ELECTRONIC SCIENCE UNIT-I

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE UNIT-I

Semiconductors

A semiconductor is a substance whose resistivity lies between the

conductors and insulators. The property of resistivity is not the only one
that decides a material as a semiconductor, but it has few properties as
follows.

 Semiconductors have the resistivity which is less than

insulators and more than conductors.
 Semiconductors have negative temperature co-efficient. The
resistance in semiconductors, increases with the decrease in
temperature and vice versa.
 The Conducting properties of a Semiconductor changes, when
a suitable metallic impurity is added to it, which is a very
important property.

Semiconductor devices are extensively used in the field of electronics.

The transistor has replaced the bulky vacuum tubes, from which the
size and cost of the devices got decreased and this revolution has kept
on increasing its pace leading to the new inventions like integrated
electronics. The following illustration shows the classification of
semiconductors.

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE UNIT-I

Conduction in Semiconductors

After having some knowledge on the electrons, we came to know that

the outermost shell has the valence electrons which are loosely
attached to the nucleus. Such an atom, having valence electrons when
brought close to the other atom, the valence electrons of both these
atoms combine to form “Electron pairs”. This bonding is not so very
strong and hence it is a Covalent bond.

For example, a germanium atom has 32 electrons. 2 electrons in first

orbit, 8 in second orbit, 18 in third orbit, while 4 in last orbit. These 4
electrons are valence electrons of germanium atom. These electrons
tend to combine with valence electrons of adjoining atoms, to form the
electron pairs, as shown in the following figure.

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE UNIT-I

Creation of Hole

Due to the thermal energy supplied to the crystal, some electrons tend
to move out of their place and break the covalent bonds. These broken
covalent bonds, result in free electrons which wander randomly. But
the moved away electrons creates an empty space or valence behind,
which is called as a hole.

This hole which represents a missing electron can be considered as a

unit positive charge while the electron is considered as a unit negative
charge. The liberated electrons move randomly but when some
external electric field is applied, these electrons move in opposite
direction to the applied field. But the holes created due to absence of
electrons, move in the direction of applied field.

Hole Current

It is already understood that when a covalent bond is broken, a hole is

created. Actually, there is a strong tendency of semiconductor crystal to
form a covalent bond. So, a hole doesn’t tend to exist in a crystal. This
can be better understood by the following figure, showing a
semiconductor crystal lattice.

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE UNIT-I

An electron, when gets shifted from a place A, a hole is formed. Due to

the tendency for the formation of covalent bond, an electron from B
gets shifted to A. Now, again to balance the covalent bond at B, an
electron gets shifted from C to B. This continues to build a path. This
movement of hole in the absence of an applied field is random. But
when electric field is applied, the hole drifts along the applied field,
which constitutes the hole current. This is called as hole current but not
electron current because, the movement of holes contribute the
current flow.

Electrons and holes while in random motion, may encounter with each
other, to form pairs. This recombination results in the release of heat,
which breaks another covalent bond. When the temperature increases,
the rate of generation of electrons and holes increase, thus rate of
recombination increases, which results in the increase of densities of
electrons and holes. As a result, conductivity of semiconductor
increases and resistivity decreases, which means the negative
temperature coefficient.

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE UNIT-I

Intrinsic Semiconductors

A Semiconductor in its extremely pure form is said to be an intrinsic

semiconductor. The properties of this pure semiconductor are as
follows −

 The electrons and holes are solely created by thermal excitation.

 The number of free electrons is equal to the number of holes.

 The conduction capability is small at room temperature.

In order to increase the conduction capability of intrinsic

semiconductor, it is better to add some impurities. This process of
adding impurities is called as Doping. Now, this doped intrinsic
semiconductor is called as an Extrinsic Semiconductor.

Doping

The process of adding impurities to the semiconductor materials is

termed as doping. The impurities added, are generally pentavalent and
trivalent impurities.

Pentavalent Impurities

 The pentavalent impurities are the ones which has five valence
electrons in the outer most orbit. Example: Bismuth, Antimony,
Arsenic, Phosphorus

 The pentavalent atom is called as a donor atom because it

donates one electron to the conduction band of pure
semiconductor atom.

Trivalent Impurities

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE UNIT-I

 The trivalent impurities are the ones which has three valence
electrons in the outer most orbit. Example: Gallium, Indium,
Aluminum, Boron

 The trivalent atom is called as an acceptor atom because it

accepts one electron from the semiconductor atom.

Extrinsic Semiconductor

An impure semiconductor, which is formed by doping a pure

semiconductor is called as an extrinsic semiconductor. There are two
types of extrinsic semiconductors depending upon the type of impurity
added. They are N-type extrinsic semiconductor and P-Type extrinsic
semiconductor.

N-Type Extrinsic Semiconductor

A small amount of pentavalent impurity is added to a pure

semiconductor to result in Ntype extrinsic semiconductor. The added
impurity has 5 valence electrons.

For example, if Arsenic atom is added to the germanium atom, four of

the valence electrons get attached with the Ge atoms while one
electron remains as a free electron. This is as shown in the following
figure.

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE UNIT-I

All of these free electrons constitute electron current. Hence, the

impurity when added to pure semiconductor, provides electrons for
conduction.

 In N-type extrinsic semiconductor, as the conduction takes place

through electrons, the electrons are majority carriers and the
holes are minority carriers.

 As there is no addition of positive or negative charges, the

electrons are electrically neutral.

 When an electric field is applied to an N-type semiconductor, to

which a pentavalent impurity is added, the free electrons travel
towards positive electrode. This is called as negative or N-type
conductivity.

P-Type Extrinsic Semiconductor

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ELECTRONIC SCIENCE UNIT-1 MCQs

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE UNIT-1 MCQs

1. A semiconductor is formed by 1. 2
……… bonds.
2. 3
1. Covalent
3. 6
2. Electrovalent
4. 4
3. Co-ordinate
Answer: : 4
4. None of the above
5. High electron mobility transistors
Answer: : 1 can be constructed with the use of
single semiconductor material like
2. A semiconductor has …………
GaAs that have high electron
temperature coefficient of resistance.
mobility.
1. Positive a) True
b) False
2. Zero
Answer: b
3. Negative
Explanation: High electron mobility
4. None of the above transistor is a hetero junction FET,
meaning that it does not use a single
Answer: : 3
semiconductor material, but instead
3. The most commonly used is constructed with several layers of
semiconductor is ……….. compound semiconductor materials.

1. Germanium 6. The resistivity of a pure silicon is

about ……………
2. Silicon
1. 100 Ω cm
3. Carbon
2. 6000 Ω cm
4. Sulphur
3. 3 x 105 Ω m
Answer: : 2
4. 6 x 10-8 Ω cm
4. A semiconductor has generally
……………… valence electrons. Answer: : 2

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE UNIT-1 MCQs

7. When a pure semiconductor is 10. Addition of pentavalent impurity

heated, its resistance ………….. to a semiconductor creates many
……..
1. Goes up
1. Free electrons
2. Goes down
2. Holes
3. Remains the same
3. Valence electrons
4. Can’t say
4. Bound electrons
Answer: : 2
Answer: : 1
8. The strength of a semiconductor
crystal comes from …….. 11. A pentavalent impurity has ……….
Valence electrons
1. Forces between nuclei
1. 3
2. Forces between protons
2. 5
3. Electron-pair bonds
3. 4
4. None of the above
4. 6
Answer: : 3
Answer: : 2
9. When a pentavalent impurity is
added to a pure semiconductor, it 12. An n-type semiconductor is ………
becomes ………
1. Positively charged
1. An insulator
2. Negatively charged
2. An intrinsic semiconductor
3. Electrically neutral
3. p-type semiconductor
4. None of the above
4. n-type semiconductor
Answer: : 3
Answer: : 4
13. A trivalent impurity has …..
valence electrons

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE UNIT-1 MCQs

1. 4 1. 10 atoms for 108 atoms

2. 5 2. 1 atom for 108 atoms

3. 6 3. 1 atom for 104 atoms

4. 3 4. 1 atom for 100 atoms

Answer: : 4 Answer: : 2

14. Addition of trivalent impurity to a 17. As the doping to a pure

semiconductor creates many …….. semiconductor increases, the bulk
resistance of the
1. Holes
semiconductor ………..
2. Free electrons
1. Remains the same
3. Valence electrons
2. Increases
4. Bound electrons
3. Decreases
Answer: : 1
4. None of the above
15. A hole in a semiconductor is
Answer: : 3
defined as …………….
18. A hole and electron in close
1. A free electron
proximity would tend to ……….
2. The incomplete part of an
1. Repel each other
electron pair bond
2. Attract each other
3. A free proton
3. Have no effect on each other
4. A free neutron
4. None of the above
Answer: : 2
Answer: : 2
Q16. The impurity level in an extrinsic
semiconductor is about ….. of pure 19. In a semiconductor, current
semiconductor. conduction is due to ……..

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ELECTRONIC SCIENCE UNIT-2

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE UNIT-2

Integrated circuit fabrication

Introduction

The starting material for integrated circuit (IC) fabrication is the single
crystal silicon wafer. The end product of fabrication is functioning chips
that are ready for packaging and final electrical testing before being
shipped to the customer. The intermediate steps are referred to as
wafer fabrication (including sort). Wafer fabrication refers to the set of
manufacturing processes used to create semiconductor devices and
circuits. Some common wafer terminology used are chip, die, device,
circuit, and microchip. These refer to patterns covering the wafer
surface that provide specific functionality. The terminology die and chip
are most commonly used and interchangeably refer to one standalone
unit on the wafer surface. Thus, a wafer can be said to be divided into
many dies or chips, as shown in figure 1.

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE UNIT-2

Figure 1: Schematic of wafer showing the division into individual dies. One
individual die with electrical contacts is also shown. Some of these dies are used
for testing. Dies at the edge dies are incomplete. Adapted from Microchip
fabrication - Peter van Zant.

Figure 2: Schematic of various components of a wafer. (1) Chip (2) Scribe line (3)
Test die (4) Edge chips (5) Wafer crystal plane (6) Flats/notches.

The area between the dies is called a scribe line. This is used for
separating the individual dies when the fabrication is complete. Scribe
lines can be blank but most often they consist of test structures that are
used for electrical testing (e-test) during fabrication. This helps in
identification of process issues during fabrication, without having to
wait for the entire chip to be made.

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE UNIT-2

Along with the regular ICs, test dies or engineering dies are also
fabricated. These dies are used for electrical testing at the end, for
process or quality control. There are also some partial or edge dies at
the corners of the wafers. These arise because the wafers are circular
while the dies are usually rectangular. Corner dies can be used for
making smaller testing circuits for process control.

The various elements described above are marked in figure 2. Larger

the wafer, more the number of chips that can be manufactured
(including edge chips). Consider the Intel i7 core processor (codename
Ivybridge) with a die area of 160 mm2 . For 300 mm wafers, this
translates to a total of 440 dies (including edge chips), while with 450
mm wafers, the total number of dies are 994 (area of wafer by area of
die calculation). To exclude edge chips, we can take the die to be a
square. This gives 281 dies for 300 mm wafers and 633 dies for the
larger 450 mm wafers.

Thus, it is more economical to manufacture on larger wafers, but there

will be initial tool costs associated with larger wafers. There are a
number of different steps in IC fabrication. Typically, a wafer can moves
from one processing step to another, similar to an assembly line
manufacturing. There are also inspection steps in the process flow to
check for quality. There are different schemes for classifying the
processing steps in IC fabrication. In one such scheme, the basic fab
operations (processing steps) are divided into four main categories.

1. Layering
2. Patterning
3. Doping
4. Heat treatment

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE UNIT-2

Layering

The layering step is used to add thin layers to the wafer surface. These
layers can be of a different material or a different microstructure or
composition of the same material (polycrystalline Si or silicon oxide).
Figure 3 shows the cross-section of a simple MOSFET, highlighting the
various thin layers that are part of the device. The different layers help
in defining the various components of the MOSFET and in obtaining a
functional device e.g. the passivation layer helps in electrically isolating
the metal contacts to the source, drain and gate. Layering can be of
many different types, though they can be broadly classified into two
main categories: grown and deposited. The various types of layering
operations are shown in figure 4.

In the case of grown layers, the underlying wafer material (typically Si)
is consumed. A classic example is the growth of the oxide layer, as
shown in the MOSFET structure in figure 3. This is formed by oxidation
of Si into SiO2 and is usually done in two ways.

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE UNIT-2

Figure 3: Cross section of a MOSFET showing the different layers. Poly Si is used as
gate with SiNx used as the interlayer dielectric. Layering is the process by which
all of these different materials are added to the MOSFET.

Figure 4: Different kinds of layering steps. All layering steps are classified into two
major types. Grown layers use the underlying silicon substrate to form new layers.

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE UNIT-2

Deposited layers do not consume the silicon but are added to the surface.
Adapted from Microchip fabrication - Peter van Zant.

Figure 5: CVD process for growth of Si. Polycrystalline Si is formed by reduction of

tetra chlorosilane by H2, which is deposited on the wafers. The poly Si can be
doped and is used as gate for the MOSFET.

In both cases, the SiO2 layer is formed on the surface by consuming the
underlying Si layer. For further oxidation, the oxidizing species (O2 or
H2O) has to diffuse through the oxide to reach the Si surface. Similarly,
nitrides can also be grown by consumption of Si.

In the case of deposited films, the underlying Si is not consumed but a

new layer is added on top. An example of this is the growth of epitaxial
layers by a chemical vapor deposition (CVD) process. The epitaxial layer
grown can be the same material as the substrate (homoepitaxy) or can
be a different material (heteroepitaxy). Si can be grown epitaxially on Si
wafers by reduction of tetra chlorosilane.

SiCl4 (g) + 2H2 (g) → Si (s) + 4HCl (g) (2)

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE UNIT-2

The process is shown in figure 5. The chemical reaction in CVD takes

places in the vapor phase. It is very useful for growing high aspect ratio
structures like trenches, where CVD provides conformal coatings.
Figure 6 shows an exzmple of CVD growth of CrB2 on deep trenches by
CVD.

Molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) is another growth technique where the

constituents of the epitaxial layer are evaporated from separate
sources (’molecular beam’) and then combine on the substrate to form
the epitaxial layer. It is also possible to introduce dopants in this
process by evaporating the dopant material separately. GaAs can be
grown by MBE by evaporating from Ga and As sources. To dope this p-
type, Be can also be evaporated in the required concentration along
with Ga and As.

Thermal evaporation and sputtering are other examples of layering

operations. These fall under physical vapor deposition techniques
where the material, in the final form, is deposited onto the wafer. This
can be used for

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ELECTRONIC SCIENCE UNIT-2 MCQs

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE UNIT-2 MCQs
1. Find the basic chemical reaction
used for Epitaxial growth?
Answer: c
Explanation: The basic chemical
reaction used for epitaxial growth of
pure silicon is the hydrogen reduction
of silicon tetrachloride.
2. Which component is added to the
p-type material in order to get the
impurity concentration in epitaxial
films?
a) Bi-borane (B2H2)
b) Phosphine (PH3)
c) Boron chloride (BCl3)
d) Phosphorous pentoxide (P2O5)
Answer: a
Explanation: Bi-Borane is used for
doping p-type materials and
Phosphine is used for doping n-type
materials whereas Boron chloride
and Phosphorous pentoxide are used
for doping during diffusion process.
2
3. Where are the silicon wafers
placed in the reaction chamber for
the epitaxial growth process?
a) Cup
b) Boats
c) Ingots
d) Crucible
Answer: b
Explanation: The silicon rods are not
directly placed in the reaction
chamber instead they are placed on a
rectangular graphite rod called boats
and then it is heated to 1200oc.
4. Which of the following is used to
obtain silicon crystal structure while
fabricating Integrating Circuits?
a) Oxidation
b) Epitaxial growth
c) Photolithography
d) Silicon wafer preparations
Answer: b
Explanation: Epitaxial growth is
arranging of atoms in single crystal
fashion upon a single crystal
substrate, so that the resulting layer
is an extension of the substrate
crystal structure.
5. Why oxidation process is required?
a) To protect against contamination
b) To use it for fabrication various
 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE UNIT-2 MCQs
components
c) To prevent diffusion of impurities
d) All of the mentioned
Answer: d
Explanation: Oxidation provides
extreme hard protective coating, thus
protecting against contamination and
by selective etching, it can be made
to fabricate components.
6. Mention the chemical reaction for
oxidation process
a) Si + 2H2O –> SiO2 + 2H2
b) Si + O2 –> SiO2
c) 2Si + 2H2O –> 2SiO2 + 2H2
d) 2Si + 2H2O + 2O2 –> 2SiO2 + 2H2 +
O2
Answer: a
Explanation: For oxidation process,
silicon wafers are heated to a high
temperature and simultaneously they
are exposed to a gas containing H2O
or O2 or both.
7. At what temperature should the
oxidation process be carried out to
get an oxide film of thickness 0.02 to
2µm?
a) 0-105oc
b) 950-1115oc
c) 200-850oc
d) 350-900oc
3
Answer: b
Explanation: Silicon wafers are raised
to a high temperature in the range
950-1115oc and are exposed to gas.
The thickness of layer is governed by
time, temperature and its moisture
content.
8. Oxidation process in silicon planar
technology is also called as
a) Photo oxidation
b) Silicon oxidation
c) Vapour oxidation
d) Thermal oxidation
Answer: d
Explanation: The oxidation process is
called thermal oxidation process
because high temperature is used to
grow the oxide layer.
9. In Crzochralski crystal growth
process, the materials are heated up
to
a) 950oc
b) 1000 oc
c) 1420oc
d) 1200oc
Answer: c
Explanation: The materials are
heated above 1420oc which is greater
than the silicon melting point.
 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE UNIT-2 MCQs
10. How to obtain silicon ingots of 10-
15cm diameter?
a) By crystal pulling process
b) By crystal melting process
c) By crystal growing process
d) All of the mentioned
Answer: a
Explanation: During crystal pulling
process, the seed crystal and the
crucible rotate in opposite direction,
in order to produce ingots of circular
cross section (diameter of 10/15cm
normally obtained).
11. If the thickness of wafer after all
polishing steps in silicon wafer
preparation is 23-40 mils. Find its raw
cut slice thickness?
a) 16-32 mils
b) 23-40 mils
c) 8-12 mils
d) None of the mentioned
Answer: a
Explanation: Usually the silicon wafer
obtained has a very rough surface
due to slicing operation. So, these
wafers undergo a number of
polishing steps to produce flat and
smooth polished surface. Therefore,
the thickness of wafers will be
reduced from its raw cut slice.
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12. The process involved in
photolithography is
a) Making of a photographic mask
only
b) Photo etching
c) Both photo etching and making of
photographic mask
d) None of the mentioned
Answer: c
Explanation: Photolithographic
involves both processes in sequence.
First photographic mask is used for
artwork and reduction. Then Photo
etching for removal of SiO2 from
designed region.
13. How will be the initial artwork
done for a normal IC?
a) Smaller than the final dimension of
chip
b) Same as that of final dimension of
chip
c) Larger than the final dimension of
chip
d) None of the mentioned
Answer: c
Explanation: The initial artwork of an
IC is done at a scale several hundred
times longer than the final
dimensions. This is because for a tiny
chip, larger the artwork, more
accurate is the final mask.
ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 3

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 3

Superposition theorem

If there are several sources acting simultaneously in an electrical circuit,

then the current through any branch of the circuit is summation of
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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 3

currents which would flow through the branch for each source keeping
all other sources dead.

Popular method of circuit solving during network analysis is

superposition theorem. The method is applicable to the active network
with more than one electrical sources. In superposition technique, we
first have to remove all the sources by their internal impedance except
one. The effect of this particular source on a branch of the network is
first calculated. That means either voltage or current or both of that
branch are calculated for that connected source in the network. Then
we remove the source keeping its internal impedance at the place and
reconnect the second source in place in the network. Now we have to
calculate the required parameters of the same branch. In this way, we
have to reconnect and remove all the sources one by one and calculate
the required parameters each time. At last by summing the effects with
the sign of all the individual source on the branch we get the
cumulative effect on the branch when all the sources are connected to
the network.

Superposition theorem states that in any linear, active, bilateral

network having more than one source, the response across any
element is the sum of the responses obtained from each source
considered separately and all other sources are replaced by their
internal resistance. The superposition theorem is used to solve the
network where two or more sources are present and connected.

In other words, it can be stated as if a number of voltage or current

sources are acting in a linear network, the resulting current in any
branch is the algebraic sum of all the currents that would be produced

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 3

in it when each source acts alone while all the other independent
sources are replaced by their internal resistances.

It is only applicable to the circuit which is valid for the ohm’s law (i.e.,
for the linear circuit).

The statement.

Here, two 1.5 Volt batteries present in the circuit. At this condition, the
current through 1 ohm resistance is 1.2 ampere.
The ammeter indicates this value in the above picture.

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 3

Now, we replace the left side battery by a short circuit as shown. In this
case the current flowing through the 1 ohm resistance is 0.6 ampere.
The ammeter indicates this value as shown in the picture above.

Now, we replace the right side battery by a short circuit as shown. In

this case the current flowing through the 1 ohm resistance is also 0.6
ampere. The ammeter indicates this value as shown in the picture
above.
1.2 = 0.6 + 0.6

So, we can say, if we connect a branch of an electrical circuit with

numbers of voltage and current sources total current flowing through
this branch is the summation of all individual currents, contributed by
the each individual voltage or current source. This simple conception is
mathematically represented as Superposition Theorem.

Instead of having two sources as shown above, there are n number of

sources acting in a circuit due to which I current flows through a
particular branch of the circuit.
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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 3

If someone replaces all the sources from the circuit by their internal
resistance except first source which is now acting along in the circuit
and giving current I1 through the said branch, then he reconnects the
second source and replaces the first source by its internal resistance.

Now the current through that said branch for this second source alone
can be assumed I2.

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 3

Similarly, if he reconnects the third source and replaces the second

source by its internal resistance. Now the current through that said
branch for this third source, alone is assumed I3.

Similarly, when nth source acts alone in the circuit and all other sources
are replaced by their internal electrical resistances, then said In current
flows through the said branch of the circuit.

Now according to Superposition theorem, current through the branch

when all the sources are acting on the circuit simultaneously, is nothing
but summation of these individual current caused by individual sources
acting alone on the circuit.

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 3

Electrical sources may be of two kinds mainly, one is voltage source and
other is current source. When we remove the voltage source from a
circuit, the voltage, was contributed to the circuit becomes zero. So for
getting zero electric potential difference between the points where the
removed voltage source was connected, these two points must be
short circuited by zero resistance path. For more accuracy, one can
replace the voltage source by its internal resistance. Now if we remove
a current source from the circuit, current is contributed by this source
will become zero. Zero current implies open circuit. So when we
remove current source from a circuit, we just disconnect the source
from the circuit terminals and keep both terminals open circuited. As
the ideal internal resistance of a current source is infinitely large,
removing a current source from a circuit can be alternatively referred
as replacing the current source by its internal resistance. So for
superposition theorem, the voltage sources are replaced by short
circuits and source s are replaced by open circuits.

This theorem is only applicable to linear circuit i.e. circuit consisting of

resistances in which Ohm’s law is valid. In the circuits having non-linear
resistances such as thermionic valves, metallic rectifiers this theorem
will not be applicable. This theorem is a more laborious one than many
other circuit theorems. But main advantage of this method is that, it
avoids solutions of two or more simultaneous equations. But after a
little practice with this method, equations can be written directly from
the original circuit diagram and labor in drawing extra diagrams can be
saved. For better understanding of the procedure, we have furnished
the different steps of Superposition theorem as follows,

Step – 1

8
ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 3 MCQs

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 3 MCQs
1. In superposition theorem, when
we consider the effect of one voltage
source, all the other voltage sources
are ____________
a) Shorted
b) Opened
c) Removed
d) Undisturbed
Answer: a
Explanation: In superposition
theorem when we consider the effect
of one voltage source, all the other
voltage sources are shorted and
current sources are opened.
2. In superposition theorem, when
we consider the effect of one current
source, all the other voltage sources
are ____________
a) Shorted
b) Opened
c) Removed
d) Undisturbed
Answer: a
Explanation: In superposition
theorem, whether we consider the
effect of a voltage or current source,
voltage sources are always shorted
and current sources are always
opened.
2
3. In superposition theorem, when
we consider the effect of one voltage
source, all the other current sources
are ____________
a) Shorted
b) Opened
c) Removed
d) Undisturbed
Answer: b
Explanation: In superposition
theorem when we consider the effect
of one voltage source, all the other
current sources are opened and
voltage sources are shorted.
4. In superposition theorem, when
we consider the effect of one current
source, all the other current sources
are ____________
a) Shorted
b) Opened
c) Removed
d) Undisturbed
Answer: b
Explanation: In superposition
theorem, whether we consider the
effect of a voltage or current source,
current sources are always opened
and voltage sources are always
shorted.
 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 3 MCQs

5. Find the value of Vx due to the 16V 6. Find Vx due to the 3A source.
source.

a) 4.2V
b) 3.2V
c) 2.3V
d) 6.3V
Answer: b
Explanation: When we consider the
16V source, we short the 10V source
and open the 15A and 3A source.
From the resulting series circuit we
can use voltage divider to find Vx.
Vx = 16*20/(20+80)=3.2A.
a) 56V
b) 78V
c) 38V
d) 48V
Answer: d
Explanation: Due to the 3A source,
we short the 16V and 10V source and
open the 15A source. From the
resulting circuit, we can use current
divider to find the current in the 20
ohm branch and then multiply it with
the resistance to find the voltage.
I20 = 3*80/(20+80)=2.4A
Vx=20*2.4=48V.

7. Find the value of Vx due to the 10V

source.

3
 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 3 MCQs

a) 0V
b) 2V
c) 4V
d) 6V

Answer: a
Explanation: Due to 15 A current
source, 10V and 16V sources get
a) 1V shorted and the 3A source acts as an
b) 2V open circuit. Since the 10V source is
c) 3V shorted, it acts as a low resistance
d) 4V path and current flows only within
that loop and do not flow to the 20
Answer: b ohm resistor. Hence the voltage is 0V.
Explanation: Due to the effect of the
10V source, we short the 16V source 9. Superposition theorem is valid for
and open the 3A and 15A source. _________
From the resulting series circuit, we a) Linear systems
can use voltage divider to find the b) Non-linear systems
value of Vx. c) Both linear and non-linear systems
Vx=10*20/(80+20)=2V. d) Neither linear nor non-linear
systems
8. Find the voltage due to the 15A
source. Answer: a
Explanation: Superposition theorem
is valid only for linear systems
because the effect of a single source
cannot be individually calculated in a
non-linear system.

10. Superposition theorem does not

work for ________
a) Current

4
ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4

As per updated syllabus

THE LEARN WITH DIWAKAR
EXPERTIES EDUCTION HUB
 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4

Rectifier

In electronics, Rectifier circuit is the most used circuit because almost

every electronic appliance operates on DC (Direct Current) but the
availability of the DC Sources are limited such as electrical outlets in
our homes provide AC (Alternating current). The rectifier is the
perfect candidate for this job in industries & Home to convert AC into
DC. Even our cell phone chargers use rectifiers to convert the AC from
our home outlets to DC. Different types of Rectifiers are used for
specific applications.

We mainly have two types of voltage types present that are widely
used these days. They are alternating and direct voltage types. These
voltage types can be converted from one type to another using special
circuits designed for that particular conversion. These conversions
happen everywhere.

Our main supply which we get from power grids are alternating in
nature and the appliances we use in our homes generally require a
small DC voltage. This process of converting alternating current into
direct current is given the name rectification. Converting AC to DC is
preceded by further process which can involve filtering, DC-DC
conversion and so on. One of the most common part of an electronic
power supply is a bridge rectifier.

Many electronic circuits require rectified DC power supply for powering

various electronic basic components from available AC mains supply.
The simple bridge rectifier is used in a variety of electronic AC based
power devices.

2
 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4

Another way to look at the rectifier circuit is that, it can be said to

convert currents instead of voltages. This makes more intuitive sense,
because we are more accustomed to using current to define a
component’s nature. Concisely, a rectifier take a current which has
both negative and positive components and rectifies it such that only
the positive component of the current remains.

Bridge rectifiers are widely used in power supplies that provide

necessary DC voltage for the electronic component or devices. The
most efficient switching devices whose characteristics are known fully
are diodes. In theory any solid-state switch which can be controlled or
cannot be controlled can be used instead of the diodes.

Usually, the types of Rectifiers are classified based on their output.

 Single Phase Rectifiers

 Three Phase Rectifiers
 Controlled Rectifiers
 Uncontrolled Rectifiers
 Half Wave Rectifiers
 Full Wave Rectifiers
 Bridge Rectifiers
 Center-Tapped Rectifiers

What is Rectifier?

A Rectifier is an electrical device that is made of one or more than one

diodes that converts the alternating current (AC) into direct
current (DC). It is used for rectification where the process below shows
that how it convert AC into DC.

3
 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4

Rectifiers can take a wide variety of physical forms, from vacuum tube
diodes and crystal radio receivers to modern silicon-based designs.

The simplest rectifiers, called half-wave rectifiers, work by eliminating

one side of the AC, thereby only allowing one direction of current to
pass through. Since half of the AC power input goes unused, half-wave
rectifiers produce a very inefficient conversion. A more efficient
conversion alternative is a full-wave rectifier, which uses both sides of
the AC waveform.

Use of a Rectifier

Rectifiers are fundamental to how many different devices operate.

Because the standard electrical distribution grid uses AC power, any
device that runs on DC power will require a rectifier to function
correctly. Virtually all modern electronics need the steady, constant
power of DC to operate correctly.

Additionally, we use rectifiers to change voltage in DC power systems.

Because it is relatively difficult to convert DC voltage directly in some
scenarios, the simplest solution may be the following process:

1. Convert DC to AC
2. Change the voltage using a transformer
3. Convert AC back to DC using a rectifier

In a few applications, the rectifier itself serves a direct function beyond

converting AC to DC. Take, for example, one of the earliest radio
designs: a crystal radio. This device employed a fine wire pressed
against a crystal (we would now refer to this component as a diode),
which rectified the alternating current radio signal directly, thus

4
 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4

extracting the audio and producing sound in earphones. Precision

rectifiers are still in use in some types of radios today.

Flame rectification is another example of applying rectification

directly. In this application, a flame acts as a rectifier due to the
differential in mobility between electrons and positive ions present in a
flame. We use the rectifying effect of fire on AC in gas heating systems
to direct the flame’s presence.

What is Rectification?

Rectification is the process of conversion of the alternating current

(which periodically changes direction) into direct current (flow in a
single direction).

Types Of Rectifiers

There are mainly two types of rectifiers:

1. Uncontrolled Rectifier
2. Controlled Rectifier

Bridge rectifiers are of many types and the basis for the classification
can be many, to name a few, type of supply, bridge circuit’s
configurations, controlling capability etc. Bridge rectifiers can be
broadly classified into single and three phase rectifiers based on the
type of input they work on. Both of these types include these further
classifications which can be made into both single and three phase
rectifiers.

The further classification is based on the switching devices the rectifier

uses and the types are uncontrolled, half controlled and full controlled
rectifiers. Some of the types of rectifiers are discussed below.
5
 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4

Based on the type of rectification circuit does, the rectifiers are

classified into two categories.

 Half wave rectifier

 Full wave rectifier

Half wave rectifier only converts half of the AC wave into DC signal
whereas Full wave rectifier converts complete AC signal into DC.

Bridge rectifier is the most commonly used rectifier in electronics and

this report will deal with the working and making of one. Simple bridge
rectifier circuit is the most popular method for full wave rectification.

Uncontrolled Rectifier:

The type of rectifier whose output voltage cannot be controlled is

called an uncontrolled rectifier.

A rectifier uses switches to work. The switches can be of various types,

broadly, controllable switches and uncontrollable switches. A diode is
unidirectional device that allows the current flow in only one direction.
The working of a diode is not controlled as it will conduct as long as it is
forward biased.

With a configuration of diodes in any given rectifier, the rectifier is not

fully in the operator’s control, so these types of rectifiers are called
uncontrolled rectifiers. It does not allow the power to vary depending
on the load requirement. So this type of rectifier is commonly used in
constant or fixed power supplies.

Uncontrolled rectifier uses only diodes and they give a fixed output
voltage depending only on the AC input.

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4

Types Of Uncontrolled Rectifier:

Uncontrolled Rectifiers are further divided into two types:

1. Half Wave Rectifier

2. Full Wave Rectifier

Half Wave Rectifier:

A Type of rectifier that converts only the half cycle of the alternating
current (AC) into direct current (DC) is known as halfwave rectifier.

For most power applications, half-wave rectification is insufficient for

the task. The harmonic content of the rectifier’s output waveform is
very large and consequently difficult to filter. Furthermore, the AC
power source only supplies power to the load one half every full cycle,
meaning that half of its capacity is unused. Half-wave rectification is,
however, a very simple way to reduce power to a resistive load. Some
two-position lamp dimmer switches apply full AC power to the lamp
filament for “full” brightness and then half-wave rectify it for a lesser
light output. (figure below)

Half-wave rectifier application: Two level lamp dimmer.

7
 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4

In the “Dim” switch position, the incandescent lamp receives

approximately one-half the power it would normally receive operating
on full-wave AC. Because the half-wave rectified power pulses far more
rapidly than the filament has time to heat up and cool down, the lamp
does not blink. Instead, its filament merely operates at a lesser
temperature than normal, providing less light output.

This principle of “pulsing” power rapidly to a slow-responding load

device to control the electrical power sent to it is common in the world
of industrial electronics. Since the controlling device (the diode, in this
case) is either fully conducting or fully non-conducting at any given
time, it dissipates little heat energy while controlling load power,
making this method of power control very energy-efficient. This circuit
is perhaps the crudest possible method of pulsing power to a load, but
it suffices as a proof-of-concept application.

 Positive Half Wave Rectifier:

A half wave rectifier that converts only the positive half cycle and
blocks the negative half cycle.

8
ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

THE LEARN WITH As per updated syllabus

EXPERTIES DIWAKAR
EDUCTION HUB
 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs
1. Which of the following isn’t a type
of rectifier?
a) Precision Half-wave Rectifier
b) Bridge Rectifier
c) Peak Rectifier
d) None of the mentioned
Answer: d
Explanation: All of the mentioned are
different types of a rectifier.
2. For a half wave or full wave
rectifier the Peak Inverse Voltage of
the rectifier is always
a) Greater than the input voltage
b) Smaller than the input voltage
c) Equal to the input voltage
d) Greater than the input voltage for
full wave rectifier and smaller for the
half wave rectifier
Answer: b
Explanation: The peak input voltage is
smaller than the input voltage due to
the presence of diode(s). A single
diode reduces the output voltage by
approximately 0.7V.
3. For a half-wave rectifier having
diode voltage VD and supply input of
VI, the diode conducts for π – 2Θ,
where Θ is given by
a) tan -1 VD/VI
b) tan-1 VD/VI – VI
2
c) sin-1 VD/VI
d) sin-1 VD/VI – VI
Answer: c
Explanation: The diode doesn’t
conducts when VD ≥VI . Hence Θ = sin-
1 ( /V ).
D I
4. Bridge rectifier is an alternative for
a) Full wave rectifier
b) Peak rectifier
c) Half wave rectifier
d) None of the mentioned
Answer: a
Explanation: Bridge rectifier is a
better alternative for a full wave
rectifier.
5. Which of the following is true for a
bridge rectifier?
a) The peak inverse voltage or PIV for
the bridge rectifier is lower when
compared to an identical center
tapped rectifier
b) The output voltage for the center
tapped rectifier is lower than the
identical bridge rectifier
c) A transistor of higher number of
coil is required for center tapped
rectifier than the identical bridge
rectifier
d) All of the mentioned
 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs
Answer: d
Explanation: All of the given
statements are true for a bridge
rectifier.
6. The diode rectifier works well
enough if the supply voltage is much
than greater than 0.7V. For smaller
voltage (of few hundreds of millivolt)
input which of the following can be
used?
a) Superdiode
b) Peak rectifier
c) Precision rectifier
d) None of the mentioned
Answer: a
Explanation: For the supply voltages
less than 0.7V super diodes are used.
7. A simple diode rectifier has
‘ripples’ in the output wave which
makes it unsuitable as a DC source.
To overcome this one can use
a) A capacitor in series with a the
load resistance
b) A capacitor in parallel to the load
resistance
c) Both of the mentioned situations
will work
d) None of the mentioned situations
will work
Answer: b
Explanation: A capacitor is parallel
3
with a resistor can only makes ripples
go away. Series connection will
become equal to an open circuit once
the capacitor is fully charged.
8. Consider a peak rectifier fed by a
60-Hz sinusoid having a peak value
Vp = 100 V. Let the load resistance R
= 10 kΩ. Calculate the fraction of the
cycle during which the diode is
conducting
a) 1.06 %
b) 2.12 %
c) 3.18%
d) 4.24%
Answer: c
Explanation: w Δt ~ √(2Vr/Vp)
Θ = √(2 X 2/100)
Θ = 0.2 rad or 3.18% of the cycle
(Q.9-Q.10) The op amp in the
precision rectifier circuit is ideal with
output saturation levels of ±12 V.
Assume that when conducting the
diode exhibits a constant voltage
drop of 0.7 V.
 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

9. Find V– when VI is -1V. Virtual gnd as negative feedback is

a) 0V closed through R.
b) 0.7V VI > 0 D1 conducts D2 cutoff.
c) 1V VI < 0 D2 conducts D1 cutoff.
d) 1.7V V ⁄
0 VI = -1.

Answer: a
Explanation: VI = -1v
Vo = 1v
VA = 1.7v
V– = 0v
Virtual gnd as negative feedback is
closed through R.
VI > 0 D1 conducts D2 cutoff. 11. The diode in a half wave rectifier
VI < 0 D2 conducts D1 cutoff. has a forward resistance RF. The
V ⁄
0 VI = -1.
voltage is Vmsinωt and the load
resistance is RL. The DC current is
given by _________
a) Vm/√2RL
b) Vm/(RF+RL)π
c) 2Vm/√π
d) Vm/RL

10. Find V0 when VI is 2V. Answer: b

a) 0V Explanation: For a half wave rectifier,
b) 0.7V the IDC=IAVG=Im/π
c) 1V I= Vmsinωt/(RF+RL)=Imsinωt
d) 1.7V Im =Vm/ RF+RL So, IDC=Im/π=Vm/(RF+RL).

Answer: a 12. The below figure arrives to a

Explanation: VI = 2v conclusion that _________
Vo = 0v
VA = -0.7v
V– = 0v