu. ft./ h)
0.7

If the pump is double-actin g, we shou ld have;

60 X 2 X L X S X n = V3 (27 .3)

L = stroke of the pump, in m (ft.)

S = effective area of the plunger, in m 2 (sq.ft.) = (1rD2)/ 4 or [1r (D 2 - d 2)]/ 4
D = diameter of the pump, in m (ft.)
d = diameter of the piston-rod and the tail-rod, in m (ft.)
n = speed of rotation of the pump, in r.p.m.
From (27.3), we calculate the product, nL (D 2 - d 2), and hence the specifications for the
pump, by choosing:
(I) A convenient proportion L I D
(2) A reasonable speed.
 CARBONATING TANKS 425

This speed should be maintained constant, otherwise the performance of the kiln will
become erratic and difficult to control.

Power for the pump. On account of the small dif ference in pressure between suction and
delivery pressures, the CO 2 piston, in steam pumps, is appreciably greater than the steam
piston. ln general, its diameter is double.
Power required is estimated at 1.1- 1.5 kW/ m 3/ h (0.04-0.06 h.p ./c u.ft./h).

Carbonating tanks
The carbonatation is generally carried out batchwise in a set of carbonating tanks or
"boilers". These are vertical tanks, of rectangular or circular cross-section. They hold juice
to a depth of 2- 3 m (7 - 10 ft.), and the tanks extend to a height of 4 - 7 m (13 -23 ft.),
the difference serving to allow for the copious l'rotlling of the first carbonatation.
The tanks for the second carbonatation are identical except for the height, which is less,
as the frothing is practically negligible.
Rectangular tanks take up less space than cylindrical ones, but should be provided with
stay-rods to avoid bulging of the walls under the pressure of the juice . Moreover, the juice
near the corners of the tanks is less effectively carbonated.
The carbonating tanks are sometimes provided with a cover which leads into .a flue serving _
to evacuate the gas after it has passed through the juice in the tank. Often, they are left open
at the top . They have a coil for heating with steam, a pipe for admission of the CO2 which
terminates in a star-shaped distributor, with serrated edges (Fig. 27.2), a juice inlet pipe, an
overflow pipe, and, generally, a device for breaking the foam, made from a perforated pipe
blowing small jets of steam in a horizontal plane above the surface of the juice.

Fig. 27 .2. Star distributor.

Capacity of carbonating tanks. A carbonatation installation will be planned on a basis of

3 -6 vessels, preferably 4, for each of the two carbonatations. lt will be assumed that one
is emptying, one filling, allowing 5 min for each of these operations; and the capacity of one
-
426 CARBONATATION Ch. 27

vessel will be deduced from Lhe height of juice chosen (2- 3 m) and from the necessity of
allowing the juice to remain for at least 20 min in each vessel during the saturation with CO2,
or about half an hour total, for single carbonatalion or first <.:arbonatation, and 15 min for
the second carbonatation.
Honig 10 specifies:
(a) A volume of heater s for 1st carbonatation of 1.4 - I. 7 1113/ t.c.h. (50-60 cu. ft./t.c.h.),
for a juice-holding period of 8- 12 min per batch, with a juice depth of 2-2.5 m (7-8 ft.);
milk or lime of 15 -20° Be.
(b) A heater volume for second carbonatation of 0.11 - 0. 15 m 3/ t.c.h. (4.5 -6 cu.ft./
t.c.h.), corresponding to precipitation of 200- 400 mg or CaO per litre of juice filtered and
heated to 70°C (160°F).

Continuous carbonatation
Plant for continuo us carbonatalion has also been used, which reduces the labour re-
quirements and simpl ifies operation. The se are similar to the batch carbonators, but are
designed to facilitate and prolong as much as possible the contact between CO2 and juice.
Control of the proper degree of saturation is more delicate, and is effected by regulation
of the j uice flow.
Continuous carbonatation is very commonly met with in the second carbonatatioo, less
often at the first.
When the second carbonatation is carried out continuously, the 2nd-carbonatation tank s
are gen erally given a juice capacity of 1501/ t.c .h. (33gal./t.c.h.) 11, although some factories
are content with 60 1/ t.c .h. (13 gal. / t.c.h .).
The jui ce from the 2nd carbonatation should be filtered at 70°C (158°F). With filter-
presses, 3 m 2 (33 sq.ft.) of filtering surface shou ld be provided per t.c.h.; with Sweetland
filters, 1.7 m 2/ t.c.h. (18 sq.ft. / t.c.h.) should be adequate.
The heaters for bringing the juice to 70°C will preferably be heated with vapour from the
2nd or 3rd eff ect. The necessary heating surface may be reckoned as 16- 20 m2 / t.c .h .
(175-220 sq.ft ./ t.c .h.) using vapour from the 2nd effect, or 20-22 m 2 (220-260 sq.ft.)
with vapour from the 3rd effect.

Efficiency of utilisation of CO2

The comrileteness of utilisation of the CO2 depends mainly on the surface of con1act between
jui ce and gas, and on the duration of this contact.
Consequently, ther e are two principal factors influencing this utilisation:
(a) Th e system of gas distribution in the mass of juice . We have referred 10 the distribucor
in star form with serrated branches. The smaller and more numerous the bubbles formed,
the greater will be the area of contact.
(b) The length of the gas path from the distributor pipe to the surfa ce o f the juice, i.e. for
ordinary carbo nating tanks, the depth of juice .
The efficiency is never perfect. The efficiency of utilisation of the CO 2 is of the order of:

30-75% according 10 Quillard 12

40- 600Joaccording to T romp 13
 fAVOURABLE CONDITIONS FOR USE OF CARBONATATION 427

It sometimes reaches 80-90% in the most favourable circumstances 14 • Even in this case,
the gases discharged by the flue still contain about 12 - 15% of CO2.
T here is indeed no need to seek perfection in utilisation of CO2, since the quantities fur-
nished by the lime kiln and corresponding to the normal quantitie s of lime used are always
amply suffic ient for the needs of the car bona tatio n.

Favourable conditions for use of carbonatation

Carbonatation, and especially double carbonatation and tl1e de Haan process, is the sta ndard
method for white sugar manufac ture.
It is, however, expensive, bot h on acco unt of the extra equipment required, and on account
of the extra raw ma terials which it demand s.
Its use will logically be restricted, therefore, to cases where both the two following cond i-
tions apply:
(1) The factory plans the systematic and continuous manufacture of white sugar. If it were
desired to make white sugar only in an incidental or accesso ry fashion, sulph itation would
be indicated, since it requires only an insignificant amount of extra equipment; putting it into
operation or shu1ting it dow n does not involve a great upset to the operation of the factory.
(2) The factory can procure readily and cheap ly the necessar y limestone or coral.
A carbo natat ion factory has an efficiency generally supe rior to that o f factor ies working
on simple defecation or on sulph itat ion. Thi s can genera lly be. reckoned at i' -2% higher
yield of sugar. Honig 10 estimates 1.5-2.5% .

Steam consumption
It is estimated by Podder 15 in Ind ia that a carbonatation factory consume s 10-12% more
steam (% on cane)"t.tian·a·defecat ion or sulphitat ion factory . Mean figures for that country
would be:

Sulphitation 55% stea m on cane

Carbo natation 66% steam on can e

In Taiwan 16 it is also agreed that carbo natat ion involves a 20% increase in consumption
relative to that for defecation.

REFERE NC E S

I H . S. Wu, Sugar Awcar, 60 (5) ( 1965) 48.

2 K. DouwEs DEKKER,Rev. Agr. Sucriere lie Maurice, 44 ( 1965) 254.
3 T. Y. CHOU, in P. HONIG(Ed.), Principles of Sugar Technology, Vol. I, Elsevier, Am sterdam, 1953, p. 7 11.
4 H. C. PRINSENGEERLIGS,Practical White Sugar Manufacture, Norman Rodger, London, 19 15, p. 69.
5 P. HONIG, in G. P . MEADE,Cane Sugar Handbook, 9th edn., Wiley, New York, 1963, ('). I 19.
6 J. RAULT,Proc. 39th Conj. SASTA, 1965, p. 59 .
7 L. A. TROMP, Facts about Sugar, 35 ( 12) ( 1940) 40.
8 L. A . TROMP, Machinery and Equipment of the Cane Sugar Factory, Norman Rodger, Lond on, 1936, p. 342 .
9 E. KOPPESCHAUER, Facts about Sugar, 26 (7) ( 1931) 313.
IO P . HONIG,in 0. P . MEADE, Cane Sugar Handbook, 9th edn., Wiley, New York , 1963, p. 117.
428 CARBONATATION Ch. 27

11 P . HONIG,Principles of Sugar Technology, Vol. I, Elsevier, Amstcrtlarn, I 953, p. 688.

12 CH. QurLLARD, La Sucrerie de Be11eraves, Baillie re, Paris, I 932, p. 2 I 6 .
13 L. A. TROMP, Machinery and Equipment of the Cane Sugar Factory, Norman Rodger, L ondon, 1936 , p. 380.
14 A . BARTA, Int. Sugar J., 42 (1940) 362.
15 V. POD DE R , K. LENZ AND H. S. CHATURVEDI, Proc. 9rh Congr. ISSCT, 1956, p . 521.
16 C. J. Lu , T. W. HUNG AND C. M . HwAN G , Sugar J., 31 (10) (1969) 20.