第 41 卷 第 4 期：1057-1067 高电压技术 Vol.41, No.

4: 1057-1067
2015 年 4 月 30 日 High Voltage Engineering April 30, 2015
DOI: 10.13336/j.1003-6520.hve.2015.04.001

Power Cable Technology Review

Harry Orton
（Orton Consulting Engineers International Ltd., Vancouver, BC, Canada）

Abstract：The past decade has been very busy and exciting times for the underground power cable industry. This paper
starts with a brief introduction of the past 100 years and then reviews papers presented at recent JICABLE and CIGRE
conferences. Over the past decade both on-line and off-line diagnostics have seen rapid development, HVDC cables have
extended interconnection lengths to 600 km and HVAC cables are now commonly installed for distances up to 100 km.
And at the same time advanced materials, higher operating voltages and improved cable accessory designs have supported
all of these advances. In short, it is an excellent time to review underground power cable technology.
Key words：power cable; cable materials; medium voltage power cables; high voltage power cables; submarine cables;
HVDC cables; future power cables

Some of the first electric distribution systems in Paris

0 Introduction
Underground power cables form an essential
connecting link between two or more electrical appa-
ratus. The variety of uses, service conditions, and
technical methods associated with the manufacture
and installation of insulated power cables have re-
sulted in a large number of materials, designs and
constructions. Essentially, power cables used for the
distribution and transmission of electricity consist of
conductors stranded from high conductivity metals,
such as copper or aluminium that are insulated with
fluid impregnated Kraft paper tapes or polymer based
materials that are extruded around a central conductor.
The single or multi-core assembly is then enclosed in
an overall sheath and/or jacket. When necessary, they
may also be covered with a water impermeable sheath
or protected by metallic wire armour. In 1901, Gorman
M made the following statement relative to under-
ground power cables: “waterproof for 100 years,
flexible and extensible, so volt resisting that the thin-
nest film suffices, sufficiently firm not
decentralize”.
1 History of Power Cables
Possibly the first reference to cables or wires was
reported in 1812 when a Russian named Schilling used
rubber-varnish-insulated wires to explode mineral ores.
and London were laid in sewers or underground drai-
nage systems between 1870 and 1880, but the
conductors were bare copper, insulated from earth by
glass or porcelain insulators. Dr. Ferranti pioneered the
first successful scheme in the UK using high voltage
insulated conductors in 1890 for the London Electric
Supply Corporation. The Ferranti Cable was manu-
factured with a multi-layer laminated dielectric in
lengths of 20 feet and required seven to eight thousand
splices for the route length of some 30 miles. The in-
stallation was installed and working successfully by
February 15, 1891 and the last length was only re-
moved from service in 1933.
Over 130 years ago in the United States, Thomas
A Edison invented the underground “Street Pipes” that
are described in his US Patent No. 251,552 dated De-
cember 27, 1881. Edison needed a means to connect
two of his previous inventions, the generator and the
incandescent lamp. The Edison “Street Pipes” operat-
ed at 110 volts DC and consisted of jute wrapped
to copper bars that were inserted into an iron tube and the
interstices filled with a bituminous/wax compound
(Fig.1). Present day power cables are amazingly simi-
lar in spite of the passage of 130 years. Considerable
progress has been made, however, with improved di-
electric materials, allowing for cables to be produced
more economically and the development of high vol-
1058 高电压技术 2015, 41(4)

tage cables.
During the intervening 100 years, the prominent
products developed for underground power cables
were fluid impregnated paper insulated cable that was
perfected by Emanuelli of the Pirelli Company in 1917,
and cross-linked polyethylene insulation that was de-
veloped by General Electric Company in 1963. In
Japan, fluid filled cables were the most prominent ca-
ble design until 1967 when the quantity of crosslinked
polyethylene(XLPE) insulated cable exceeded that of
fluid filled cables due to the rapid progress made in
polymer chemistry after World WarⅡ. By 1991, over
90 % of all cables installed in Japan were XLPE insu-
lated cables. Fig.2 compares the usage growth rate for Fig.1 Edison “Street Pipes” (courtesy of Michael Purcell,
paper and polymer insulated cable systems and Fig.3 Energex)
shows the percentage of cable type sourced by Euro-
pean manufacturers for extra high voltage cables
(Brochure produced by Europacable 2003).
The main considerations in the industry wide
conversion from lead covered, fluid impregnated paper
systems to polymeric insulated systems were as fol-
[1]
lows :
(1)Environmental concerns with the lead sheaths
used on fluid impregnated paper insulated cables;
(2)Reduced maintenance costs for polymer insu-
lated cables dielectric insulation; Fig.2 Evolution of the highest AC voltage rating of cables
(3)Loss of expertise required for installing fluid (courtesy of Dr. Nigel Hampton, NEETRAC)
impregnated paper insulated cables;
(4)Reduced installation costs for polymeric insu-
lated cables;
(5)No fluid leaks to locate and repair;
(6)Weight reduction (no lead sheath required),
allowing for the installation of longer cable lengths;
(7)Reduced risk of fire during earthquakes;
(8)Reduced dielectric losses.

2 Cable Materials
The basic cable design of a series of concentric
circles has not changed in over 100 years. It is the ma-
terials development that has improved the cable
technology, which progressed from composite paper
fluid systems to polymer insulation materials and now
to nanodielectrics(the reference [2], session C.5).
Fig.3 Insulation systems used for extra high voltage cable
systems sourced from European manufacturers by 2003
(Europacable 2003)
Progress is being made in the nature, dimension, shape,
content of possible nanoparticles and the possible use
of nanodielectrics for cable insulation.
Harry Orton: Power Cable Technology Review
A Japanese cable manufacturer has developed a
nanofilled insulating material based on XLPE for high
voltage direct current(HVDC) applications. Of partic-
ular interest is the inclusion of a conductive inorganic
nanofiller in the insulation matrix. Material studies
included space charge measurements versus filler
content and by-product content. The internal electric
field tends to decrease when the filler content increases.
Pulsed electro-acoustic method was used to
measure space charges on plaques and model cable
samples that are subjected to DC electrical stress and
temperature. The methodology assessed materials in-
tended for HVDC XLPE cables aiming to compare
different candidate for mulations(the reference [2],
paper C.4.2).
For AC application of XLPE the voltage stabiliz-
er influence on breakdown strength was investigated.
The use of stabilizers began in the 1960s. Different
kinds of stabilizers were studied showing that fused
aromatic stabilizers lead to a significant improvement
in the breakdown voltage and endurance. In addition,
acetophenone and ultraviolet-stabilizers(UV-stabilizers)
were also found to provide improvements.
Both plaque samples and mini extruded cables
have been successfully used in the first step towards
material evaluation. This approach is inexpensive
when compared to a full-sized cable, but the ultimate
answer must rest with the full-sized cable design. A
series of two materials with an organic charge trapping
agent and low-level inorganic additive inclusions were
studied using plaques and mini-cables. For both pla-
ques and mini cables, the space charge accumulations
appeared lower for samples with inorganic additives.
The space charge release appears to be faster for this
material. The work must be supported by a full-sized
cable design.
Small laboratory scale tests have been introduced
to characterize the influence of additives on water tree
growth in XLPE insulated cables. These small-scale
tests would replace the long-term programs of up to
two years in water and under electrical stress. These
tests confirmed that water tree retardant(WTR) com-
pounds remain an important solution to protect
1059
medium voltage(MV) insulations. This study also
showed that the XLPE insulations using liquid perox-
ide solutions as a cross-linking system, lead to a
resistance to water treeing intermediate between water
tree retardant and homo-polymer compounds. Fur-
thermore, by increasing the degree of cross-linking,
and with a suitable choice of anti-oxidant, it was
possible to improve the behaviour of the insulation
regarding water trees initiation and growth(the refer-
ence [2], paper D.6.2).
There are two recognised laboratory accelerated
life-testing protocols available to assess cable mate-
rials, new cable designs and life extension methods.
These protocols are accelerated water tree test(AWTT)
and accelerated cable life test(ACLT). International
standards covering these test protocols include AEIC
CS8—2000, ICEA S-94-649, IEC TS61956 and CE-
NELEC HD 605.
ACLT results on reduced tree-retardant cros-
slinked polyethylene(TRXLPE) insulation wall thick-
ness, with two different types of conductor shields
show that for several commercially available conduc-
tor shields characteristic lives and test times are more
than twice those for full-size (4.45 mm, 175 mil) 15
kV rated cables. The recommended maximum con-
ductor shield test stress is 12 MV/m. Thermal
preconditioning of the reduced wall test specimens
also contributes to the characteristic life and testing
times(the reference [2], paper C.3.2).
In another test program water trees were pro-
duced in 14 days in a commercial XLPE cable sample
by the use of a high frequency, high voltage supply. A
comparison between the 50 Hz, 2 years test and the
500 Hz, 4 months test demonstrates that for some new
cables, the possible application of a prequalification
test. This method can be used to provide information
for asset management and also to check the quality of
new cables(the reference [2], C.3.3).
3 MV Power Cables
Polymeric insulated MV cables have undergone
considerable development since their introduction in
the 1960’s. Improvements have been made in the cable
1060 高电压技术
design, but the weak point in the cable system remains
to be the cable accessories. Cold shrink joints were
introduced over 15 years ago, but the key parameters
that must be implemented to ensure the success of the
technology include high performance materials, elec-
trical and thermal parameters and resistance to
moisture(the reference [2], paper C.1.1).
Connectors have remained a concern with MV
cable accessories. This situation has not improved
with the introduction of medium voltage electricity
networks with increasing numbers distributed genera-
tion units such as wind farms. In the last four to five
years, dozens of MV joint failures occurred in the
Netherlands, especially in heavy and dynamic loaded
circuits. The failures were caused by thermal problems
coming from the compression type connector on a
solid aluminum conductor.
Furthermore, issues with connectors installed in
medium voltage cable joints were reportedly attributed
to the use of conductors with different water blocking
methods. Tests completed on connectors for 1/0
American Wire Gauge(AWG) conductors suggest that
the current connector test program is insufficient to
evaluate connectors for use in MV joints(the reference
[2], papers C.1.4 and C.1.5).
The French medium voltage XLPE cable has
seen minimum cable failures since its introduction,
possibly due to the addition of a longitudinally applied
aluminium foil screen bonded to the oversheath. To
resolve a jointing issue, a "screen plate" was devel-
oped to interconnect the screens. The device was
evaluated according to different parameters such as
current, device quality and installation, nature of cable
oversheath, and the thickness of aluminium screen(the
reference [2], paper C.1.3).
In the Norway, more than 30 years of failure data
were systematically examined and provided some im-
portant findings. These findings concluded that life-
time is first of all dependent on accuracy during the
installation and upon good workmanship. It is very
interesting to note that the terminations were not very
sensitive to irregularities left by the stripping tools if
they are correctly installed(the reference [2], paper
2015, 41(4)
C.1.6).
Increased MV cable reliability depends heavily
upon quality of all cable components not just the insu-
lation. For example, the polymer over sheath is consi-
dered essential for the lifetime of the cable. Sheath
properties are a compromise between thermal aging
resistance, UV protection, robustness, and mechanical
stiffness, shock resistance, shrink back and flame re-
sistance(the reference [2], paper C.2.1).
It is very important to remember that manufac-
turing techniques influence cable reliability. The
impact of the manufacturing technique is not normally
seen at the beginning of the cable’s life, but only after
a certain period of in-service operation. An accelerated
testing procedure has been defined so that each step of
the manufacturing process can be analyzed. The major
conclusion is that clean and good quality materials
have to be used, but in addition, voids and contami-
nants due to the production process must be closely
controlled(the reference [2], paper C.2.2).
Upgrading of existing AC 10 kV XLPE distribu-
tion cables to 20 kV in Jiangsu Province, China was
analyzed and the feasibility assessed by using a score
system that was based on the breakdown voltages of
samples taken from in-service cables. Additional pa-
rameters included the dielectric loss angle and the
aging factor. Voltage endurance coefficient and break-
down field strength measurement were used to predict
remaining life of the 10 kV cables. The study showed
that the upgrading of existing 10 kV XLPE cables to
20 kV is feasible, but attention is needed to the cable
accessories(the reference [2], paper D.6.5).
Examining a large collection of cable failures
during service and highlighting the modes of failure
can answer an on-going question of estimating the
remaining life of an existing paper-insulated lead cable
(PILC) network.
The recommendations were interesting in that the
PILC Network can be kept in service, but the design of
hybrid splices needs improvement, plus a real time
system of partial discharge detection is necessary in
some areas(the reference [2], paper D.6.6).
Harry Orton: Power Cable Technology Review 1061

4 High Voltage Power Cables velopment for voltages up to 230 kV with silicone gel.
In fact dry type terminations have been used to replace
Many recent design developments have been in-
400 kV traditional gas insulated switchgear(GIS) ter-
corporated into high voltage(HV) power cables to
minations after an accessory failure (the reference [2],
improve their reliability and the cable’s influence on
papers A.5.2 & A.5.4).
its surrounding environment. For instance, the design
Furthermore the performance of HV systems of
of optimized conductors and shrinkable materials for
69 kV and above depends not only on manufacturer
accessories, installation design for electric and mag-
design and technology, but also on the workmanship
netic field(EMF) mitigation and the design of cable
skills required to install accessories for ex-
sheath bonding are just a few examples.
truded/laminated paper cables. Each system requires
EMF mitigation techniques studying the influ-
specific installation skills (conductor connectors,
ence of laying geometry, conductor management,
cables preparation, fluid filling etc.) and specific
conductive plates, raceways and passive loops are now
(theory & hands-on) training sessions. Proper installa-
available to the design engineer. Also some calcula-
tion is essential for long-term performance of cable
tions by the finite element method(FEM) are available
accessories(the reference [2], paper A.5.1).
for the case of steel pipes as a retrofitting option. In
Experience with the 400 kV XLPE systems in
addition, the efficiency, technical implementation and
Berlin included a joint defect detected during the
optimal use as well as their economical effectiveness
[2] commissioning test and before the five years warran-
are available in CIGRE TB 559 .
tee expired, the cable system successfully passed an
Electro-magnetic Transient Program(EMTP) stu-
AC voltage test. But during more than ten years of
dies have been used to examine the proposal to
service there were two failures: a joint in 2006 and a
increase cable lengths and so reduce the required
SF6 termination in 2009. The first two installations
numbers of joints and so improve cable system relia-
(6.3 km length) were put in operation in December
bility. It is common knowledge in the industry that the
1998 and the second (5.2 km length) in December
weak link in any cable system is the accessories. A
2000(the reference [2], paper A.5.5).
limitation of this idea is however, the induced voltage
There is an increasing need for long distance un-
on the metal screen during normal and short-circuit
derground transmission cables, either to supply or to
operation, so a special bonding system was devel-
deliver power, for example, to desalination plants or
oped(the reference [2], paper B.10.6).
from wind farms or to extend or improve an existing
HV cable accessories have similar failure statis-
network. Approvals for new overhead lines involve
tics to MV cable accessories and that is the major
long, expensive and arduous tasks, so underground
reason for cable system failures. Needless to say there
power cables are becoming more and more attractive.
are many interesting topics addressing this statistic.
Indeed CIGRE has recognized this situation with the
The HV traditional fluid filled termination designs
initiation of Working Group B1.47 focusing on long
have had a long and reliable service life, but they have
AC transmission cables.
some drawbacks, for example: environmental pollu-
Recent case studies have examined comparisons
tion such as ground contamination by the fluid or SF6
between two HVAC solutions (132 and 220 kV) and a
released into the atmosphere. Dry type designs elimi-
HVDC 150 kV system over a route length of 100 km
nate these drawbacks, they are environmental friendly
and an apparent power of 135 MVA. The cost of the
with improved safety, and their maintenance require-
cables, accessories and installation is lower for the DC
ments are considerably reduced. Self-standing dry
system, using two cables instead of three, but the cost
outdoor terminations using the same basic structure as
of the converter stations is much higher than the cost
fluid filled terminations have been successfully de-
of reactive shunt compensation units. Finally, the total
1062 高电压技术
cost of the 132 kV AC system was found to be the
lowest, 5% less than the cost of the 220 kV AC system
and about 37 % lower than the cost of the HVDC sys-
tem(the reference [2], paper B.5.1).
The thermal ratings of gas insulated lines(GIL)
when exposed to solar radiation or when installed in
horizontal or vertical tunnels needs to be addressed.
The use of white paint has been successfully studied as
one solution when exposed to solar radiation but direct
burial resolves this issue. Gas mixtures of N2-SF6(the
volume fractions of N2 and SF6 are 80% and 20% re-
spectively) have been studied as more environmentally
acceptable gases. GIL appears to be a more expensive
solution than other cable systems for short runs(the
reference [2], papers B.5.5 and B.5.6).
5 Submarine Cables
The continuous increase in the usage of HV sub-
marine links is due to wind farm connections, both
HVAC and HVDC installations, more deep-sea cables
and recent dynamic cable installations. With the in-
creasing electricity demand and the definition of
ambitious targets for renewable energy, the need for
improved submarine cables performance has been
growing.
To support the renewable energy in the form of
offshore wind generation, new subsea lines were in-
stalled in the North Sea. Interconnections have been
implemented since 2006 from the German North Sea
coast to the wind farms of Dolwin, Borwin, Helwin,
Sylwin and Rifgat. Multilevel convertor stations are
being used to provide low-loss ratios for vehicle sta-
bility control(VSC) systems. The offshore generation
capacity in this whole area will be 10 GW by 2020 and
25 GW by 2030(the reference [2], paper 6.1).
Deep sea power connections linking countries
and islands in the Mediterranean is in high demand.
These installations make it necessary to understand
cable and laying technologies to cross deep seas like
the one between Italy and Greece. Recent deep sea
interconnections include Italy-Greece, Spain Morocco
and Spain to Baleari islands.
Three-core HVAC connections up to 230 kV are
2015, 41(4)
often considered when economy of cable manufactur-
ing and cable laying is paramount an application that
has been in use for subsea application since 1989. Qu-
alification tests for the 220 kV 3-core cable connection
from Vladivostok to Russky Island in Russia have
been carried out following CIGRE Electra 171 & 189
and IEC 62067. Some tests have also been carried out
according the AEIC Standard CS9.
Connecting floating platforms is now a common
requirement due to the deeper water where offshore
platforms can no longer be fixed to the seabed. Cables
for these situations have a flexible part between the
seabed and the moving platform. This flexible or dy-
namic cable has to withstand periodic motions of the
platform due to wave action. One such installation is
the Gjøa platform in Norwegian with a depth at this
location of 540 m while the connection is rated at 123
kV. The flexible cable link includes a bending restric-
tor and a buoyant arch.
The study of MV XLPE submarine cables of wet
design, connecting offshore wind farms takes into ac-
count the subsea conditions including water salinity
and hydrostatic pressure. Accelerated ageing tests
were carried out following CENELEC HD 605 that
included 50 Hz and 500 Hz ageing at atmospheric and
subsea conditions followed by AC breakdown tests to
compare the aging of the wet designs by utilizing
Weibull parameters. Assuming good quality of the
XLPE materials and concise manufacturing, subma-
rine cables do not suffer shorter service-life than land
based cables.
Evaluation of steel-armour losses in HVAC
3-core submarine cables by direct measurement sug-
gests that the IEC analytical formulae results in high
values for the armour loss factor. It was found that the
loss factor for a single-armoured cable and a double-
armoured cable are in the same order. This is because
the inner armour layer acts as a magnetic shield. So
there is the potential to improve the standard for rating
calculations and thus reduce investment costs (the ref-
erence [2], session A.6)
Correlation between submarine cable burial depth
and the benefit of better protection level was investi-
Harry Orton: Power Cable Technology Review
gated. Protecting submarine cables by trenching
pacts directly on the investment cost, works duration,
the cable rating whereas it reduces the failure rate and
thus the repair costs. In this way, the risk assessment
with a risk acceptance level has to be defined. Beyond
these considerations, other environmental aspects such
as the sea floor heating have been considered(the ref-
erence [2], paper A.7.4)
Design and testing of submarine cables and their
accessories continues to place demands upon manu-
factures. For example, multicore MV AC wet design
cables in general should not be constructed by bun-
dling single core cables. Improved designs can be
achieved by means of a semi-conductive sheath and a
collective metallic screen only, preferably in the form
of steel wire armour(the reference 2, paper D.4.1).
Cable qualification programs for HVAC voltages up to
345 kV and a route length of 11 km single core for
submarine XLPE cable systems were designed to ad-
dress the increasing demand for electrical power in
New York City(the reference [2], paper D.4.6). XLPE
factory joint designs are now being used for the HVAC
420 kV XLPE insulated submarine cables developed
for the Oslo Fjord project. (the reference [2], paper
D.4.5).
6 HVDC Cables
HVDC cables are already an important feature of
many global power systems. Features such as longer
lengths up to 600 km, minimum dielectric loss, an
evolution of new materials, possible interconnections
between asynchronous power systems, utilising VSC
converters and cables now available up to voltages up
to 520 kV have made the technology very attractive to
many utilities. However, the conductivity of the insu-
lation materials is key in the HVDC cable design.
Parameters that influence ageing of DC cables are
temperature of insulation, space charge accumulation
and mechanical stresses(the reference [2], paper
A.2.2).
High performance polymeric insulation materials
have been developed with low conductivity to avoid a
significant rise in temperature due to the leakage cur-
1063
rent. The higher the voltage is, the lower the conduc-
tivity must be to avoid thermal runaway. High
chemical cleanliness low density polyethylene(LDPE)
resin was the preferred base material for DC XLPE
insulation prior to the addition of nanofillers(the ref-
erence [2], paper A.2.5).
The electric field and space charge distributions
in an extruded HVDC cable are a consequence of the
conductivity profile across the insulation wall. FEMs
can be used to simulate the distribution patterns within
the cable insulation.
One recent installation was the 320 kV HVDC
XLPE underground 65 km link between France and
Spain relies on VSC technology and consists of two
1 GW bipoles. The qualification process was based on
CIGRE TB 219.
Development of pre-moulded accessories for
HVDC extruded cables required the astute selection of
the insulating material. Pre-moulded accessories
showed good results in short-term tests even in polari-
ty reversal tests as required for line-commutated(LCC)
converters(the reference [2], papers A.2.1, 3 and 6).
7 Testing and Diagnostics
7.1 Diagnostics
7.1.1 Partial discharge
Partial discharge(PD) continues to be a very im-
portant diagnostic for power cables both on-line and
off-line diagnostic options are commercially available.
Diagnostic testing applications on low voltage(LV)
and MV systems have focused on utility interest to
carry out such tests, to optimise maintenance costs and
to limit the consequences of failure. There are pros and
cons of each option, but many papers have been look-
ing at practical applications and their technical
challenges. For example, for on-line PD detection and
localization, cross bonding of transmission cables
makes it difficult to localize which of the three phases
a PD signal has emanated from. Experimental investi-
gations into PD pulse coupling between the cable
central conductor and the sheath as well as pulse
propagation characteristics have led to a practical
model that can be used to identify sites of PD origin.
1064 高电压技术
In addition, partial discharges in cables have been
thoroughly studied over the past years, but it was often
difficult to accurately locate the discharge site with
precision. Software packages are becoming available
to improve the location and identification of many
[3]
types of partial discharges .
PD measurements are used in type tests and rou-
tine tests (factory acceptance tests, FAT) on XLPE
insulated power cables. Unless a well-shielded HV lab
tests is available, ambient noise levels lower than 2.5
pC cannot be achieved. So to suppress noise, a method
to readily cluster different pulse types (as partial dis-
charge pulses and noise pulses) is the three center
frequency ration diagram(3-CFRD). This method
helps to suppress disturbances and to reach the re-
quired sensitivity for partial discharge measurements.
The filtered signals can then be used for further data
processing, such as partial discharge site location or
pulse sequence analysis(PSA)(the reference [2], paper
C.3.6).
A comparative evaluation of partial discharge
technologies designed for the detection and location of
defects in cables and accessories was performed. To
this end, a life size bench was built to analyse the va-
lidity and the precision of the different selected
measurement technologies. These technologies in-
cluded very low frequency, a 50 Hz resonance test, a
resonance test at variable frequency and a damped
alternating voltage. Partial discharge tests were carried
out on MV cables and accessories in which artificial
defects were introduced to simulate real situations ob-
served on the network. This led to the following
conclusions: the analysis of the PD detection has to be
done by competent trained persons; there is not one
partial discharge testing technology which provides
significantly better results than another; the partial
discharge tests cannot be compared if different types
of voltage sources are used for testing(the reference
[2], paper A.10.1).
The greatest difficulty with partial discharge
measurements is the interpretation of the results.
However, a web database designed to collect results of
partial discharge measurements on MV cable systems
2015, 41(4)
is available. In addition, detailed information can be
submitted regarding the materials, the partial discharge
characteristics measured, and pictures from forensic
inspections of the materials. Contributions are wel-
comed and should assist in the development of generic
rules for the risk assessment of specific faults in vari-
ous types of cables and accessories.
Combining a distributed temperature system(DTS)
with partial discharge measurement devices for distri-
bution networks is offered as a monitoring solution.
Remote-controlled optical switches are used to select
the feeders to be monitored while at premoulded joint
locations optical joints allow the connection of a port-
able PD measurement system.
Detection of partial discharge in stress cones of
HV cable accessories by optical measurements was
investigated using an optical fiber wrapped around the
stress cone made from a transparent elastomer. This
optical method is immune to electromagnetic interfe-
rence(EMI) and compares well with conventional
electric PD measurements utilising phase resolved
partial discharge diagrams(the reference [2], papers
B.8.1, 2 and 4).
7.1.2 Other diagnostics
In addition to partial discharge detection there are
other options available to the engineering diagnosti-
cian. These include infrared spectroscopy(IR) and
acoustic emission (AE). IR is very useful for thermal
evaluations and AE for internal partial discharge activ-
ity. Both diagnostics are inexpensive, very simple to
use and very portable, most important for field use.
However, the one drawback is that all components to
be evaluated must be visually available. For a direct
buried and ducted cable system, the joint bays must be
excavated and opened up if these methods are ex-
pected to be successful. This leaves the terminations at
the cable ends readily available for assessment. One
advantage with the AE diagnostic is that since the
pressure wave generated by a discharge attenuates so
rapidly it is a very easy matter to locate a discharge
site.
Assessment of metallic sheath cracking and cor-
rosion utilizing eddy currents as a non-destructive
Harry Orton: Power Cable Technology Review
diagnostic method enables in-situ measurements on
in-service cables. The necessity to have such a diag-
nostic method has been raised to ascertain the
condition of copper sheath ageing of both in-service
and spare cables(the reference [2], paper A.7.1).
Thermo-mechanical behaviour of joints in MV
XLPE cable systems have led to joint failures due to a
loose conductor connectors. High loads caused these
joint failures because of mechanical forces within the
joint that was verified by theoretical and experimental
laboratory results. An improved diagnostic is needed to
assess this behavior before catastrophic failure occurs.
A new method to verify insulation mechanical
integrity of low-voltage cables consists of injecting
compressed air into the cable core and observing the
subsequent pressure variations. Insulation failure is
based on the pressure reduction rate of the air stored in
the cable once the injection has been stopped.
A method of temperature monitoring for polymer
insulated medium voltage cables based on the prin-
ciple of the attenuation of sound in the material has
been proposed. Ultrasonic signals reflected at the
conductor allow for predictions of its temperature(the
reference [2], papers B.9.4, A.10.3 and C.4.3).
7.2 Cable testing
IEC 62067 is an internationally recognised stan-
dard for the testing of power cable systems for usual
conditions and operation. However, it does not make
provision for tests at emergency operating tempera-
tures of 105 ℃ or for extended periods. Recent tests
have provided valuable data and information on the
cable design along with the potential impact of high
temperature operation on the cable system reliability.
Also, the test outcome provided the basis for a number
of design modifications as well as simplification of
[4]
installation and associated cost savings .
An advanced 100 cycle, type test program is now
well established in Belgium. In the early stages of the
program involving the evaluation of a number of ac-
cessories the long-term tests indicated that improve-
ments to the components were necessary. The main
purpose of this extended type test program was to im-
prove the reliability of cable systems and to assure the
1065
long-term performance of the complete system.
HV/EHV cables are seeing an increased demand
for high current ratings leading to the manufacture of
conductors with large cross-sections. For these large
conductor cross-sections, it is indispensable to minim-
ize one of the AC losses and that is skin effect.
Therefore in-factory measurements of AC resistance
have been realized. In addition present practical me-
thods allowing withstand voltage tests on very long
cable systems for both the factory and on-site after
installation tests have been developed. These methods
include a damped alternating current(DAC) system
providing withstand voltage tests up to 350 kV. The
test system generates a decaying oscillating wave by
switching a DC loaded cable circuit on to an inductor
to achieve a L/C resonant circuit.
Variable frequency (20~300 Hz) resonant test
systems can be combined to reach an equivalent power
up to 100 MVA for testing very long cables on site
after installation. Similar combinations are used for
factory testing by coupling several systems through
electronically operated drives. The effectiveness of
variable frequency resonant method for after-laying
test on HV extruded cables has been assessed in labor-
atory(the reference [2], session A.8).
IEC standards have been used to qualify
HV&EHV underground cables and accessories for
many years, but some countries (Australia, USA and
France) have started writing rules and procedures to
extend these existing standard test procedures. Other
countries(China and the Netherlands) have shared
their experiences with these existing test methods and
have suggested further developments made on labora-
tory test equipment(the reference [2], papers A.1.1 and
A.1.3).
To meet the most onerous requirements of two
standards in North America for HV & EHV cable type
test qualifications the high temperature cable method
of each standard on a single test sample were com-
bined. The standards were IEC 62067: 2006 and ICEA
S-108-720—2004(the reference [2], paper A.1.5).
An extended “special” heat cycle factory test was
required for the installation of a 275 kV cable system
1066
for the “Adelaide Central Reinforcement” project.
This project involved the manufacture, delivery and
installation of 18 km long 275 kV XLPE cable, joints
and terminations for SF6 switchgear. In the “special”
test, cables and accessories were subjected to 70 days
of heating cycles up to (105±2) ℃ (during at least 2
hours) under two times of the rated voltage test(the
reference [2], paper A.1.6).
A compact resonant test system was designed to
energize a 170 nF, 500 kV XLPE cable at 540 kV for 1
hour (1 hour at 493 kV was required) in the remote
high mountainous region of Colombia, South America,
for commissioning tests. The test set was composed of
a four-cylinder resonant reactor located in a 20 feet
transport container. The 500 kV XLPE cable con-
nection consists of two systems of 800 mm
aluminium for 750~855 m(the reference [2], paper
C.4.1).
HVDC testing is no longer recommended for
HVAC cables. Instead an alternative AC high vol-
tage test method is suggested at very
frequency(VLF). The 200 kV peak maximum test vol-
tage at very low frequency has the capacity to energise
long cable lengths at frequencies from 0.01 to 0.2 Hz.
In addition to withstand tests partial discharge and
tangent delta diagnostics can also be performed(the
reference [2], paper C.4.6).
8 Future Power Cables
The future of underground power cable technol-
ogy is very attractive. Voltages are increasing along
with conductor sizes, extruded power cables are now
available at 500 kV DC and 800 kV AC with continu-
ing research projects underway for even higher
voltages. Many manufacturers offer cables with con-
2
ductor sizes up to 3 500 mm and add distributed
temperature sensing(DTS) to monitor and control ca-
ble loading and remote hot spots.
In addition, longer cable lengths are being in-
stalled for both AC and DC systems. CIGRE Working
Group B1.47 is presently looking at long AC trans-
mission power cables while HVDC submarine cables
are now in operation up to 600 km between Norway
高电压技术 2015, 41(4)
and the Netherlands.
High temperature superconducting cable(HTSC)
links are being installed around the world in anticipa-
tion of widespread application of this recently
developed technology. Projects are proceeding to-
wards even longer lengths and voltages as high as 275
kV for lengths of 600 m(the reference [2], session C.6).
In the USA both cable and terminations remained fully
operational despite issues with the cooling system. A
new cable phase, involving second-generation high
temperature superconductor(HTS) wires, a repairable
cable cryogenic envelope and a cable joint, was re-
placed during the first half of 2012, one of the three
phases installed in 2008.
A Dutch project operates a 6 000-meter, 20 kV,
2
3 000 A cable with concentric phases. Emphasis was
on reducing AC losses, flexible cryostat losses and
liquid nitrogen pressure drop to work with two cooling
stations only, one at each end. In Yokohama a
250-meter, 66 kV, 1 750 A compact design, compris-
low ing three phases in one cryogenic envelope, was used
to cope with installation constraints in a 150 mm duct.
In Germany a new urban grid concept involves
the replacement of conventional 110 kV cables with
HTS 10 kV cables and so that transformers can be
moved out of city centers. Other work has provided an
overview of HTS technologies for high voltage DC
[2]
links .
Favourable conditions persist for future applica-
tions of underground power cable technology for the
following reasons:
(1)Easier and less expensive installation methods
with reduced maintenance requirements;
(2)Higher electrical operating stresses with thin-
ner wall insulations;
(3)Longer cable life;
(4)Improved system reliability;
(5)Increased public pressure to relocate overhead
lines to underground power cables;
(6)Longer lengths as experience increases;
(7)New and improved materials with reduced di-
electric losses;
(8)Consideration of EMF issues;
Harry Orton: Power Cable Technology Review
(9)Improving the visual environment;
(10)Integration of power and data transmission;
(11)Improved levels of power delivery reliability;
(12)Lower levels of dielectric losses;
(13)Integration of power and data transmission;
(14)Improved levels of power delivery reliability.
The use and importance of underground power
cables will definitely increase in the future. Along with
increasing popularity, the intelligent power cable will
have the capabilities of controlling the load being car-
ried, monitoring any hot spots, limiting overloads and
diagnosing degradation issues such as corrosion, par-
tial discharge and water tree growth with inbuilt
diagnostics. Cable designs already include self-diag-
nostics such as DTS and partial discharge monitors.
Needless to say there will be a need for analysis and
interpretation of large amounts of data.
Long distance transmission cables for both
HVAC and HVDC applications are already very pre-
valent. CIGRE Working Group B1.47 has compiled a
list of some 70 plus cable installations around the
world that are categorized as long cables. HVDC
cables are in use today for lengths up to 600 km and
the number of installations will only increase as the
need for major power system interconnections in-
creasing.
Technology developments of GIL and HTS will
no doubt assist in the future applications of under-
ground power cables.
References
[1] Orton H E.A history of underground power cables[J]. IEEE Electrical
Insulation Magazine, 2013, 29(4): 52-57.
1067
[2] JICABLE.Proceedings of the 2011 JICABLE[C]∥Versailles, France:
JICABLE, 2011.
[3] Sheng B J, Zhou W J, Yu J H, et al. On-line PD detection and localiza-
tion in cross-bonded HV cable systems[J]. IEEE Transactions on
Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation, 2014, 21(5): 2217-2224.
[4] Tang K, Paton D, Bucea G, et al. 330 kV XLPE cable specific testing
protocol requirements[C] ∥ 2014 CIGRE Session Technical Pro-
gramme. Paris, France: CIGRE, 2014: 102.
Harry Orton received the Bachelor of Engineering
Degree in Electrical Engineering from the University
of New South Wales, Australia, 1966 and the Master
of Applied Science from the University of British
Columbia in 1969.
In 1969, he joined B.C. Hydro and Power Author-
ity as a Technical Research Engineer specializing in
radio noise and television interference for EHV transmission lines. Since
1977 he has been with the Insulation Studies section of B.C. Hydro Re-
search working on cable accessories and cross-linked polyethylene cable
and in 1980 he was appointed Supervisor of Insulation Studies.
He is the Principal of Consulting Engineers International Ltd. located
in Vancouver, BC, Canada. He is Chairman of the International Advisory
Committee for the International Conference on the Properties and Applica-
tions of Dielectric Materials (ICPADM) and on the Board of Governors of
the Electrical Insulation Conference (EIC). He was a project manager for
CEA and EPRI underground cable research projects and Chair of the Cable
Failure Task Force. He is Chairman of the ICC Task Group 5-29 on the
Characteristics of Semiconductive Shields and the Co-chairman of Sub-
committee 13 on Transnational Activities, as well as a member of CIGRE
and the Jicable Scientific Committee both organisations based in Paris,
France.
He has published over 30 papers on radio and television interference
and on the applications of underground power cables. In 2004, he received
the IEEE Technical Council Committee of the Year Award. In 2005, he
received the IEEE, ICC Distinguished Technical Service Award for his
long-term involvement with the Insulated Conductors Committee and was
inducted into the EIC Hall of Fame in October 2007.
Received date 2015-03-15
Editor CHENG Zifeng