CONTROL SYSTEMS

NUST PNEC
ME 314
1 INTRODUCTION 2

1.1 CONTROL SYSTEM DEFINITION 2

1.2 OPEN – LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM 3
1.3 CLOSED – LOOP CONTROL SYSTEMS 3
2 MODELLING IN THE FREQUENCY DOMAIN 5
2.1 THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM 5
2.2 PROPERTIES OF LAPLACE TRANSFORMS 7
2.2.1 Linearity Theorem 7
2.2.2 Derivative Theorem 7
2.2.3 Integral Theorem 7
2.2.4 Frequency Domain derivative 7
2.2.5 Frequency Shift theorem 7
2.2.6 Time Delay Theorem 7
2.2.7 Initial Value Theorem 7
2.2.8 Final Value Theorem 8
2.3 PARTIAL FRACTION EXPANSION 8
2.3.1 Roots of the Denominator of F(s) are Real and Distinct 8
2.3.2 Roots of the Denominator of F(s) are Real and Repeated 9
2.3.3 Roots of the Denominator of F(s) are Complex or Imaginary 10
2.4 THE TRANSFER FUNCTION 13
2.4.1 Poles and Zeroes of Transfer Functions 16
2.5 CONTROL SYSTEM BLOCK DIAGRAMS 16
2.6 CLOSED LOOP TRANSFER FUNCTION 18
2.7 BLOCK DIAGRAM REDUCTION AND TRANSFORMATION 19
2.8 SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH MODELS 22
2.8.1 Important Definitions 22
2.9 MASON’S RULE 23
3 EQUIVALENT SYSTEM MODELLING 26

3.1 TRANSLATIONAL MECHANICAL SYSTEM 26

3.2 ROTATIONAL MECHANICAL SYSTEM 27
3.2.1 Equivalent Torsional Systems 27
3.3 ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS 28
3.3.1 Force Voltage Analogy (Loop Analysis) 29
3.3.2 Force Current Analogy (Nodal Analysis) 29
3.4 COMPARISON OF ANALOGOUS QUANTITIES 31

4 TIME RESPONSE OF A SYSTEM 42

4.1 OVERVIEW 42
4.2 1ST ORDER SYSTEMS 43
4.2.1 Response to a Unit Step 43
4.2.2 Response to a Unit Impulse 46
4.2.3 Response to a Unit Ramp 46
4.3 2ND ORDER SYSTEMS 47
4.3.1 Natural Frequency, 𝝎𝝎𝝎𝝎 47
4.3.2 Damping Ratio, 𝜻𝜻 47
4.3.3 Response to Unit Step Input in 2nd Order System 48
4.3.4 Transient Response Parameter of 2nd Order System 49
5 STABILITY OF SYSTEMS 52

5.1 CONCEPT OF STABILITY 52

5.2 ROUTH’S STABILITY CRITERIA 53
5.2.1 Routh’s Array 53
5.3 ROOT LOCUS ANALYSIS 55
5.3.1 Sketching Root Locus 55
5.3.2 Root Locus Parameter Calculations 57
5.3.3 Evaluation of intersection of damping line and Locus 57

1
 1 INTRODUCTION
Control systems are an integral part of modern society. Control system Engineering is concerned with
understanding and controlling the materials and forces of nature for the benefit of humankind.
Control system engineers are concerned with understanding and controlling segments of their
environment, often called systems, to provide useful economic products for society.

The present challenge is the modelling and control of modern, complex, interrelated systems such as
traffic control systems, chemical processes, and robotic systems.

1.1 CONTROL SYSTEM DEFINITION

Figure 1-1 shows a control system in its simplest form, where input represents the desired output.

Control engineering is based on the

foundations of feedback theory and linear
system analysis, and it integrates the concepts
of network theory and communication theory. Figure 1-1 Simplified description of a control system
Therefore control engineering is not limited to
any engineering discipline but is equally applicable to aeronautical, chemical, mechanical,
environmental, civil, and electrical engineering.

A control system is an interconnection of components forming a system configu­ration that will

provide a desired system response. The basis for analysis of a system is the foundation provided by
linear system theory, which assumes a cause-effect relationship for the components of a system.
Therefore a component or process to be controlled can be represented by a block, as shown in Figure
1-1

A control system consists of subsystems and processes (or plants) assembled for
the purpose of obtaining a desired output with desired performance, given a
specified input.

Engineering application of control system includes, but not limited to:

1. Power Amplication
2. Remote Control
3. Convinience of input form
4. Compensation for disturbances

2
1.2 OPEN – LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM
A generic open-loop system is shown in Figure 1-2. It starts with a subsystem called an input
transducer, which converts the form of the input to that used by the controller. The controller drives
a process or a plant. The input is sometimes called the reference, while the output can be called the

Figure 1-2 Schematic of open loop system

controlled variable. Other signals, such as disturbances, are shown added to the controller and process
outputs via summing junctions, which yield the algebraic sum of their input signals using associated
signs.

The distinguishing characteristic of an open-loop system is that it cannot compensate for any
disturbances that add to the controller's driving signal

An open – loop control system utilizes an actuating device to control the

process directly without using feedback.

1.3 CLOSED – LOOP CONTROL SYSTEMS

The disadvantages of open-loop systems, namely sensitivity to disturbances and inability to correct
for these disturbances, may be overcome in closed-loop systems. The generic architecture of a closed-
loop system is shown in Figure 1-3.

Figure 1-3 Schematic of closed loop system

The input transducer converts the form of the input to the form used by the controller. An output
transducer, or sensor, measures the output response and converts it into the form used by the
controller.

The closed-loop system compensates for disturbances by measuring the output response, feeding that
measurement back through a feedback path, and comparing that response to the input at the
summing junction. If there is any difference between the two responses, the system varies
instructions, via the actuating signal, to make a correction. If there is no difference, the system does
not change, since the system’s response is already the desired response.

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A closed-loop control system uses a measurement of the output and feedback
of this signal to compare it with the desired output (reference or command).

4
 2 MODELLING IN THE FREQUENCY DOMAIN
To understand and control complex systems, one must obtain quantitative mathematical models of
these systems. It is necessary therefore to analyse the relationships between the system variables and
to obtain a mathematical model. Because the systems under consideration are dynamic in nature, the
descriptive equations are usually differential equations. Furthermore, if these equations can be
linearized, then the Laplace transform can be used to simplify the method of solution.

In practice, the complexity of systems and the ignorance of all the relevant factors necessitate the
introduction of assumptions concerning the system operation. Therefore, it is often useful to consider
the physical system, express any necessary assumptions, and linearize the system. Then, by using the
physical laws describing the linear equivalent system, obtain a set of linear differential equations.
Finally, using mathematical tools, such as the Laplace transform, obtain a solution describing the
operation of the system. In summary, the approach to dynamic system modelling can be listed as
follows:

1. Define the system and its components.

2. Formulate the mathematical model and fundamental necessary assumptions based on
basic principles.
3. Obtain the differential equations representing the mathematical model.
4. Solve the equations for the desired output variables.
5. Examine the solutions and the assumptions.
6. If necessary, re-analyse or redesign the system.

The usual system analysis workflow involves the use of Laplace transform function (discussed later)
on the mathematical model of the system. These models should be continuous for Laplace transform
to be applicable. Following types of signals are usually encountered during system analysis:

• Time domain signal, where the variable 𝑡𝑡 is independent, e.g. 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡)

• Frequncy domain signal, where the variable 𝑠𝑠 is independent, e.g. 𝐹𝐹(𝑠𝑠)
• Spatial domain signal, where the spatial coordinates 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑦𝑦 (in case of a 2D image) are
independent variables
• Discrete signal, where the time interval is discrete but the amplitude is continuous
• Digital signal, where both time and amplitude are discrete. Discrete signal can be
converted to digital throught the process of quantization.
• Unit impulse signal, where 𝛿𝛿(𝑡𝑡 = 0) = 1 and 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡 ≠ 0) = 0, also known as ‘delta function’
• Unit Signal, where 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡 ≥ 0) = 1 and 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡 < 0) = 0
• Step input, which is defined as 𝐴𝐴 ⋅ 𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡)
• Ramp function, defined as 𝑅𝑅(𝑡𝑡 ≥ 0) = 𝐴𝐴 ⋅ 𝑡𝑡 and 𝑅𝑅(𝑡𝑡 < 0) = 0

2.1 THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM

The ability to obtain linear approximations of physical systems allows the analyst to consider the use
of the Laplace transformation. The Laplace transform method substitutes relatively easily solved
algebraic equations for the more difficult differential equations. The time-response solution is
obtained by the following operations:

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 1. Obtain the linearized differential equations.
2. Obtain the Laplace transformation of the differential equations.
3. Solve the resulting algebraic equation for the transform of the variable of interest.

The Laplace transformation is defined as:

∞
ℒ [𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡)] = 𝐹𝐹(𝑠𝑠) = � 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡)𝑒𝑒 −𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
0−

Where

• 𝑠𝑠 = 𝜎𝜎 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 is a complex variable

• 𝐹𝐹(𝑠𝑠) is the Laplace transform of 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡)
• The lower limit 0− means that the integration can be started prior to 𝑡𝑡 = 0 even if 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) is
discontinuous at that point as long as the integral converges.

The inverse Laplace transform is given by:

1 𝜎𝜎+𝑗𝑗∞
ℒ −1 [𝐹𝐹(𝑠𝑠)] = � 𝐹𝐹(𝑠𝑠)𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡)𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡)
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 𝜎𝜎−𝑗𝑗∞

where 𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡) is a unit function and is defined as:

1 𝑡𝑡 > 0
𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡) = �
0 𝑡𝑡 < 0
Multiplication of 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) with 𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡) yields a time function that is zero for 𝑡𝑡 < 0

Laplace transform of some simple signals are as below:

• ℒ [𝛿𝛿(𝑡𝑡)] = 1
• ℒ [𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡)] = 1/𝑠𝑠
• ℒ [𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴(𝑡𝑡)] = 𝐴𝐴/𝑠𝑠

Similarly, a table (available as a separate document) can be generated to represent common forms of
equations that are encountered during analysis, thereby reducing the need to apply the above formula
for every calculation.

EXAMPLE 2.1 LAPLACE TRANSFORM OF A TIME FUNCTION

PROBLEM: Find the Laplace transform of 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) = 𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒 −𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

SOLUTION: Since the time function does not contain an impulse function, we
can replace the lower limit of the integral with 0
∞ ∞ ∞
𝐹𝐹(𝑠𝑠) = � 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡)𝑒𝑒 −𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒 −𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑒𝑒 −𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝐴𝐴 � 𝑒𝑒 −(𝑠𝑠+𝑎𝑎)𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
0 0 0
∞
𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴
=− 𝑒𝑒 −(𝑠𝑠+𝑎𝑎)𝑡𝑡 � =
𝑠𝑠 + 𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡=0 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑎𝑎

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2.2 PROPERTIES OF LAPLACE TRANSFORMS
2.2.1 Linearity Theorem
If 𝐹𝐹1 (𝑠𝑠) and 𝐹𝐹2 (𝑠𝑠) are Laplacian transform of 𝑓𝑓1 (𝑡𝑡) and 𝑓𝑓2 (𝑡𝑡) respectively and 𝛼𝛼1 and 𝛼𝛼2 are arbitrary
constants, then:

ℒ [𝛼𝛼1 𝑓𝑓1 (𝑡𝑡) + 𝛼𝛼2 𝑓𝑓2 (𝑡𝑡)] = 𝛼𝛼1 𝐹𝐹1 (𝑠𝑠) + 𝛼𝛼2 𝐹𝐹2 (𝑠𝑠)

A system is said to be linear if following conditions are met

• Additivity: If 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡1 ) = 𝐹𝐹1 and 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡2 ) = 𝐹𝐹2 , then 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡1 + 𝑡𝑡2 ) = 𝐹𝐹1 + 𝐹𝐹2
• Homogeneity: If 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) = 𝐹𝐹, then 𝑓𝑓(𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼) = 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼
• Shift Invariance: If 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) = 𝐹𝐹(𝑡𝑡), then 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡 + 𝑠𝑠) = 𝐹𝐹(𝑡𝑡 + 𝑠𝑠)

If only first two conditions are met, then the system is called linear system. If the third condition is
also met, then the system is known as linear time invariance system.

2.2.2 Derivative Theorem

If 𝐹𝐹(𝑠𝑠) is the Laplace transform of 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡), then

ℒ [𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑡𝑡)] = 𝑆𝑆 ⋅ 𝐹𝐹(𝑠𝑠) − 𝑓𝑓(0+ )

ℒ [𝑓𝑓 ′′ (𝑡𝑡)] = 𝑆𝑆 2 ⋅ 𝐹𝐹(𝑠𝑠) − 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(0+ ) − 𝑓𝑓 ′ (0+ )

ℒ�𝑓𝑓 (𝑛𝑛) (𝑡𝑡)� = 𝑆𝑆 𝑛𝑛 𝐹𝐹(𝑠𝑠) − 𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑛−1 𝑓𝑓(0+ ) − 𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑛−2 𝑓𝑓 ′ (0+ ) − ⋯ 𝑠𝑠𝑓𝑓 (𝑛𝑛−2) (0+ ) − 𝑓𝑓 (𝑛𝑛−1) (0+ )

2.2.3 Integral Theorem

If 𝐹𝐹(𝑠𝑠) is the Laplace transform of 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡), then

𝐹𝐹(𝑠𝑠) 𝑓𝑓 −1 (0+ )
ℒ �� 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡)� = +
𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠

2.2.4 Frequency Domain derivative

If 𝐹𝐹(𝑠𝑠) is the Laplace transform of 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡), then

ℒ [𝑡𝑡 𝑛𝑛 ⋅ 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡)] = (−1)𝑛𝑛 𝐹𝐹 (𝑛𝑛) (𝑠𝑠)

2.2.5 Frequency Shift theorem

If 𝐹𝐹(𝑠𝑠) is the Laplace transform of 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡), then

ℒ [𝑒𝑒 −𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡)] = 𝐹𝐹(𝑠𝑠 + 𝑎𝑎)

2.2.6 Time Delay Theorem

Also known as ‘real translation theorem’ which states that if 𝐹𝐹(𝑠𝑠) is the Laplace transform of 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡),
then Laplace transform of 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡 − 𝑇𝑇) where 𝑇𝑇 > 0 and 𝑡𝑡 ≥ 𝑇𝑇 is given by

ℒ [𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡 − 𝑇𝑇)] = 𝑒𝑒 −𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝐹𝐹(𝑠𝑠)

2.2.7 Initial Value Theorem

If 𝐹𝐹(𝑠𝑠) is the Laplace transform of 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡), then

lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) = lim 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝑠𝑠)

𝑡𝑡→0 𝑠𝑠→∞

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2.2.8 Final Value Theorem
If 𝐹𝐹(𝑠𝑠) is the Laplace transform of 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡), then

lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) = lim 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝑠𝑠)

𝑡𝑡→∞ 𝑠𝑠→0

2.3 PARTIAL FRACTION EXPANSION

To find the inverse Laplace transform of a complicated function, we can convert the function to a sum
of simpler terms for which we know the Laplace transform of each term. The result is called a partial-
fraction expansion. If 𝐹𝐹(𝑠𝑠) = 𝑁𝑁(𝑠𝑠)/𝐷𝐷(𝑠𝑠) where the order of 𝑁𝑁(𝑠𝑠) is less than the order of 𝐷𝐷(𝑠𝑠), then
partial fractions can be made. In case the order of 𝑁𝑁(𝑠𝑠) is greater, then long division is done to satisfy
the condition. Once the initial condition is satisfied, there are three possible cases:

2.3.1 Roots of the Denominator of F(s) are Real and Distinct

For a denominator having factorised form of (𝑠𝑠 + 𝑝𝑝1 )(𝑠𝑠 + 𝑝𝑝2 )(𝑠𝑠 + 𝑝𝑝3 ) … (𝑠𝑠 + 𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛 ), then

𝑁𝑁(𝑠𝑠) 𝑁𝑁(𝑠𝑠)
𝐹𝐹(𝑠𝑠) = =
𝐷𝐷(𝑠𝑠) (𝑠𝑠 + 𝑝𝑝1 )(𝑠𝑠 + 𝑝𝑝2 )(𝑠𝑠 + 𝑝𝑝3 ) … (𝑠𝑠 + 𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛 )
𝐾𝐾1 𝐾𝐾2 𝐾𝐾3 𝐾𝐾𝑛𝑛
= + + …+
𝑠𝑠 + 𝑝𝑝1 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑝𝑝2 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑝𝑝3 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛

Taking LCM and cancelling denominator on each side gives

𝑁𝑁(𝑠𝑠) ≡ 𝐾𝐾1 (𝑠𝑠 + 𝑝𝑝2 )(𝑠𝑠 + 𝑝𝑝3 ) … (𝑠𝑠 + 𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛 ) + 𝐾𝐾2 (𝑠𝑠 + 𝑝𝑝1 )(𝑠𝑠 + 𝑝𝑝3 ) … (𝑠𝑠 + 𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛 ) + ⋯

The values of 𝐾𝐾1 , 𝐾𝐾2 , 𝐾𝐾3 , … 𝐾𝐾𝑛𝑛 can be found by substituting the roots of denominator in the above
equation.

EXAMPLE 2.2 LAPLACE TRANSFORM SOLUTION OF A DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION

PROBLEM: Given the following differential equation, solve for 𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡) if all initial
conditions are zero. Use the Laplace transform.
𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2
+ 12 + 32𝑦𝑦 = 32𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡)
𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

SOLUTION: Substitute the corresponding 𝐹𝐹(𝑠𝑠) for each term in the above
differential equation, and taking initial conditions to be zero, the Laplace
transform equation is
32
𝑠𝑠 2 𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠) + 12𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝑠𝑠) + 32𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠) =
𝑠𝑠
Solving for 𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠) yields
32 32
𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠) = 2
≡
𝑠𝑠(𝑠𝑠 + 12𝑠𝑠 + 32) 𝑠𝑠(𝑠𝑠 + 4)(𝑠𝑠 + 8)
Performing partial-fraction expansion of the right-hand term gives
32 𝐾𝐾1 𝐾𝐾2 𝐾𝐾3
𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠) = ≡ + +
𝑠𝑠(𝑠𝑠 + 4)(𝑠𝑠 + 8) 𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 + 4 𝑠𝑠 + 8
Taking LCM and cancelling denominator on each side gives
32 ≡ 𝐾𝐾1 (𝑠𝑠 + 4)(𝑠𝑠 + 8) + 𝐾𝐾2 (𝑠𝑠)(𝑠𝑠 + 8) + 𝐾𝐾3 (𝑠𝑠)(𝑠𝑠 + 4)
Substituting roots of the denominator yields
• When 𝑠𝑠 = 0, 𝐾𝐾1 = 1

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 • When 𝑠𝑠 = −4, 𝐾𝐾2 = −2
• When 𝑠𝑠 = −8, 𝐾𝐾3 = 1
Hence
1 2 1
𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠) = − +
𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 + 4 𝑠𝑠 + 8
Since each of the three component parts of the equation above is represented
as an 𝐹𝐹(𝑠𝑠) in Laplace transform tables, 𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡) is the sum of the inverse Laplace
transforms of each term. Hence,
𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡) = (1 − 2𝑒𝑒 −4𝑡𝑡 + 𝑒𝑒 −8𝑡𝑡 )𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡)

2.3.2 Roots of the Denominator of F(s) are Real and Repeated

For a denominator having factorised form of (𝑠𝑠 + 𝑝𝑝1 )𝑟𝑟 (𝑠𝑠 + 𝑝𝑝2 ) … (𝑠𝑠 + 𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛 ), then

𝑁𝑁(𝑠𝑠) 𝑁𝑁(𝑠𝑠)
𝐹𝐹(𝑠𝑠) = =
𝐷𝐷(𝑠𝑠) (𝑠𝑠 + 𝑝𝑝1 ) (𝑠𝑠 + 𝑝𝑝2 )(𝑠𝑠 + 𝑝𝑝3 ) … (𝑠𝑠 + 𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛 )
𝑟𝑟

𝐾𝐾1 𝐾𝐾2 𝐾𝐾𝑟𝑟 𝐾𝐾𝑟𝑟+1 𝐾𝐾𝑛𝑛

= + +⋯ + …+
(𝑠𝑠 + 𝑝𝑝1 ) 𝑟𝑟 (𝑠𝑠 + 𝑝𝑝1 ) 𝑟𝑟−1 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑝𝑝1 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑝𝑝2 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛

To evaluate the values of 𝐾𝐾1 , 𝐾𝐾2 , … 𝐾𝐾𝑛𝑛 (numerators of the partial fractions) LCM is taken, denominator
is cancelled out from both sides and then the coefficients of ‘𝑠𝑠’ in expanded RHS is compared with LHS
(i.e. 𝑁𝑁(𝑠𝑠), the Numerator)

EXAMPLE 2.3 LAPLACE INVERSE TRANSFORM SOLUTION

PROBLEM: Given the following 𝐹𝐹(𝑠𝑠), solve for 𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡) if all initial conditions are
zero. Use the Laplace transform.
10(𝑠𝑠 + 2)
𝐹𝐹(𝑠𝑠) =
(𝑠𝑠 + 1)2 (𝑠𝑠 + 3)

SOLUTION: Performing partial-fraction expansion of the right-hand term gives

10(𝑠𝑠 + 2) 𝐾𝐾1 𝐾𝐾2 𝐾𝐾3
𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠) = ≡ + +
(𝑠𝑠 + 1) (𝑠𝑠 + 3) (𝑠𝑠 + 1)
2 2 𝑠𝑠 + 1 𝑠𝑠 + 3
Taking LCM and cancelling denominator on each side gives
10𝑠𝑠 + 20 ≡ 𝐾𝐾1 (𝑠𝑠 + 3) + 𝐾𝐾2 (𝑠𝑠 + 1)(𝑠𝑠 + 3) + 𝐾𝐾3 (𝑠𝑠 + 1)2
Expansion of right-hand terms yields
10𝑠𝑠 + 20 ≡ 𝐾𝐾1 𝑠𝑠 + 3𝐾𝐾1 + 𝐾𝐾2 (𝑠𝑠 2 4𝑠𝑠 + 3) + 𝐾𝐾3 (𝑠𝑠 2 + 2𝑠𝑠 + 1)
≡ 𝐾𝐾1 𝑠𝑠 + 3𝐾𝐾1 + 𝐾𝐾2 𝑠𝑠 2 + 4𝐾𝐾2 𝑠𝑠 + 3𝐾𝐾2 + 𝐾𝐾3 𝑠𝑠 2 + 2𝐾𝐾3 𝑠𝑠 + 𝐾𝐾3
≡ (𝐾𝐾2 + 𝐾𝐾3 )𝑠𝑠 2 + (𝐾𝐾1 + 4𝐾𝐾2 + 2𝐾𝐾3 )𝑠𝑠 + (3𝐾𝐾1 + 3𝐾𝐾2 + 𝐾𝐾3 )
Comparing coefficients of 𝑠𝑠 give following system linear equations
𝐾𝐾2 + 𝐾𝐾3 = 0
𝐾𝐾1 + 4𝐾𝐾3 + 2𝐾𝐾3 = 0
3𝐾𝐾1 + 3𝐾𝐾2 + 𝐾𝐾3 = 0
Solution of the above equation is given by
• K1 = 5
• 𝐾𝐾2 = 2.5
• 𝐾𝐾3 = −2.5

9
 Hence
5 2.5 2.5
𝐹𝐹(𝑠𝑠) = + −
(𝑠𝑠 + 1)2 𝑠𝑠 + 1 𝑠𝑠 + 3
To evaluate 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡), inverse Laplace transform has to be applied
5 2.5 2.5
𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) = ℒ −1 � � + ℒ −1 � � − ℒ −1 � �
(𝑠𝑠 + 1) 2 𝑠𝑠 + 1 𝑠𝑠 + 3
Applying frequency shift theorem on the first term:

If
5
ℒ −1 [𝐹𝐹1 (𝑠𝑠)] = 𝑓𝑓1 (𝑡𝑡) = ℒ −1 � �
(𝑠𝑠 + 1)2
then
5 5
ℒ −1 [𝐹𝐹1 (𝑠𝑠 − 1)] = 𝑒𝑒 𝑡𝑡 𝑓𝑓1 (𝑡𝑡) = ℒ −1 � � = ℒ −1 � 2 �
(𝑠𝑠 − 1 + 1)2 𝑠𝑠
5
𝑒𝑒 𝑡𝑡 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) = ℒ −1 � 2 �
𝑠𝑠
5
𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡 ℒ −1 � 2 �
𝑠𝑠
Now the equation becomes:
1 1 1
𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) = 5𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡 ℒ −1 � 2 � + 2.5ℒ −1 � � − 2.5ℒ −1 � �
𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 + 1 𝑠𝑠 + 3

Since each of the three component parts of the equation above is represented
as an 𝐹𝐹(𝑠𝑠) in Laplace transform tables, 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) is the sum of the inverse Laplace
transforms of each term. Hence,
𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) = (5𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡 ⋅ 𝑡𝑡 + 2.5𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡 − 2.5𝑒𝑒 −3𝑡𝑡 )𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡)
= (5𝑡𝑡 ⋅ 𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡 + 2.5𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡 − 2.5𝑒𝑒 −3𝑡𝑡 )𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡)

2.3.3 Roots of the Denominator of F(s) are Complex or Imaginary

For a denominator having factorised form of (𝑠𝑠 + 𝑝𝑝1 )(𝑠𝑠 2 + 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏) , where (𝑠𝑠 2 + 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏) has a
complex solution, then:

𝑁𝑁(𝑠𝑠) 𝑁𝑁(𝑠𝑠)
𝐹𝐹(𝑠𝑠) = =
𝐷𝐷(𝑠𝑠) (𝑠𝑠 + 𝑝𝑝1 )(𝑠𝑠 2 + 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏) …
𝐾𝐾1 𝐾𝐾2 𝑠𝑠 + 𝐾𝐾3
= + 2 +⋯
𝑠𝑠 + 𝑝𝑝1 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏
Similar to the previous case, to obtain values for numerator of partial fractions (𝐾𝐾1 , 𝐾𝐾2 , 𝐾𝐾3 , …), LCM is
taken, then the numerator is expanded and coefficients of different powers of ‘𝑠𝑠’ in the expanded
equation are compared with the numerator.

10
EXAMPLE 2.4 LAPLACE TRANSFORM SOLUTION OF A DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
PROBLEM: Given the following differential equation, solve for 𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡) if all initial
conditions are zero. Use the Laplace transform.
𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2
+2 + 2𝑦𝑦 = 4𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡)
𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

SOLUTION: Substitute the corresponding 𝐹𝐹(𝑠𝑠) for each term in the above
differential equation, and taking initial conditions to be zero, the Laplace
transform equation is
4
𝑠𝑠 2 𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠) + 2𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝑠𝑠) + 2𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠) =
𝑠𝑠
Solving for 𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠) yields
4
𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠) =
𝑠𝑠(𝑠𝑠 2 + 2𝑠𝑠 + 2)
2
Since 𝑠𝑠 + 2𝑠𝑠 + 2 has complex roots, the expression cannot be factorised any
more.
Performing partial-fraction expansion of the right-hand term gives
𝐾𝐾1 𝐾𝐾2 𝑠𝑠 + 𝐾𝐾3
𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠) = + 2
𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 + 2𝑠𝑠 + 2
Taking LCM and cancelling denominator on each side, and expanding gives
4 = 𝐾𝐾1 (𝑠𝑠 2 + 2𝑠𝑠 + 2) + 𝑠𝑠(𝐾𝐾2 𝑠𝑠 + 𝐾𝐾3 )
4 = 𝐾𝐾1 𝑠𝑠 2 + 2𝐾𝐾1 𝑠𝑠 + 2𝐾𝐾1 + 𝐾𝐾2 𝑠𝑠 2 + 𝐾𝐾3 𝑠𝑠
4 = (𝐾𝐾1 + 𝐾𝐾2 )𝑠𝑠 2 + (2𝐾𝐾1 + 𝐾𝐾3 )𝑠𝑠 + (2𝐾𝐾1 )
Comparing the coefficients of ‘𝑠𝑠’ gives the following system of linear equations:
𝐾𝐾1 + 𝐾𝐾2 = 0
2𝐾𝐾1 + 𝐾𝐾3 = 0
2𝐾𝐾1 = 4
Solving the above system yields
• 𝐾𝐾1 = 2
• 𝐾𝐾2 = −2
• 𝐾𝐾3 = −4
Hence

2 2𝑠𝑠 + 4
𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠) = − 2
𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 + 2𝑠𝑠 + 2
1 𝑠𝑠 + 2
= 2� − 2 �
𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 + 2𝑠𝑠 + 2
1 𝑠𝑠 + 2
= 2� − 2 �
𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 + 2𝑠𝑠 + 12 + 12
1 𝑠𝑠 + 1 + 1
= 2� − �
𝑠𝑠 (𝑠𝑠 + 1)2 + 12
1 𝑠𝑠 + 1 1
= 2� − − �
𝑠𝑠 (𝑠𝑠 2
+ 1) + 1 2 (𝑠𝑠 + 1)2 + 12
Since each of the three component parts of the equation above is represented
as an 𝐹𝐹(𝑠𝑠) in Laplace transform tables, 𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡) is the sum of the inverse Laplace
transforms of each term. Hence,

11
 1 𝑠𝑠 + 1 1
𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡) = 2ℒ −1 � − − �
𝑠𝑠 (𝑠𝑠 2
+ 1) + 1 2 (𝑠𝑠 + 1)2 + 12
= 2[1 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡 cos 𝑡𝑡 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡 sin 𝑡𝑡]
= 2 − 2𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡 cos 𝑡𝑡 − 2𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡 sin 𝑡𝑡

EXAMPLE 2.5 SOLVING AN ELECTRICAL NETWORK

PROBLEM: In the circuit given, the values of resistance – capacitance are 1 𝑀𝑀Ω
and 1𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 respectively. Obtain the expression for the current flowing in the
circuit if it is supplied a step voltage input of 1𝑉𝑉 at 𝑡𝑡 = 0.

𝑅𝑅

𝑖𝑖(𝑡𝑡)
𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) 𝐶𝐶

SOLUTION: Application of Kirchhoff’s law simplifies the problem

𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑖𝑖(𝑡𝑡)𝑅𝑅 + 𝑣𝑣cap (𝑡𝑡)

Since
𝑄𝑄 = 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶(𝑡𝑡)
and
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑(𝑡𝑡)
= 𝐶𝐶
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
then
𝑖𝑖(𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝐶𝐶 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑(𝑡𝑡)
1
𝑣𝑣cap (𝑡𝑡) = � 𝑖𝑖(𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐶𝐶

Therefore, the circuit can be represented by following equation

1
𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑖𝑖(𝑡𝑡)𝑅𝑅 + � 𝑖𝑖(𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐶𝐶
Converting the time domain equation to frequency domain equation
1 𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠)
𝑉𝑉(𝑠𝑠) = 𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠)𝑅𝑅 + ×
𝐶𝐶 𝑠𝑠
If 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) = 1, then 𝑉𝑉(𝑠𝑠) = 1/𝑠𝑠, then
1 1 𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠)
= 𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠)𝑅𝑅 + ×
𝑠𝑠 𝐶𝐶 𝑠𝑠

12
 1 1
= 𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠) �𝑅𝑅 + �
𝑠𝑠 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 + 1
= 𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠) � �
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
𝐶𝐶
𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠) =
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 + 1
1
=
1
𝑅𝑅 �𝑠𝑠 + �
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
1 1
= ×
𝑅𝑅 𝑠𝑠 + 1
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
𝑖𝑖(𝑡𝑡) = ℒ −1 𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠)
1 1
= ℒ −1 � × �
𝑅𝑅 𝑠𝑠 + 1
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
1 −1 1
=ℒ � �
𝑅𝑅 1
𝑠𝑠 +
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
1 −� 1 �𝑡𝑡
= 𝑒𝑒 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
𝑅𝑅
Substituting the values of resistance and capacitance
1 −𝑡𝑡� 1
�
𝑖𝑖(𝑡𝑡) = 6 𝑒𝑒 106 ×10−6
10
= 10−6 𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡
When time is 𝑡𝑡 = 0, then
𝑖𝑖(𝑡𝑡) = 10−6

2.4 THE TRANSFER FUNCTION

For every linear system/subsystem, there exists a transform function which is defined as the ratio of
the Laplace transform of the output variable (also known as ‘Response Variable’) to the Laplace
transform of the input variable (also known as ‘Driving Function’ or ‘Excitation Function’), with all
initialconditions assumed to be zero. The transfer function of a system (or element) represents the
relationship describing the dynamics of the system under consideration.

ℒ(Output)
𝑇𝑇. 𝐹𝐹 =
ℒ(Input)

13
EXAMPLE 2.6 TRANSFER FUNCTION OF A RC NETWORK
PROBLEM: Evaluate an expression for a transfer function describing the system
illustrated in the circuit below:
𝑅𝑅

① 𝐶𝐶 ② 𝑣𝑣o (𝑡𝑡)
𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖 (𝑡𝑡)

SOLUTION: Application of Kirchhoff’s law simplifies the problem. As shown in

Example 2.5, the system can be represented by following equations:

1
𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖 (𝑡𝑡) = 𝑖𝑖(𝑡𝑡)𝑅𝑅 + � 𝑖𝑖(𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 Loop ①
𝐶𝐶
1
𝑣𝑣o (𝑡𝑡) = � 𝑖𝑖(𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 Loop ②
𝐶𝐶

Converting the time domain equation to frequency domain equation

𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠)
𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 (𝑠𝑠) = 𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠)𝑅𝑅 +
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
And
𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠)
𝑉𝑉o (𝑠𝑠) =
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
Therefore, the transfer function is defined as
𝑉𝑉o (𝑠𝑠)
𝑇𝑇. 𝐹𝐹 =
𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 (𝑠𝑠)
𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠)
= 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠)
𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠)𝑅𝑅 +
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶

𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠) 𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠)
= 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 ÷ 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠) 𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠)
𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠)𝑅𝑅 +
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
1
=
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 + 1
1
=
𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏 + 1

14
EXAMPLE 2.7 TRANSFER FUNCTION OF RLC NETWORK
PROBLEM: Evaluate an expression for a transfer function describing the system
illustrated in the circuit below:

𝑅𝑅 𝐿𝐿

ℰ𝑖𝑖 (𝑡𝑡) ① 𝐶𝐶 ② ℰ𝑜𝑜 (𝑡𝑡)

SOLUTION: Application of Kirchhoff’s law simplifies the problem. From previous

knowledge regarding capacitors and inductors, it is known that
1
𝑣𝑣cap = � 𝑖𝑖(𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐶𝐶
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑣𝑣ind = 𝐿𝐿
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Therefore, the given system can be represented by:
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1
ℰ𝑖𝑖 (𝑡𝑡) = 𝑖𝑖(𝑡𝑡)𝑅𝑅 + 𝐿𝐿 + � 𝑖𝑖(𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐶𝐶
Converting the time domain equation to frequency domain equation
𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠)
𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖 (𝑠𝑠) = 𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠)𝑅𝑅 + 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿(𝑠𝑠) +
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
Similarly,
1
ℰ𝑜𝑜 (𝑡𝑡) = � 𝑖𝑖(𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐶𝐶
and
𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠)
𝐸𝐸𝑜𝑜 (𝑠𝑠) =
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶

Therefore, the transfer function is evaluated to be

𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠) 𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠)
𝑇𝑇. 𝐹𝐹 = 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 ÷ 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠) 𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠)
𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠)𝑅𝑅 + 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿(𝑠𝑠) +
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶

1
=
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠) 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠)𝑅𝑅 × + 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿(𝑠𝑠) × + ×
𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠) 𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠) 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠)

15
 1
=
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠) 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠)𝑅𝑅 × + 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿(𝑠𝑠) × + ×
𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠) 𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠) 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠)
1
=
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 + 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝑠𝑠 2 + 1

2.4.1 Poles and Zeroes of Transfer Functions

A transfer function consists of 𝑁𝑁(𝑠𝑠), the numerator function and 𝐷𝐷(𝑠𝑠), the denominator function (also
known as the characteristic function of the system). Both functions play a major role in determining
the nature of the transform function. Generally, a transform function is represented as follows

𝑁𝑁(𝑠𝑠) 𝑎𝑎0 𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑚 + 𝑎𝑎1 𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛

𝑇𝑇. 𝐹𝐹 = =
𝐷𝐷(𝑠𝑠) 𝑏𝑏0 𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑛 + 𝑏𝑏1 𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛

The above expression can also be rewritten in following form

(𝑠𝑠 − 𝑐𝑐1 )(𝑠𝑠 − 𝑐𝑐2 ) … (𝑠𝑠 − 𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛 )

𝑇𝑇. 𝐹𝐹 = 𝑘𝑘
(𝑠𝑠 − 𝑑𝑑1 )(𝑠𝑠 − 𝑑𝑑2 ) … (𝑠𝑠 − 𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛 )

where 𝑘𝑘 is known as ‘system gain’.

2.4.1.1 Poles of Transfer function

The denominator of a transfer function is also known as characteristic equation of a system. Values of
‘𝑠𝑠’ that are roots of the characteristic equation, and hence renders 𝐷𝐷(𝑠𝑠) zero, are known as poles of
the system. The transfer function has infinite value at the poles, and can be classified as

• Simple poles (when 𝐷𝐷(𝑠𝑠) has real and unique roots)

• Repeating poles (when 𝐷𝐷(𝑠𝑠) has repeated real roots)
• Complex Conjugate poles (when 𝐷𝐷(𝑠𝑠) has complex conjugate roots)

2.4.1.2 Zeroes of Transfer function

Values of ‘𝑠𝑠’ that renders 𝑁𝑁(𝑠𝑠) zero are known as zeroes of the system. The transfer function has
zero/null value at the zeroes, and can be classified as

• Simple zeroes (when 𝑁𝑁(𝑠𝑠) has real and unique roots)

• Repeating zeroes (when 𝑁𝑁(𝑠𝑠) has repeated real roots)
• Complex Conjugate zeroes (when 𝑁𝑁(𝑠𝑠) has complex conjugate roots)

2.5 CONTROL SYSTEM BLOCK DIAGRAMS

The dynamic systems that comprise automatic control systems are represented mathematically by a
set of simultaneous differential equations. As noted in the previous sections, the Laplace
transformation reduces the problem to the solution of a set of linear algebraic equations. Since control
systems are concerned with the control of specific variables, the controlled variables must relate to
the controlling variables. This relationship is typically represented by the transfer function of the
subsystem relating the input and output variables. Therefore, the transfer function is an important
relation for control engineering.

16
The importance of this cause-and-effect relationship is evidenced by the facility to represent the
relationship of system variables by diagrammatic means. The block diagram representation of the
system relationships is very common in control system engineering.

Block diagrams consist of unidirectional, operational blocks that represent the

transfer function of the variables of interest.

Consider an example of liquid level control system where the supply of incoming liquid is regulated by
a pneumatic valve controlled by a controller. The water level sensor provides the feedback to the
system and the outgoing liquid valve is operated manually (as needed). The schematic of the system
described is as below

Pneumatic Controller
Valve

Water Level
Sensor

Tank

Figure 2-1 Liquid Level Control System

The above system can be represented by a block diagram as follows

Controller Valve

Sensor

Figure 2-2 Block diagram representing a liquid level control system

As shown above, the control system block diagram consists of following elements

• Block: Represents a single or set of processes

• Transfer Functions: Mathematical representation of the process
• Summing Point/Joint: Performs algebraic addition/subtraction of incoming signals
• Take off point: Allows the signal to be used by more than one block or summing point

17
 • Arrows: Represents the flow of process/logic

2.6 CLOSED LOOP TRANSFER FUNCTION

Consider a simplified system having following block diagram

𝑅𝑅(𝑠𝑠) + 𝐸𝐸(𝑠𝑠) 𝐶𝐶(𝑠𝑠)

𝐺𝐺(𝑠𝑠)
±

𝐵𝐵(𝑠𝑠)
𝐻𝐻(𝑠𝑠)

where Figure 2-3 Generalized block form of closed loop system

• R(𝑠𝑠) is the reference input

• 𝐶𝐶(𝑠𝑠) is the output
• 𝐸𝐸(𝑠𝑠) is the error
• 𝐵𝐵(𝑠𝑠) is the feedback signal
• 𝐺𝐺(𝑠𝑠) is the transfer function of forward path
• 𝐻𝐻(𝑠𝑠) is the transfer function of feedback path

To evaluate transfer function of the closed loop shown in Fig. 2-3, a ratio of 𝐶𝐶(𝑠𝑠) with 𝑅𝑅(𝑠𝑠) is required
in terms of transfer function of forward and feedback loop.

The output of summing junction, 𝐸𝐸(𝑠𝑠), is defined as

𝐸𝐸(𝑠𝑠) = 𝑅𝑅(𝑠𝑠) ∓ 𝐵𝐵(𝑠𝑠) (2.1)

where negative sign is used for negative feedback loop and positive sign is used for positive feedback
loop.

Similarly, using the definition of transfer function, expressions for 𝐶𝐶(𝑠𝑠) and 𝐵𝐵(𝑠𝑠) can be evaluated

𝐶𝐶(𝑠𝑠) = 𝐸𝐸(𝑠𝑠) ⋅ 𝐺𝐺(𝑠𝑠) (2.2)

𝐵𝐵(𝑠𝑠) = 𝐶𝐶(𝑠𝑠) ⋅ 𝐻𝐻(𝑠𝑠) (2.3)

Therefore,

𝐸𝐸(𝑠𝑠) = 𝑅𝑅(𝑠𝑠) ∓ 𝐶𝐶(𝑠𝑠)𝐻𝐻(𝑠𝑠) (2.4)

Since,

𝐶𝐶(𝑠𝑠) = 𝐸𝐸(𝑠𝑠) ⋅ 𝐺𝐺(𝑠𝑠)

Then,

𝐶𝐶(𝑠𝑠)
𝐸𝐸(𝑠𝑠) = (2.5)
𝐺𝐺(𝑠𝑠)

Substituting Eq. 2.5 in Eq. 2.4

18
 𝐶𝐶(𝑠𝑠)
= 𝑅𝑅(𝑠𝑠) ∓ 𝐶𝐶(𝑠𝑠)𝐻𝐻(𝑠𝑠)
𝐺𝐺(𝑠𝑠)
𝐶𝐶(𝑠𝑠)𝐻𝐻(𝑠𝑠)
= 𝑅𝑅(𝑠𝑠) �1 ∓ �
𝑅𝑅(𝑠𝑠)
𝐶𝐶(𝑠𝑠) 𝐶𝐶(𝑠𝑠)𝐻𝐻(𝑠𝑠)
= 𝐺𝐺(𝑠𝑠) �1 ∓ �
𝑅𝑅(𝑠𝑠) 𝑅𝑅(𝑠𝑠)
𝐶𝐶(𝑠𝑠) 𝐶𝐶(𝑠𝑠)𝐻𝐻(𝑠𝑠)𝐺𝐺(𝑠𝑠)
± = 𝐺𝐺(𝑠𝑠)
𝑅𝑅(𝑠𝑠) 𝑅𝑅(𝑠𝑠)
𝐶𝐶(𝑠𝑠)
[1 ± 𝐻𝐻(𝑠𝑠)𝐺𝐺(𝑠𝑠)] = 𝐺𝐺(𝑠𝑠)
𝑅𝑅(𝑠𝑠)

Hence the transfer function of closed loop system is given by

𝐶𝐶(𝑠𝑠) 𝐺𝐺(𝑠𝑠)
= 𝐺𝐺𝑒𝑒 (𝑠𝑠) = (2.6)
𝑅𝑅(𝑠𝑠) 1 ± 𝐺𝐺(𝑠𝑠)𝐻𝐻(𝑠𝑠)

where, in denominator, positive sign is used for negative feedback loop and negative sign is used for
positive feedback loop.

2.7 BLOCK DIAGRAM REDUCTION AND TRANSFORMATION

The block diagram representation of a given system often can be reduced to a simplified block diagram
with fewer blocks than the original diagram. Following table gives some important rules to perform
block diagram transformation

Transformation Original Block Diagram Modified Equivalent Block Diagram

Combining
𝑋𝑋1 𝑋𝑋2 𝑋𝑋3 𝑋𝑋1 𝑋𝑋3
blocks in 𝐺𝐺1 𝐺𝐺2 𝐺𝐺1 ⋅ 𝐺𝐺2
cascade

𝑋𝑋1 + 𝑋𝑋3 𝑋𝑋1 + 𝑋𝑋3

Moving a 𝐺𝐺 𝐺𝐺
summing point ± ±
behind a block 𝑋𝑋2 𝑋𝑋2
𝐺𝐺

Moving a 𝑋𝑋1 𝑋𝑋2 𝑋𝑋1 𝑋𝑋2

𝐺𝐺 𝐺𝐺
pickoff point
ahead of the 𝑋𝑋2
𝑋𝑋2
block 𝐺𝐺

𝑋𝑋1 𝑋𝑋2
Moving a 𝑋𝑋1 𝑋𝑋2 𝐺𝐺
pickoff point 𝐺𝐺
ahead of the 𝑋𝑋1 1
𝑋𝑋1
block 𝐺𝐺

19
 𝑋𝑋1 + 𝑋𝑋3
Moving a 𝑋𝑋1 + 𝑋𝑋3 𝐺𝐺
summing point 𝐺𝐺 ±
±
1 𝑋𝑋2
ahead of a 𝑋𝑋2
block 𝐺𝐺

𝑋𝑋1 + 𝑋𝑋2
𝐺𝐺
Eliminating a 𝑋𝑋1 𝐺𝐺 𝑋𝑋2
±
feedback loop 1 ± 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺

𝐻𝐻

EXAMPLE 2.8 BLOCK DIAGRAM REDUCTION OF MULTIPLE LOOP FEEDBACK SYSTEM

PROBLEM: The block diagram of a multiple-loop feedback control system is
shown below. Apply block diagram transformation rules and reduce the whole
system to a simplified form

𝐻𝐻2

+ + − +
𝑅𝑅(𝑠𝑠) 𝐺𝐺1 𝐺𝐺2 𝐺𝐺3 𝐺𝐺4 𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠)
− +

𝐻𝐻1

𝐻𝐻3

SOLUTION: The objective of block diagram reduction is to manipulate the block

diagram to a form on which ‘feedback loop elimination’ transformation can be
applied. Therefore, to achieve this goal, the reduction is initiated from
innermost loop.

1. The take-off point between 𝐺𝐺3 and 𝐺𝐺4 is moved ahead of 𝐺𝐺4 and 𝐻𝐻2 is
replaced by 𝐻𝐻2 /𝐺𝐺4 .

20
 𝐻𝐻2
𝐺𝐺4

+ + − +
𝑅𝑅(𝑠𝑠) 𝐺𝐺1 𝐺𝐺2 𝐺𝐺3 𝐺𝐺4 𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠)
− +

𝐻𝐻1

𝐻𝐻3

2. The blocks 𝐺𝐺3 , 𝐺𝐺4 and 𝐻𝐻1 form a closed feedback loop and therefore
transformed using ‘feedback loop elimination’ rule.

𝐻𝐻2
𝐺𝐺4

+ + − 𝐺𝐺3 𝐺𝐺4
𝑅𝑅(𝑠𝑠) 𝐺𝐺1 𝐺𝐺2 1 − 𝐺𝐺3 𝐺𝐺4 𝐻𝐻1 𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠)
−

𝐻𝐻3

3. The block 𝐺𝐺2 can be combined with the block on its right using
cascading rule, and whole loop can be eliminated as in previous step.
Therefore, the equivalent transform function is given by:
𝐺𝐺2 𝐺𝐺3 𝐺𝐺4 𝐺𝐺2 𝐺𝐺3 𝐺𝐺4 𝐻𝐻2
𝐺𝐺𝑒𝑒 = ÷ �1 + × �
1 − 𝐺𝐺3 𝐺𝐺4 𝐻𝐻1 1 − 𝐺𝐺3 𝐺𝐺4 𝐻𝐻1 𝐺𝐺4
𝐺𝐺2 𝐺𝐺3 𝐺𝐺4 1 − 𝐺𝐺3 𝐺𝐺4 𝐻𝐻1 + 𝐺𝐺2 𝐺𝐺3 𝐻𝐻2
= ÷� �
1 − 𝐺𝐺3 𝐺𝐺4 𝐻𝐻1 1 − 𝐺𝐺3 𝐺𝐺4 𝐻𝐻1
𝐺𝐺2 𝐺𝐺3 𝐺𝐺4 1 − 𝐺𝐺3 𝐺𝐺4 𝐻𝐻1
= ×
1 − 𝐺𝐺3 𝐺𝐺4 𝐻𝐻1 1 − 𝐺𝐺3 𝐺𝐺4 𝐻𝐻1 + 𝐺𝐺2 𝐺𝐺3 𝐻𝐻2
𝐺𝐺2 𝐺𝐺3 𝐺𝐺4
=
1 − 𝐺𝐺3 𝐺𝐺4 𝐻𝐻1 + 𝐺𝐺2 𝐺𝐺3 𝐻𝐻2
Hence,

+ 𝐺𝐺2 𝐺𝐺3 𝐺𝐺4

𝑅𝑅(𝑠𝑠) 𝐺𝐺1 𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠)
− 1 − 𝐺𝐺3 𝐺𝐺4 𝐻𝐻1 + 𝐺𝐺2 𝐺𝐺3 𝐻𝐻2

𝐻𝐻3

21
 4. Finally, the last feedback loop can also be reduced using process
similar to the employed used in step 3
𝐺𝐺1 𝐺𝐺2 𝐺𝐺3 𝐺𝐺4 𝐺𝐺1 𝐺𝐺2 𝐺𝐺3 𝐺𝐺4 𝐻𝐻3
𝐺𝐺𝑒𝑒 = ÷ �1 + �
1 − 𝐺𝐺3 𝐺𝐺4 𝐻𝐻1 + 𝐺𝐺2 𝐺𝐺3 𝐻𝐻2 1 − 𝐺𝐺3 𝐺𝐺4 𝐻𝐻1 + 𝐺𝐺2 𝐺𝐺3 𝐻𝐻2
𝐺𝐺1 𝐺𝐺2 𝐺𝐺3 𝐺𝐺4 1 − 𝐺𝐺3 𝐺𝐺4 𝐻𝐻1 + 𝐺𝐺2 𝐺𝐺3 𝐻𝐻2 + 𝐺𝐺1 𝐺𝐺2 𝐺𝐺3 𝐺𝐺4 𝐻𝐻3
= ÷� �
1 − 𝐺𝐺3 𝐺𝐺4 𝐻𝐻1 + 𝐺𝐺2 𝐺𝐺3 𝐻𝐻2 1 − 𝐺𝐺3 𝐺𝐺4 𝐻𝐻1 + 𝐺𝐺2 𝐺𝐺3 𝐻𝐻2
𝐺𝐺1 𝐺𝐺2 𝐺𝐺3 𝐺𝐺4 1 − 𝐺𝐺3 𝐺𝐺4 𝐻𝐻1 + 𝐺𝐺2 𝐺𝐺3 𝐻𝐻2
= � �
1 − 𝐺𝐺3 𝐺𝐺4 𝐻𝐻1 + 𝐺𝐺2 𝐺𝐺3 𝐻𝐻2 1 − 𝐺𝐺3 𝐺𝐺4 𝐻𝐻1 + 𝐺𝐺2 𝐺𝐺3 𝐻𝐻2 + 𝐺𝐺1 𝐺𝐺2 𝐺𝐺3 𝐺𝐺4 𝐻𝐻3
𝐺𝐺1 𝐺𝐺2 𝐺𝐺3 𝐺𝐺4
=
1 − 𝐺𝐺3 𝐺𝐺4 𝐻𝐻1 + 𝐺𝐺2 𝐺𝐺3 𝐻𝐻2 + 𝐺𝐺1 𝐺𝐺2 𝐺𝐺3 𝐺𝐺4 𝐻𝐻3

𝐺𝐺1 𝐺𝐺2 𝐺𝐺3 𝐺𝐺4

𝑅𝑅(𝑠𝑠) 1 − 𝐺𝐺3 𝐺𝐺4 𝐻𝐻1 + 𝐺𝐺2 𝐺𝐺3 𝐻𝐻2 + 𝐺𝐺1 𝐺𝐺2 𝐺𝐺3 𝐺𝐺4 𝐻𝐻3 𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠)

2.8 SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH MODELS

Signal-flow graphs are an alternative to block diagrams. Unlike block diagrams, which consist of blocks,
signals, summing junctions, and pickoff points, a signal-flow graph consists only of branches, which
represent systems, and nodes, which represent signals.

These elements are shown in Figures 2-4(a) and (b), respectively. A system is represented by a line
with an arrow showing the direction of signal flow through the system. Adjacent to the line we write
the transfer function. A signal is a node with the signal’s name written adjacent to the node. Figure 2-
4(c) shows the interconnection of the systems and the signals. Each signal is the sum of signals flowing
into it. For example, 𝑉𝑉(𝑠𝑠) = 𝑅𝑅1 (𝑠𝑠)𝐺𝐺1 (𝑠𝑠) − 𝑅𝑅2 (𝑠𝑠)𝐺𝐺2 (𝑠𝑠) + 𝑅𝑅3 (𝑠𝑠)𝐺𝐺3 (𝑠𝑠) . Similarly, 𝐶𝐶2 (𝑠𝑠) =
𝑉𝑉(𝑠𝑠)𝐺𝐺5 (𝑠𝑠) = 𝑅𝑅1 (𝑠𝑠)𝐺𝐺1 (𝑠𝑠)𝐺𝐺5 (𝑠𝑠) − 𝑅𝑅2 (𝑠𝑠)𝐺𝐺2 (𝑠𝑠)𝐺𝐺5 (𝑠𝑠) + 𝑅𝑅3 (𝑠𝑠)𝐺𝐺3 (𝑠𝑠)𝐺𝐺5 (𝑠𝑠).

R1(s) C1(s)
G1(s) G4(s)

–G2(s) G5(s)
R2(s) C2(s)
G3(s) V(s) –G6(s)
G(s)
R3(s) C3(s)
V(s)
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 2-4 Signal flow graph components: (a) system; (b) signal; (c)
interconnection of systems and signals

2.8.1 Important Definitions

• Signal flow graph is a diagram consisting of nodes that are connected by several directed
branches and is a graphical representation of a set of linear relations
• Branch is an element which relates the dependency of an input and an output variable in, a
manner equivalent to a block of a block diagram.
• Node is an input and output points or junction.

22
 • Path is a branch or a continuous sequence of branches that can be traversed from one signal
(node) to another signal (node)
• Loop is a closed path that originates and terminates on the same node, with no node being
met twice along the path
• Two loops are said to be non-touching (loops) if they do not have a common node. Conversely
two loops with a common node are known as touching loops.

G6(s)

G1(s) G2(s) G3(s) G4(s) G5(s) G7(s)

R(s) C(s)
V5(s) V4(s) V3(s) V2(s) V1(s)

H1(s) H2(s)

H3(s)
Figure 2-5 Signal flow graph

• Loop gain. The product of branch gains found by traversing a path of a loop, referring to figure
2-5, following gains can be evaluated
 𝐺𝐺2 (𝑠𝑠)𝐻𝐻1 (𝑆𝑆)
 𝐺𝐺4 (𝑠𝑠)𝐻𝐻2 (𝑠𝑠)
 𝐺𝐺4 (𝑠𝑠)𝐺𝐺5 (𝑠𝑠)𝐻𝐻3 (𝑠𝑠)
 𝐺𝐺4 (𝑠𝑠)𝐺𝐺6 (𝑠𝑠)𝐻𝐻3 (𝑠𝑠)
• Forward-path gain. The product of gains found by traversing a path from the input node to
the output node of the signal-flow graph in the direction of signal flow. From figure 2-5,
following forward path gains can be evaluated
 𝐺𝐺1 (𝑠𝑠)𝐺𝐺2 (𝑠𝑠)𝐺𝐺3 (𝑠𝑠)𝐺𝐺4 (𝑠𝑠)𝐺𝐺5 (𝑠𝑠)𝐺𝐺7 (𝑠𝑠)
 𝐺𝐺1 (𝑠𝑠)𝐺𝐺2 (𝑠𝑠)𝐺𝐺3 (𝑠𝑠)𝐺𝐺4 (𝑠𝑠)𝐺𝐺6 (𝑠𝑠)𝐺𝐺7 (𝑠𝑠)
• Non-touching loop gain. The product of loop gains from non-touching loops taken two, three,
four, or more at a time.
• Referring to figure 2-5, non-touching loops taken two at a time are:
 [𝐺𝐺2 (𝑠𝑠)𝐻𝐻1 (𝑠𝑠)][𝐺𝐺4 (𝑠𝑠)𝐻𝐻2 (𝑠𝑠)]
 [𝐺𝐺2 (𝑠𝑠)𝐻𝐻1 (𝑠𝑠)][𝐺𝐺4 (𝑠𝑠)𝐺𝐺5 (𝑠𝑠)𝐻𝐻3 (𝑠𝑠)]
 [𝐺𝐺2 (𝑠𝑠)𝐻𝐻1 (𝑠𝑠)][𝐺𝐺4 (𝑠𝑠)𝐺𝐺6 (𝑠𝑠)𝐻𝐻3 (𝑠𝑠)]
• There are no non-touching loops taken three (or more) at a time

2.9 MASON’S RULE

The transfer function, 𝐶𝐶(𝑠𝑠)/𝑅𝑅(𝑠𝑠), of a system represented by a signal flow graph is given as

𝐶𝐶(𝑠𝑠) ∑𝑘𝑘 𝑃𝑃𝑘𝑘 Δ𝑘𝑘

𝐺𝐺(𝑠𝑠) = =
𝑅𝑅(𝑠𝑠) Δ

where

𝑘𝑘 = number of forward paths

𝑃𝑃𝑘𝑘 = the kth forward path gain

23
 Δ = 1 − Σloop gains + Σnontouching loop gains taken two at a time −
Σnontouching loop gains taken three at a time +
Σnontouching loop gains taken four at a time − ⋯
Δ is also known as the determinant
Δ𝑘𝑘 = Δ − Σ loop gain terms in Δ that touch the 𝑘𝑘 th forward path. In other words, Δ𝑘𝑘 is
formed by eliminating from Δ those loop gains that touch the 𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡ℎ forward path.
Δ𝑘𝑘 is also known as cofactor of 𝑘𝑘 th path.

Take special notice of the alternating signs for the components of Δ. The following example will
illustrate the process and workflow of applying Mason’s rule.

EXAMPLE 2.9 TRANSFER FUNCTION OF AN INTERACTING SYSTEM

PROBLEM: A two-path-signal flow graph is shown in the figure below. Evaluate
the transfer function of the given system using Mason’s rule
𝐻𝐻2 𝐻𝐻3

𝐿𝐿1 𝐿𝐿2

𝐺𝐺1 𝐺𝐺2 𝐺𝐺3 𝐺𝐺4

𝑅𝑅(𝑠𝑠) 𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠)

𝐺𝐺5 𝐺𝐺6 𝐺𝐺7 𝐺𝐺8

𝐿𝐿3 𝐿𝐿4

𝐻𝐻6 𝐻𝐻7

SOLUTION: To make the signal graph flow analysis easier, the process is broken
down in simple steps, i.e. finding each component Mason’s rule as a separate
step.

1. Identify the paths

There are two paths:
𝑃𝑃1 = 𝐺𝐺1 𝐺𝐺2 𝐺𝐺3 𝐺𝐺4 and 𝑃𝑃2 = 𝐺𝐺5 𝐺𝐺6 𝐺𝐺7 𝐺𝐺8
2. Identify the loops
There are four loops
𝐿𝐿1 = 𝐺𝐺2 𝐻𝐻2 ; 𝐿𝐿2 = 𝐺𝐺3 𝐻𝐻3 ; 𝐿𝐿3 = 𝐺𝐺6 𝐻𝐻6 ; 𝐿𝐿4 = 𝐺𝐺7 𝐻𝐻7
3. Identify non-touching loops and write down their combinations
Loops 𝐿𝐿1 and 𝐿𝐿2 don’t touch 𝐿𝐿3 and 𝐿𝐿4 . Hence the combination of
non-touching loops taken two at a time is:
𝐿𝐿1 𝐿𝐿3 , 𝐿𝐿1 𝐿𝐿4 , 𝐿𝐿2 𝐿𝐿3 , 𝐿𝐿2 𝐿𝐿4 .
4. Evaluate the determinant

24
 Δ = 1 − (𝐿𝐿1 + 𝐿𝐿2 + 𝐿𝐿3 + 𝐿𝐿4 ) + (𝐿𝐿1 𝐿𝐿3 + 𝐿𝐿1 𝐿𝐿4 + 𝐿𝐿2 𝐿𝐿3 + 𝐿𝐿2 𝐿𝐿4 )
5. Evaluate the cofactor of the determinant
Cofactor of path 1 is evaluated by setting 𝐿𝐿1 = 𝐿𝐿2 = 0
Δ1 = 1 − (𝐿𝐿3 + 𝐿𝐿4 )
similarly, cofactor of path 2 can be evaluated by setting 𝐿𝐿3 = 𝐿𝐿4 = 0
Δ2 = 1 − (𝐿𝐿1 + 𝐿𝐿2 )
6. Apply Mason’s rule
Σ𝑘𝑘 𝑃𝑃𝑘𝑘 Δ𝑘𝑘
𝑇𝑇(𝑠𝑠) =
Δ
𝑃𝑃1 Δ1 + 𝑃𝑃2 Δ2
=
Δ
𝐺𝐺1 𝐺𝐺2 𝐺𝐺3 𝐺𝐺4 (1 − 𝐿𝐿3 − 𝐿𝐿4 ) + 𝐺𝐺5 𝐺𝐺6 𝐺𝐺7 𝐺𝐺8 (1 − 𝐿𝐿1 − 𝐿𝐿2 )
=
1 − 𝐿𝐿1 − 𝐿𝐿2 − 𝐿𝐿3 − 𝐿𝐿4 + 𝐿𝐿1 𝐿𝐿3 + 𝐿𝐿1 𝐿𝐿4 + 𝐿𝐿2 𝐿𝐿3 + 𝐿𝐿2 𝐿𝐿4

25
 3 EQUIVALENT SYSTEM MODELLING
In previous chapters, electrical circuits were analysed and a relationship between input and output
was derived. The next step is to apply similar analysis on different engineering systems using relevant
principles and laws to derive a relationship between input and outputs.

3.1 TRANSLATIONAL MECHANICAL SYSTEM

Mechanical systems parallels electrical networks to such an extent that there are analogies between
electrical and mechanical components and variables. Mechanical systems, like electrical networks,
have three passive, linear components. Two of them, the spring and the mass, are energy-storage
elements; one of them, the viscous damper, dissipates energy. The two energy-storage elements are
analogous to the two electrical energy-storage elements, the inductor and capacitor. The energy
dissipator is analogous to electrical resistance.

Consider a spring mass dashpot (mechanical) system as shown in x(t)

k
figure 3-1. The mechanical system requires just one differential
equation, called the equation of motion, to describe it. The analysis
M F (t)
begins by assuming a positive direction of motion, for example, to
the right. This assumed positive direction of motion is similar to
assuming a current direction in an electrical loop. Using the B
Figure 3-1 Typical spring mass
assumed direction of positive motion, a free-body diagram is drawn,
dashpot
placing on the body all forces that act on the body either in the
direction of motion or opposite to it. Next, Newton’s law is used to form a differential equation of
motion by summing the forces and setting the sum equal to zero. Finally, assuming zero initial
conditions, the Laplace transform of the differential equation is taken and variables are separated to
complete the analysis. With reference to the system shown in figure 3-1:

• Force 𝐹𝐹(𝑡𝑡) is applied in the direction of positive 𝑥𝑥-axis.

• The resultant motion is assumed to be in the same direction as the disturbing force.
• Hooke’s law dictates that the spring force, 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘(𝑡𝑡), must be in the opposite direction of the
displacement, 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡), i.e. 𝐹𝐹spring = −𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘(𝑡𝑡).
• The resistive force (viscous damping), 𝐵𝐵𝑥𝑥̇ (𝑡𝑡), is always directed opposite to the direction of
motion.
• The spring force and the resistive force cause deceleration of the mass which can be taken as
acceleration in the opposite direction

The differential equation that governs the system shown in figure 3-1 is derived using Newton’s law
of motion and is given by

𝐹𝐹(𝑡𝑡) − 𝑀𝑀𝑥𝑥̈ (𝑡𝑡) − 𝐵𝐵𝑥𝑥̇ (𝑡𝑡) − 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘(𝑡𝑡) = 0

𝐹𝐹(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑀𝑀𝑥𝑥̈ (𝑡𝑡) + 𝐵𝐵𝑥𝑥̇ (𝑡𝑡) + 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘(𝑡𝑡) (3.1)

Now the above equation is converted to frequency domain using Laplace transform:

𝐹𝐹(𝑠𝑠) = 𝑀𝑀𝑠𝑠 2 𝑋𝑋(𝑠𝑠) + 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵(𝑠𝑠) + 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘(𝑠𝑠) (3.2)

26
3.2 ROTATIONAL MECHANICAL SYSTEM
Rotational mechanical systems are handled the same way as translational mechanical systems, except
that torque replaces force and angular displacement replaces translational displacement. The
mechanical components for rotational systems are the same as those for translational systems, except
that the components undergo rotation instead of translation. Also notice that the term associated
with the mass is replaced by inertia.

Thus, the differential equation describing torsional system is given by

𝑇𝑇(𝑡𝑡) = 𝐽𝐽𝜃𝜃̈ (𝑡𝑡) + 𝐵𝐵𝜃𝜃̇ (𝑡𝑡) + 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘(𝑡𝑡) (3.3)

And the Laplace transform of the system gives

𝑇𝑇(𝑠𝑠) = 𝐽𝐽𝑠𝑠 2 𝜃𝜃(𝑠𝑠) + 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵(𝑠𝑠) + 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘(𝑠𝑠) (3.4)

3.2.1 Equivalent Torsional Systems

Usually a mechanical system consists of multiple translational and torsional systems, and therefore,
for easy analysis, it is necessary that the complex systems are reduced to a single mechanical system.
This section discusses the conversion of multiple torsional system to a single torsional system.

Evaluation of equivalent system is quite straightforward, and the workflow described for torsional
systems may also be used for translational systems.

The analysis is initiated by writing the governing differential equations for different torques in the
system. The next step is to write equations defining relationship of torques with each other, followed
by substituting the relations to get the equation of applied torque and its affect to the whole system,
represented in a form similar to one of equation 3.3.

The process can easily be understood from the following example

EXAMPLE 3.1 EQUIVALENT TORSIONAL SYSTEM OF A GEAR DRIVE

PROBLEM: Find the equation of an equivalent system that describes the gear
drive shown below, given that:
𝜃𝜃1 , 𝜃𝜃2 = Angular displacement
𝑇𝑇 = Applied torque
𝑇𝑇1 , 𝑇𝑇2 = Torque transmitted to gears
𝑁𝑁1 , 𝑁𝑁2 = Number of teeth in the gears
𝐽𝐽1 , 𝐽𝐽2 = Inertia
𝐵𝐵1 , 𝐵𝐵1 = Frictional elements

𝐵𝐵1 𝑁𝑁1

𝐽𝐽1
𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿
𝑇𝑇2 , 𝜃𝜃2 𝐵𝐵2
𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇1 , 𝜃𝜃1
𝐽𝐽2 𝐿𝐿
𝑁𝑁2

27
 SOLUTION: For ease of understanding, the analysis workflow is broken down
in several steps.

1. The differential equations governing the systems are as follows

𝑇𝑇 = 𝐽𝐽1 𝜃𝜃̈1 + 𝐵𝐵1 𝜃𝜃̇1 + 𝑇𝑇1 (𝐸𝐸3.1.1)
̈ ̇
𝑇𝑇2 = 𝐽𝐽2 𝜃𝜃2 + 𝐵𝐵2 𝜃𝜃2 + 𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿 (𝐸𝐸3.1.2)
2. Equations describing relationship between 𝑇𝑇1 and 𝑇𝑇2 is
𝑇𝑇1 𝑁𝑁1 𝜃𝜃2
= =
𝑇𝑇2 𝑁𝑁2 𝜃𝜃1
Thus,
𝑁𝑁2
𝑇𝑇2 = 𝑇𝑇1 � � (𝐸𝐸3.1.3)
𝑁𝑁1
𝑁𝑁1
𝜃𝜃2 = 𝜃𝜃1 � � (𝐸𝐸3.1.4)
𝑁𝑁2
3. Substituting Eqn 3.1.3 and Eqn 3.1.4 in Eqn 3.1.2
𝑁𝑁2 𝑁𝑁1 𝑁𝑁1
𝑇𝑇1 � � = 𝐽𝐽2 𝜃𝜃̈1 � � + 𝐵𝐵2 𝜃𝜃̇1 � � + 𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿
𝑁𝑁1 𝑁𝑁2 𝑁𝑁1
2 2
𝑁𝑁1 𝑁𝑁1 𝑁𝑁1
𝑇𝑇1 = 𝐽𝐽2 𝜃𝜃̈1 � � + 𝐵𝐵2 𝜃𝜃̇1 � � + 𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿 � � (𝐸𝐸3.1.5)
𝑁𝑁2 𝑁𝑁2 𝑁𝑁2
Now substituting Eqn 3.1.5 in 3.1.1, and factorizing gives
𝑁𝑁1 2 𝑁𝑁1 2 𝑁𝑁1
𝑇𝑇 = 𝐽𝐽1 𝜃𝜃̈1 + 𝐵𝐵1 𝜃𝜃̇1 + 𝐽𝐽2 𝜃𝜃̈1 � � + 𝐵𝐵2 𝜃𝜃̇1 � � + 𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿 � �
𝑁𝑁2 𝑁𝑁2 𝑁𝑁2
2 2
𝑁𝑁1 𝑁𝑁1 𝑁𝑁1
𝑇𝑇 = �𝐽𝐽1 + 𝐽𝐽2 � � � 𝜃𝜃̈1 + �𝐵𝐵1 + 𝐵𝐵2 � � � 𝜃𝜃̇1 + �𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿 � �� (𝐸𝐸3.1.6)
𝑁𝑁2 𝑁𝑁1 𝑁𝑁2

Comparing Eqn 3.1.6 with Eqn 3.3 provides following insight:

𝑁𝑁1 2
𝐽𝐽eq = 𝐽𝐽1 + 𝐽𝐽2 � �
𝑁𝑁2
𝑁𝑁1 2
𝐵𝐵eq = 𝐵𝐵1 + 𝐵𝐵2 � �
𝑁𝑁1
𝑁𝑁1
𝑇𝑇eq,L = 𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿 � �
𝑁𝑁2

3.3 ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

In previous section it was shown that differential equation of mechanical translational system can be
modified by substituting equivalent quantities in place of disturbing force, mass, displacement and
spring force to describe a torsional system. Similarly, an electrical system can also be represented by
differential equation by using suitable substitutes.

28
3.3.1 Force Voltage Analogy (Loop Analysis)
Consider an RLC circuit (as shown in figure 3-2), applying Kirchhoff’s loop law gives

𝑑𝑑 1
𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑖𝑖(𝑡𝑡)𝑅𝑅 + 𝑖𝑖(𝑡𝑡) × 𝐿𝐿 + � 𝑖𝑖(𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐶𝐶
𝑅𝑅 𝐿𝐿

𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) 𝑖𝑖(𝑡𝑡) 𝐶𝐶

Figure 3-2 A simple RLC circuit

The Laplace transform of the above equation is:

𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠)
𝑉𝑉(𝑠𝑠) = 𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠)𝑅𝑅 + 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿(𝑠𝑠) +
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
Since it is known that

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑖𝑖(𝑡𝑡) =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
then the Laplace transform of 𝑖𝑖(𝑡𝑡) will give

𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠) = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝑠𝑠)

therefore,

𝑄𝑄(𝑠𝑠)
𝑉𝑉(𝑠𝑠) = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝑠𝑠) + 𝐿𝐿𝑠𝑠 2 𝑄𝑄(𝑠𝑠) +
𝐶𝐶
1
𝑉𝑉(𝑠𝑠) = 𝐿𝐿𝑠𝑠 2 𝑄𝑄(𝑠𝑠) + 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅(𝑠𝑠) + 𝑄𝑄(𝑠𝑠) (3.5)
𝐶𝐶
The Eqn 3.5 has the form similar to that of Eqn 3.2, and therefore the analogous quantities are as
follows:

𝑉𝑉(𝑠𝑠) ≡ 𝐹𝐹(𝑠𝑠)
𝐿𝐿 ≡ 𝑀𝑀
𝑅𝑅 ≡ 𝐵𝐵
1
≡ 𝑘𝑘
𝐶𝐶

3.3.2 Force Current Analogy (Nodal Analysis)

Consider an RLC circuit (as shown in figure 3-3), applying Kirchhoff’s nodal method gives

𝐼𝐼 = 𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿 + 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅 + 𝐼𝐼𝐶𝐶

29
 𝑖𝑖(𝑡𝑡) 𝐿𝐿 𝑅𝑅 𝐶𝐶

Figure 3-3 Simple Parallel arrangement of

an RLC circuit

It is known that voltage across an inductor is given by

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑(𝑡𝑡)
𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) = 𝐿𝐿
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝐿𝐿 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑(𝑡𝑡)
1
𝑖𝑖(𝑡𝑡) = � 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐿𝐿
Hence
1
𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿 = � 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐿𝐿
and

1 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑(𝑡𝑡)
𝐼𝐼(𝑡𝑡) = � 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + + 𝐶𝐶 ×
𝐿𝐿 𝑅𝑅 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Applying Laplace transform gives

1 𝑉𝑉(𝑠𝑠) 1
𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠) = + 𝑉𝑉(𝑠𝑠) + 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶(𝑠𝑠)
𝐿𝐿 𝑠𝑠 𝑅𝑅
The voltage of a circuit can be represented as a function of time as follows:

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
where 𝜙𝜙 = Magnetic Flux. Applying Laplace transform will result in following expression

𝑉𝑉(𝑠𝑠) = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝑠𝑠)

Hence

1 1
𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠) = 𝐶𝐶𝑠𝑠 2 𝜙𝜙(𝑠𝑠) + 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝑠𝑠) 𝜙𝜙(𝑠𝑠) (3.6)
𝑅𝑅 𝐿𝐿
The Eqn 3.6 has the form similar to that of Eqn 3.2, and therefore the analogous quantities are as
follows:

𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠) ≡ 𝐹𝐹(𝑠𝑠)
𝐶𝐶 ≡ 𝑀𝑀

30
 1
≡ 𝐵𝐵
𝑅𝑅
1
≡ 𝑘𝑘
𝐿𝐿

3.4 COMPARISON OF ANALOGOUS QUANTITIES

The analogous equations of different systems are as below

Equation System Equation #

𝑭𝑭(𝒔𝒔) = 𝑴𝑴𝒔𝒔𝟐𝟐 𝑿𝑿(𝒔𝒔) + 𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩(𝒔𝒔) + 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌(𝒔𝒔) Mechanical Translational 3.2

𝑻𝑻(𝒔𝒔) = 𝑱𝑱𝒔𝒔𝟐𝟐 𝜽𝜽(𝒔𝒔) + 𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩(𝒔𝒔) + 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌(𝒔𝒔) Mechanical Torsional 3.4

𝟏𝟏
𝑽𝑽(𝒔𝒔) = 𝑳𝑳𝒔𝒔𝟐𝟐 𝑸𝑸(𝒔𝒔) + 𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹(𝒔𝒔) + 𝑸𝑸(𝒔𝒔) Electrical – Force Voltage 3.5
𝑪𝑪
𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏
𝑰𝑰(𝒔𝒔) = 𝑪𝑪𝒔𝒔𝟐𝟐 𝝓𝝓(𝒔𝒔) + 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔(𝒔𝒔) 𝝓𝝓(𝒔𝒔) Electrical – Force Current 3.6
𝑹𝑹 𝑳𝑳

Using the above equations, analogous quantities can be tabulated as below:

Mechanical Electrical
Translational Torsional Force – Voltage Force – Current

Force (𝑭𝑭) Torque (𝑇𝑇) Voltage (𝑉𝑉) Current (𝐼𝐼)

Mass (𝑴𝑴) Inertia (𝐽𝐽) Inductance (𝐿𝐿) Capacitance (𝐶𝐶)

Spring Stiffness (𝒌𝒌) Torsional Stiffness (𝑘𝑘) 1

Inverse Capacitance � � Inverse Inductance � �
1
𝐶𝐶 𝐿𝐿
Damping Constant (𝑪𝑪) Torsional Damping (𝐶𝐶) Resistance (𝑅𝑅) Inverse Resistance � �
1
𝑅𝑅
Displacement (𝒙𝒙) Angular Displacement (𝜃𝜃) Charge (𝑄𝑄) Magnetic Flux (𝜙𝜙)

Velocity (𝒙𝒙̇ ) Angular Velocity (𝜃𝜃̇) Current (𝐼𝐼) Voltage (𝑉𝑉)

31
EXAMPLE 3.2 EQUIVALENT MECHANICAL AND ANALOGOUS ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
PROBLEM: For the given mechanical system in the figure below, draw equivalent
mechanical system. Hence, obtain electrical analogous circuit for the given system.

𝑘𝑘

𝐵𝐵1

𝑀𝑀2
𝑥𝑥2

𝐵𝐵2

𝑀𝑀1
𝑥𝑥1
𝐹𝐹(𝑡𝑡)

SOLUTION:
Mechanical Equivalent System
To draw mechanical equivalent system, the whole system is analysed with respect
to its displacement vectors. Each component directly affected by or connected to
the displacement vector is drawn in parallel arrangement (directly connected) to its
respective displacement
In the system above, there are two displacement vectors.
• Vector 𝑥𝑥1 is directly affects (or gets affected by)
 the disturbing force 𝐹𝐹(𝑡𝑡),
 Mass 𝑀𝑀1 , and
 Dampers 𝐵𝐵1 and 𝐵𝐵2
• Vector 𝑥𝑥2 is directly affects (or gets affected by)
 Spring 𝑘𝑘,
 Damper 𝐵𝐵2 and
 Mass 𝑀𝑀2
Note that in the system described above, the damper 𝐵𝐵2 is common to both 𝑥𝑥1 and
𝑥𝑥2 , this should be reflected in the equivalent diagram.

32
 𝑥𝑥1 𝑥𝑥2
𝐵𝐵2

𝑘𝑘
𝐹𝐹 𝑀𝑀1 𝐵𝐵1 𝑀𝑀2

The above system is described by two equations since there are two displacements.
Also note that damper 𝐵𝐵2 is under net displacement from 𝑥𝑥1 and 𝑥𝑥2 .
𝐹𝐹(𝑠𝑠) = 𝑀𝑀1 𝑠𝑠 2 𝑋𝑋1 (𝑠𝑠) + 𝐵𝐵1 𝑠𝑠𝑋𝑋1 (𝑠𝑠) + 𝐵𝐵2 𝑠𝑠[𝑋𝑋1 (𝑠𝑠) − 𝑋𝑋2 (𝑠𝑠)]
0 = 𝑀𝑀2 𝑠𝑠 2 𝑋𝑋2 (𝑠𝑠) + 𝐵𝐵2 𝑠𝑠[𝑋𝑋2 (𝑠𝑠) − 𝑋𝑋1 (𝑠𝑠)] + 𝑘𝑘𝑋𝑋2

Electrical Equivalent Circuit: Force – Voltage Analogy

Using ‘Force – Voltage’ analogy, an equation describing analogous system can be
written as
𝑉𝑉(𝑠𝑠) = 𝐿𝐿1 𝑠𝑠 2 𝑄𝑄1 (𝑠𝑠) + 𝑅𝑅1 𝑠𝑠𝑄𝑄1 (𝑠𝑠) + 𝑅𝑅2 𝑠𝑠[𝑄𝑄1 (𝑠𝑠) − 𝑄𝑄2 (𝑠𝑠)]
1
0 = 𝐿𝐿2 𝑠𝑠 2 𝑄𝑄2 (𝑠𝑠) + 𝑅𝑅2 𝑠𝑠[𝑄𝑄2 (𝑠𝑠) − 𝑄𝑄1 (𝑠𝑠)] + 𝑄𝑄2 (𝑠𝑠)
𝑐𝑐
Since 𝑠𝑠 ⋅ 𝑄𝑄(𝑠𝑠) = 𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠),
𝑉𝑉(𝑠𝑠) = 𝐿𝐿1 𝑠𝑠𝐼𝐼1 (𝑠𝑠) + 𝑅𝑅1 𝐼𝐼1 (𝑠𝑠) + 𝑅𝑅2 [𝐼𝐼1 (𝑠𝑠) − 𝐼𝐼2 (𝑠𝑠)]
1
0 = 𝐿𝐿2 𝑠𝑠𝐼𝐼2 (𝑠𝑠) + 𝑅𝑅2 [𝐼𝐼2 (𝑠𝑠) − 𝐼𝐼1 (𝑠𝑠)] + 𝐼𝐼2 (𝑠𝑠)
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
The equivalent system can also be represented by following circuit:
𝐿𝐿1 𝑅𝑅1

𝐼𝐼1 𝐼𝐼2
V 𝑅𝑅2 𝐿𝐿2

𝐶𝐶

33
 Electrical Equivalent Circuit: Force – Current Analogy
Using ‘Force – Current’ analogy, an equation describing analogous system can be
written as
1 1
𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠) = 𝐶𝐶1 𝑠𝑠 2 𝜙𝜙1 (𝑠𝑠) + 𝑠𝑠𝜙𝜙1 (𝑠𝑠) + 𝑠𝑠[𝜙𝜙1 (𝑠𝑠) − 𝜙𝜙2 (𝑠𝑠)]
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2
1 1
0 = 𝐶𝐶2 𝑠𝑠 2 𝜙𝜙2 (𝑠𝑠) + 𝑠𝑠[𝜙𝜙2 (𝑠𝑠) − 𝜙𝜙1 (𝑠𝑠)] + 𝜙𝜙2 (𝑠𝑠)
𝑅𝑅2 𝐿𝐿
Since 𝑠𝑠 ⋅ 𝜙𝜙(𝑠𝑠) = 𝑉𝑉(𝑠𝑠),
1 1
𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠) = 𝐶𝐶1 𝑠𝑠𝑉𝑉1 (𝑠𝑠) + 𝑉𝑉1 (𝑠𝑠) + [𝑉𝑉1 (𝑠𝑠) − 𝑉𝑉2 (𝑠𝑠)]
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2
1 1
0 = 𝐶𝐶2 𝑠𝑠𝑉𝑉2 (𝑠𝑠) + [𝑉𝑉2 (𝑠𝑠) − 𝑉𝑉1 (𝑠𝑠)] + 𝐼𝐼2 (𝑠𝑠)
𝑅𝑅2 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
The equivalent system can also be represented by following circuit:
𝑉𝑉1 𝑉𝑉2

𝑅𝑅2

𝐼𝐼 𝐶𝐶1 𝑅𝑅1 𝐶𝐶2 𝐿𝐿

EXAMPLE 3.3 HEATING ELEMENT IN A WATER HEATER

PROBLEM: A water heater is constructed such that a small vessel is fitted with
a heating element, and cold fluid is passed through it as shown in the figure
below. Find the transfer function of the system given that:
𝜃𝜃𝑖𝑖 = Water inlet temperature in [°C]
𝜃𝜃𝑜𝑜 = Water outlet temperature in [°C]
𝜃𝜃 = Surrounding/Environmental temperature in [°C]
𝑞𝑞𝑖𝑖 = Rate of heat flow to water [J/s]
𝑞𝑞𝑡𝑡 = Rate of heat flow through tank [J/s]
𝐶𝐶 = Thermal capacity [J/C]
𝑅𝑅 = Thermal resistivity of the insulation

34
 𝜃𝜃𝑜𝑜 𝜃𝜃𝑖𝑖

Outlet Inlet
Water Water

𝜃𝜃

SOLUTION: Rate of heat flow to the water in the tank is given by

𝑑𝑑
𝑞𝑞𝑖𝑖 = 𝐶𝐶 ⋅ 𝜃𝜃𝑜𝑜
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
And the rate of heat flow from water to surrounding can be expressed as
𝜃𝜃𝑜𝑜 − 𝜃𝜃
𝑞𝑞𝑡𝑡 =
𝑅𝑅
Total heat flow is given by
𝑞𝑞 = 𝑞𝑞𝑖𝑖 + 𝑞𝑞𝑡𝑡
𝑑𝑑 𝜃𝜃𝑜𝑜 − 𝜃𝜃
= 𝐶𝐶 𝜃𝜃𝑜𝑜 +
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑅𝑅
In the frequency domain, the above expression can be rewritten as
𝜃𝜃𝑜𝑜 (𝑠𝑠)
𝑄𝑄(𝑠𝑠) = 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝜃𝜃𝑜𝑜 (𝑠𝑠) +
𝑅𝑅
1
= 𝜃𝜃𝑜𝑜 �𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 + �
𝑅𝑅
The transfer function is then given by
𝜃𝜃𝑜𝑜 (𝑠𝑠) 1
=� �
𝑄𝑄(𝑠𝑠) 1
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 +
𝑅𝑅
𝑅𝑅
=
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 + 1

EXAMPLE 3.4 THERMOMETER IN A WATER BATH

PROBLEM: A thermometer is inserted in a water bath as shown in the figure.
Calculate the transfer function of the arrangement

𝜃𝜃𝑜𝑜
𝜃𝜃𝑖𝑖

35
 SOLUTION: Rate of heat flow with respect to time is given by
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜃𝜃𝑜𝑜 − 𝜃𝜃𝑖𝑖
= (E3.4.1)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑅𝑅
where 𝑅𝑅 is the thermal resistance of the wall of thermometer.
The temperature rise in thermometer is given by
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝜃𝜃𝑜𝑜
= 𝐶𝐶
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝜃𝜃𝑜𝑜 1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= × (E3.4.2)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐶𝐶 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Substituting 𝐸𝐸3.4.1 in 𝐸𝐸3.4.2
𝑑𝑑𝜃𝜃𝑜𝑜 1
= (𝜃𝜃 − 𝜃𝜃𝑖𝑖 )
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑜𝑜
𝑑𝑑𝜃𝜃𝑜𝑜 1 𝜃𝜃𝑜𝑜 − 𝜃𝜃𝑖𝑖
= � � (E3.4.3)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐶𝐶 𝑅𝑅
𝐸𝐸3.4.3 implies
1
𝑠𝑠𝜃𝜃𝑜𝑜 (𝑠𝑠) = [𝜃𝜃 (𝑠𝑠) − 𝜃𝜃𝑖𝑖 (𝑠𝑠)] (E3.4.4)
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑜𝑜
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝜃𝜃𝑜𝑜 (𝑠𝑠) = 𝜃𝜃𝑜𝑜 (𝑠𝑠) − 𝜃𝜃𝑖𝑖 (𝑠𝑠)
Evaluating the transfer function
𝜃𝜃𝑜𝑜 (𝑠𝑠) 1
=
𝜃𝜃𝑖𝑖 (𝑠𝑠) 1 − 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
Taking 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 𝜏𝜏,
𝜃𝜃𝑜𝑜 (𝑠𝑠) 1
=
𝜃𝜃𝑖𝑖 (𝑠𝑠) 1 − 𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏

EXAMPLE 3.5 TRANSFER FUNCTION OF THE DC MOTOR

PROBLEM: Evaluate the transfer function of a DC motor, as shown in the figure, for
i. Constant armature current
ii. Constant field current

𝑅𝑅𝑓𝑓

𝑖𝑖𝑓𝑓
𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎 𝐿𝐿𝑎𝑎
𝐿𝐿𝑓𝑓
Load
Armature

𝑖𝑖𝑎𝑎
𝜔𝜔, 𝜃𝜃
Inertia = 𝐽𝐽
Friction = 𝑏𝑏

SOLUTION: The DC motor is a power actuator device that delivers energy to a load,
as shown in Figure above. The DC motor converts direct current (DC) electrical
energy into rotational mechanical energy. A major fraction of the torque generated
in the rotor (armature) of the motor is available to drive an external load

36
The transfer function of the DC motor will be developed for a linear approxi­mation
to an actual motor, and second-order effects, such as hysteresis and the volt­age
drop across the brushes, will be neglected. The input voltage may be applied to the
field or armature terminals. The air-gap flux 𝜙𝜙 of the motor is proportional to the
field current, provided the field is unsaturated, so that
𝜙𝜙 = 𝐾𝐾𝑓𝑓 𝑖𝑖𝑓𝑓 (E3.5 − 1)
The torque developed by the motor is assumed to be related linearly to 𝜙𝜙 and the
armature current as follows:
𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚 = 𝐾𝐾1 𝜙𝜙𝑖𝑖𝑎𝑎 (𝑡𝑡) = 𝐾𝐾1 𝐾𝐾𝑓𝑓 𝑖𝑖𝑓𝑓 (𝑡𝑡)𝑖𝑖𝑎𝑎 (𝑡𝑡) (E3.5 − 2)

CONSTANT ARMATURE CURRENT

First, consider the field current controlled motor, which provides a substantial
power amplification. Then, in Laplace transform notation,
𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚 (𝑠𝑠) = �𝐾𝐾1 𝐾𝐾𝑓𝑓 𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎 �𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓 (𝑠𝑠) = 𝐾𝐾𝑚𝑚 𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓 (𝑠𝑠) (E3.5 − 3)
where 𝑖𝑖𝑎𝑎 = 𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎 is a constant armature current, and 𝐾𝐾𝑚𝑚 is defined as the motor
constant. The field current is related to the field voltage as
𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 (𝑠𝑠) = �𝑅𝑅𝑓𝑓 + 𝐿𝐿𝑓𝑓 𝑠𝑠�𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓 (𝑠𝑠) (E3.5 − 4)
The motor torque 𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚 (𝑠𝑠) is equal to the torque delivered to the load. Hence,
𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚 (𝑠𝑠) = 𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿 (𝑠𝑠) + 𝑇𝑇𝑑𝑑 (𝑠𝑠) (E3.5 − 5)
where 𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿 (𝑠𝑠) is the load torque and 𝑇𝑇𝑑𝑑 (𝑠𝑠) is the disturbance torque, which is often
negligible. However, the disturbance torque often must be considered in systems
subjected to external forces such as antenna wind-gust forces. The load torque for
rotating inertia is written as
𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿 (𝑠𝑠) = 𝐽𝐽𝑠𝑠 2 𝜃𝜃(𝑠𝑠) + 𝑏𝑏𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝑠𝑠) (E3.5 − 6)

Rearranging [E3.5 − 3] − [𝐸𝐸3.5 − 5],

𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿 (𝑠𝑠) = 𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚 (𝑠𝑠) − 𝑇𝑇𝑑𝑑 (𝑠𝑠) (E3.5 − 7)

Taking 𝑇𝑇𝑑𝑑 (𝑠𝑠) ≈ 0
𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚 (𝑠𝑠) = 𝐾𝐾𝑚𝑚 𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓 (𝑠𝑠) (E3.5 − 8)
𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 (𝑠𝑠)
𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓 (𝑠𝑠) = (E3.5 − 9)
𝑅𝑅𝑓𝑓 + 𝐿𝐿𝑓𝑓 𝑠𝑠
Now, since 𝑇𝑇𝑑𝑑 ≈ 0,
𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿 (𝑠𝑠) = 𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚 (𝑠𝑠)
= 𝐾𝐾𝑚𝑚 𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓 (𝑠𝑠)
𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 (𝑠𝑠)
= 𝐾𝐾𝑚𝑚 ×
𝑅𝑅𝑓𝑓 + 𝐿𝐿𝑓𝑓 𝑠𝑠
𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿 (𝑠𝑠) is also expressed as
𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿 (𝑠𝑠) = 𝐽𝐽𝑠𝑠 2 𝜃𝜃(𝑠𝑠) + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏(𝑠𝑠)
Therefore,
𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 (𝑠𝑠)
𝐽𝐽𝑠𝑠 2 𝜃𝜃(𝑠𝑠) + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏(𝑠𝑠) = 𝐾𝐾𝑚𝑚 ×
𝑅𝑅𝑓𝑓 + 𝐿𝐿𝑓𝑓 𝑠𝑠
𝐾𝐾𝑚𝑚
𝜃𝜃(𝑠𝑠)[𝐽𝐽𝑠𝑠 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏] = × 𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 (𝑠𝑠)
𝑅𝑅𝑓𝑓 + 𝐿𝐿𝑓𝑓 𝑠𝑠

37
Therefore, the transfer function of the motor-load combination, with 𝑇𝑇𝑑𝑑 (𝑠𝑠) = 0, is
𝜃𝜃(𝑠𝑠) 𝐾𝐾𝑚𝑚
= (E3.5 − 10)
𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 (𝑠𝑠) 𝑠𝑠�𝑅𝑅𝑓𝑓 + 𝐿𝐿𝑓𝑓 𝑠𝑠�(𝐽𝐽𝐽𝐽 + 𝑏𝑏)

The above equation can be rearranged such that

𝜃𝜃(𝑠𝑠) 𝐾𝐾𝑚𝑚
=
𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 (𝑠𝑠) 𝑅𝑅𝑓𝑓 𝑏𝑏
𝑠𝑠 × � + 𝑠𝑠� ⋅ 𝐿𝐿𝑓𝑓 × �𝑠𝑠 + � ⋅ 𝐽𝐽
𝐿𝐿𝑓𝑓 𝐽𝐽
Since 𝐿𝐿𝑓𝑓 /𝑅𝑅𝑓𝑓 = 𝜏𝜏𝑓𝑓 and 𝐽𝐽/𝑏𝑏 = 𝜏𝜏𝐿𝐿
𝐾𝐾𝑚𝑚
𝜃𝜃(𝑠𝑠) �𝐿𝐿𝑓𝑓 𝐽𝐽�
=
𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 (𝑠𝑠) 𝑠𝑠 × � + 𝑠𝑠� × �𝑠𝑠 + 1 �
1
𝜏𝜏𝑓𝑓 𝜏𝜏𝐿𝐿
𝐾𝐾𝑚𝑚 𝐿𝐿𝑓𝑓 𝐽𝐽
� �� �
𝜃𝜃(𝑠𝑠) 𝐿𝐿𝑓𝑓 𝐽𝐽 𝑅𝑅𝑓𝑓 𝑏𝑏
=
𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 (𝑠𝑠) 𝑠𝑠 × �1 + 𝜏𝜏𝑓𝑓 𝑠𝑠� × (𝜏𝜏𝐿𝐿 𝑠𝑠 + 1)
𝜃𝜃(𝑠𝑠) 𝐾𝐾𝑚𝑚 ⁄𝑅𝑅𝑓𝑓 𝑏𝑏
= (E3.5 − 11)
𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 (𝑠𝑠) 𝑠𝑠 × �1 + 𝜏𝜏𝑓𝑓 𝑠𝑠� × (𝜏𝜏𝐿𝐿 𝑠𝑠 + 1)

CONSTANT FIELD CURRENT

The armature-controlled DC motor uses the armature current ia as the control
variable. The stator field can be established by a field coil and current or a
permanent magnet. When a constant field current is established in a field coil, the
motor torque is
𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚 (𝑠𝑠) = �𝐾𝐾1 𝐾𝐾𝑓𝑓 𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓 �𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎 (𝑠𝑠) = 𝐾𝐾𝑚𝑚 𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎 (𝑠𝑠) (E3.5 − 12)
where 𝐾𝐾𝑚𝑚 is a function of the permeability of the magnetic material. The armature
current is related to the input voltage applied to the armature by
𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 (𝑠𝑠) = (𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎 + 𝐿𝐿𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠)𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎 (𝑠𝑠) + 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏 (𝑠𝑠) (E3.5 − 13)
where 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏 (𝑠𝑠) is the back e.m.f voltage proportional to the motor speed. Therefore
𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏 (𝑠𝑠) = 𝐾𝐾𝑏𝑏 𝜔𝜔(𝑠𝑠) (E3.5 − 14)
Where 𝜔𝜔(𝑠𝑠) = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝑠𝑠) is the transform of the angular speed and the armature
current is
𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 (𝑠𝑠) − 𝐾𝐾𝑏𝑏 𝜔𝜔(𝑠𝑠)
𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎 (𝑠𝑠) = (E3.5 − 15)
𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎 + 𝐿𝐿𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠
𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿 (𝑠𝑠) = 𝐽𝐽𝑠𝑠 2 𝜃𝜃(𝑠𝑠) + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏(𝑠𝑠) = 𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚 (𝑠𝑠) − 𝑇𝑇𝑑𝑑 (𝑠𝑠) (E3.5 − 16)

Using [E3.5 − 12] to [E3.5 − 16], and taking 𝑇𝑇𝑑𝑑 (𝑠𝑠) ≈ 0

𝐽𝐽𝑠𝑠 2 𝜃𝜃(𝑠𝑠) + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏(𝑠𝑠) = 𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚 (𝑠𝑠)
= 𝐾𝐾𝑚𝑚 𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎 (𝑠𝑠)
𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 (𝑠𝑠) − 𝐾𝐾𝑏𝑏 𝜔𝜔(𝑠𝑠)
= 𝐾𝐾𝑚𝑚 ×
𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎 + 𝐿𝐿𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠
𝐾𝐾𝑚𝑚
𝜃𝜃(𝑠𝑠)[𝐽𝐽𝑠𝑠 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏] = [𝑉𝑉 (𝑠𝑠) − 𝐾𝐾𝑏𝑏 𝜔𝜔(𝑠𝑠)]
𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎 + 𝐿𝐿𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑎
Before proceeding ahead, 𝜔𝜔(𝑠𝑠) must be expressed in form of 𝜃𝜃(𝑠𝑠). Since

38
 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑(𝑡𝑡)
= 𝜔𝜔(𝑡𝑡)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Therefore,
𝜔𝜔(𝑠𝑠) = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝑠𝑠)
Hence,
𝐾𝐾𝑚𝑚
𝜃𝜃(𝑠𝑠)[𝐽𝐽𝑠𝑠 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏] = [𝑉𝑉 (𝑠𝑠) − 𝐾𝐾𝑏𝑏 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝑠𝑠)]
𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎 + 𝐿𝐿𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑎
𝐾𝐾𝑚𝑚 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 (𝑠𝑠)
𝜃𝜃(𝑠𝑠)(𝐽𝐽𝑠𝑠 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏) + 𝐾𝐾𝑏𝑏 𝐾𝐾𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝑠𝑠) =
𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎 + 𝐿𝐿𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠
𝐾𝐾𝑚𝑚 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 (𝑠𝑠)
𝑠𝑠[𝐽𝐽𝑠𝑠 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝐾𝐾𝑏𝑏 𝐾𝐾𝑚𝑚 ]𝜃𝜃(𝑠𝑠) =
𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎 + 𝐿𝐿𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠
Then,
𝜃𝜃(𝑠𝑠) 𝐾𝐾𝑚𝑚
= (E3.5 − 17)
𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 (𝑠𝑠) 𝑠𝑠[(𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎 + 𝐿𝐿𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠)(𝐽𝐽𝐽𝐽 + 𝑏𝑏) + 𝐾𝐾𝑏𝑏 𝐾𝐾𝑚𝑚 ]

EXAMPLE 3.6 MECHANICAL ACCELEROMETER

PROBLEM: A mechanical accelerometer is used to measure the acceleration of a

rocket test sled, as shown in the Figure below. The test sled manoeuvres above a
guide rail, a small distance 𝛿𝛿.

The accelerometer provides a measurement of the acceleration 𝑎𝑎(𝑡𝑡) of the sled,

since the position 𝑦𝑦 of the mass 𝑀𝑀 , with respect to the accelerometer case, is
proportional to the acceleration of the case (and the sled). The goal is to design an
accelerometer with an appropriate dynamic responsiveness.

𝑥𝑥 = Case position
Accelerometer

Case
𝑦𝑦
𝑥𝑥
𝑀𝑀
Jet Engine Spring , 𝑘𝑘 𝑏𝑏
Gap, 𝛿𝛿
Rocket Sled, 𝑀𝑀𝑠𝑠

Guide Rail

SOLUTION: The aim is to design an accelerometer with an acceptable time for the
desired measurement characteristic, that is 𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞(𝑡𝑡), to be attained (𝑞𝑞 is a
constant). The sum of forces acting on the mass is

39
 𝑀𝑀(𝑦𝑦̈ + 𝑥𝑥̈ ) + 𝑏𝑏𝑦𝑦̇ + 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 = 0
𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦̈ + 𝑏𝑏𝑦𝑦̇ + 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 = −𝑀𝑀𝑥𝑥̈
(E3.6 − 1)

Since the engine force is given by

𝐹𝐹(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑀𝑀𝑠𝑠 𝑥𝑥̈

𝐹𝐹(𝑡𝑡)
𝑥𝑥̈ =
𝑀𝑀𝑠𝑠

Therefore,

𝑀𝑀
𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦̈ + 𝑏𝑏𝑦𝑦̇ + 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 = − 𝐹𝐹(𝑡𝑡)
𝑀𝑀𝑠𝑠

Or

𝑏𝑏 𝑘𝑘 𝐹𝐹(𝑡𝑡)
𝑦𝑦̈ + 𝑦𝑦̇ + 𝑦𝑦 = − (E3.6 − 2)
𝑀𝑀 𝑀𝑀 𝑀𝑀𝑠𝑠

The selection of spring, mass and damper is such that 𝑏𝑏/𝑀𝑀 = 3, and 𝑘𝑘/𝑀𝑀 = 2. The
acceleration 𝐹𝐹(𝑡𝑡)/𝑀𝑀𝑠𝑠 is denoted by 𝑄𝑄(𝑡𝑡) and the initial conditions are taken to be
𝑦𝑦(0) = −1 and 𝑦𝑦̇ (0) = 2. Thus the Laplace transform of Eqn E3.6 − 2 is

[𝑠𝑠 2 𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠) − 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(0) − 𝑦𝑦̇ (0)] + 3[𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝑠𝑠) − 𝑦𝑦(0)] + 2𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠) = −𝑄𝑄(𝑠𝑠) (E3.6 − 3)

Substituting the initial conditions gives and taking 𝑄𝑄(𝑠𝑠) = 𝑃𝑃/𝑠𝑠 , where 𝑃𝑃 is the
magnitude of the step function

𝑃𝑃
[𝑠𝑠 2 𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠) + 𝑠𝑠 − 2] + 3[𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝑠𝑠) + 1] + 2𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠) = − (E3.6 − 4)
𝑠𝑠

The term 𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠) can be isolated with algebraic manipulations

(𝑠𝑠 2 + 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑃𝑃)
(𝑠𝑠 2 + 3𝑠𝑠 + 2)𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠) = −
𝑠𝑠
(𝑠𝑠 2 + 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑃𝑃)
𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠) = −
𝑠𝑠(𝑠𝑠 2 + 3𝑠𝑠 + 2)
(𝑠𝑠 2 + 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑃𝑃)
𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠) = − (𝐸𝐸3.6 − 5)
𝑠𝑠(𝑠𝑠 + 1)(𝑠𝑠 + 2)

Applying partial fractions

𝐴𝐴 𝐵𝐵 𝐶𝐶
𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠) = + +
𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 + 1 𝑠𝑠 + 2

Taking LCM, and eliminating denominator

−(𝑠𝑠 2 + 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑃𝑃) ≡ 𝐴𝐴(𝑠𝑠 + 1)(𝑠𝑠 + 2) + 𝐵𝐵 ⋅ 𝑠𝑠 ⋅ (𝑠𝑠 + 2) + 𝐶𝐶 ⋅ 𝑠𝑠 ⋅ (𝑠𝑠 + 1)

40
 When 𝑠𝑠 = −1 When 𝑠𝑠 = −2 When 𝑠𝑠 = 0

−𝑃𝑃 = −𝐵𝐵, then −2 − 𝑃𝑃 = 2𝐶𝐶, then −𝑃𝑃 = 2𝐴𝐴, then

𝐵𝐵 = 𝑃𝑃 𝑃𝑃 + 2 𝑃𝑃
𝐶𝐶 = − 𝐴𝐴 = −
2 2

Hence, 𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠) is given by

𝑃𝑃 𝑃𝑃 𝑃𝑃 + 2
𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠) = − + − (E3.6 − 6)
2𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 + 1 2(𝑠𝑠 + 2)

Applying inverse transform will give

1
𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡) = [−𝑃𝑃 − 2𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡 − (𝑃𝑃 + 2)𝑒𝑒 −2𝑡𝑡 ], 𝑡𝑡 ≥ 0
2

41
 4 TIME RESPONSE OF A SYSTEM
After the engineer obtains a mathematical representation of a subsystem, the subsystem is analysed
for its transient and steady-state responses to see if these characteristics yield the desired behaviour.
This chapter is devoted to the analysis of system transient response.

4.1 OVERVIEW
The response given by the system, which is a function of time, to an applied excitation is known as
time response.

The variation in control system’s output during the time it takes to achieve its final value is known as
transient response. It is usually characterised by an exponential or an oscillating value. The duration
of transient response is specified by the time constant of the sensor or the system (denoted by τ).

The part of the time response that remains after the complete transient response is known as steady
state response. In other words, the part of the output after the output signal has stabilized is called
steady state response. If 𝐶𝐶𝑇𝑇 (𝑡𝑡), 𝐶𝐶𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 (𝑡𝑡) and 𝐶𝐶𝑡𝑡 (𝑡𝑡) are the total response, steady state response and the
transient response, respectively, then

𝐶𝐶𝑇𝑇 (𝑡𝑡) = 𝐶𝐶𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 (𝑡𝑡) + 𝐶𝐶𝑡𝑡 (𝑡𝑡)

Steady state error is the difference between desired output and the steady state response.

A system that gives bounded output for bounded input is known as stable system, while systems giving
infinite outputs are known as unstable systems.

Characteristics of a System Response

1.4
1.2
1
Output (Ct)

0.8 Transient Response Steady Sate Response

0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time (t)

Real Response Desired Response

Figure 4-1 Example response of a 2nd order systems

42
4.2 1ST ORDER SYSTEMS
First order control systems are characterized by first derivative with respect to time. In theory, first
order system is a system which has one integrator. As number of order increases, number of
integrators in a system also increases.

There are different techniques to solve a system equation using differential equations or Laplace
Transform but engineers find the ways to minimize the technique of solving equations for abrupt
output and work efficiency. The total response of the system is the sum of forced response and natural
response.

𝑐𝑐𝑇𝑇 (𝑡𝑡) = 𝑐𝑐𝑓𝑓 (𝑡𝑡) + 𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛 (𝑡𝑡)

where

𝑐𝑐𝑇𝑇 (𝑡𝑡) = Total Response

𝑐𝑐𝑓𝑓 (𝑡𝑡) = Forced Response
𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛 (𝑡𝑡) = Natural Response

Consider a first order system and the transfer function of a system with feedback loop is given by

𝐶𝐶(𝑠𝑠) 𝐺𝐺(𝑠𝑠)
=
𝑅𝑅(𝑠𝑠) 1 + 𝐺𝐺(𝑠𝑠)𝐻𝐻(𝑠𝑠)

Moreover, as shown in the previous chapter, the transfer function of first order system in frequency
domain is always of the form
1
𝐺𝐺(𝑠𝑠) =
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
Hence, taking 𝐻𝐻(𝑠𝑠) = 1 yields
1
𝐶𝐶(𝑠𝑠) 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
=
𝑅𝑅(𝑠𝑠) 1 + 1 × 1
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
1
=
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 + 1
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 � �
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
1
=
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 + 1

4.2.1 Response to a Unit Step

Consider a first order system that is given a unit step input, that is
1 𝑡𝑡 ≥ 0
𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡) = �
0 otherwise
Then the Laplace transformation of the input is given by
1
𝑅𝑅(𝑠𝑠) =
𝑠𝑠
Therefore

43
 1 1
𝐶𝐶(𝑠𝑠) = ×
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 + 1 𝑠𝑠
1
=
𝑠𝑠(𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 + 1)

Using partial Fractions

1 𝐴𝐴 𝐵𝐵
≡ +
𝑠𝑠(𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 + 1) 𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 + 1
𝐴𝐴(𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 + 1) + 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
≡
𝑠𝑠(𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 + 1)
1 ≡ 𝐴𝐴(𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 + 1) + 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵

The values of 𝐴𝐴 and 𝐵𝐵 is given by

When 𝑠𝑠 = −1/𝜏𝜏
When 𝑠𝑠 = 0 1
𝐵𝐵 �− � = 1
𝐴𝐴 = 1 𝜏𝜏
𝐵𝐵 = −𝜏𝜏
Therefore,
1 𝜏𝜏
𝐶𝐶(𝑠𝑠) = −
𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 + 1
Converting the above expression into time domain by applying inverse Laplace transformation, and
multiplying and dividing the second term with 1/𝜏𝜏.

1 𝜏𝜏
𝐶𝐶(𝑡𝑡) = ℒ −1 � − �
𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 + 1
1
1 𝜏𝜏 ×
−1
=ℒ � − 𝜏𝜏 �
𝑠𝑠 1 (𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 + 1)
𝜏𝜏
1 1
= ℒ −1 � − �
𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 + 1
𝜏𝜏
𝐶𝐶(𝑡𝑡) = 1 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡/𝜏𝜏

where 𝜏𝜏 is the time constant of the system. When the time elapsed is equal to the time response, i.e.
𝑡𝑡 = 𝜏𝜏, then

𝐶𝐶(𝑡𝑡) = 1 − 𝑒𝑒 −1
= 0.6321
= 63.21%

Therefore, the time constant can also be defined as the time required for a system to attain 63.2% of
its final value.

44
 Response of 1st Order System
C(t)

63.2%

𝜏𝜏 Time (t)

Following table provides the output response of the system for different time periods

Time Percentage
of final value
𝒕𝒕 = 𝝉𝝉 63.21%
𝒕𝒕 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 86.46%
𝒕𝒕 = 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 95.02%
𝒕𝒕 = 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗. 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏%
𝒕𝒕 = 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 99.32%
𝒕𝒕 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 99.99%
When elapsed time is equal to 4 times the time constant, the response is within two percent error of
final value. This is known as the settling time of a system.

4.2.1.1 Steady State Error of a Response to Unit Step

Error in response refers to the difference between the value of the response and the desired response.
It is given by

𝑒𝑒(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑟𝑟(𝑡𝑡) − 𝑐𝑐(𝑡𝑡)

= 1 − �1 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡/𝜏𝜏 �
= 𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡/𝜏𝜏

When the value of time elapsed goes to infinity, the response attains a final value known as steady
state value. The difference between steady state value and the desired response is known as steady
state error, and is given by
𝑡𝑡
𝑒𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = lim 𝑒𝑒(𝑡𝑡) = lim 𝑒𝑒 −𝜏𝜏
𝑡𝑡→∞ 𝑡𝑡→∞
= 𝑒𝑒 −∞
=0

45
4.2.2 Response to a Unit Impulse
Consider a first order system that is given a unit impulse input, that is

1 𝑡𝑡 = 0
𝛿𝛿(𝑡𝑡) = �
0 otherwise
When Laplace transformation is applied to unit impulse, the result is unity, that is

𝑅𝑅(𝑠𝑠) = ℒ [𝛿𝛿(𝑡𝑡)] = Δ(𝑠𝑠) = 1

Therefore,
1
𝐶𝐶(𝑠𝑠) = ×1
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 + 1
and

1 1
𝐶𝐶(𝑠𝑠) = � �
𝜏𝜏 𝑠𝑠 + 1
𝜏𝜏
1 −𝑡𝑡/𝜏𝜏
𝐶𝐶(𝑡𝑡) = ⋅ 𝑒𝑒
𝜏𝜏

4.2.3 Response to a Unit Ramp

Unit ramp is given by

𝑟𝑟(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑡𝑡

Hence, the unit ramp in frequency domain is given by

𝑟𝑟(𝑠𝑠) = 1/𝑠𝑠 2

Therefore,
1 1 1
𝐶𝐶(𝑠𝑠) = × 2= 2
𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏 + 1 𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 (𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏 + 1)

Applying method of partial fractions

1 𝐴𝐴 𝐵𝐵 𝐶𝐶
≡ + +
𝑠𝑠 2 (𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏 + 1) 𝑠𝑠 2 𝑠𝑠 𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏 + 1

Therefore,

1 ≡ 𝐴𝐴(𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏 + 1) + 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵(𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏 + 1) + 𝐶𝐶𝑠𝑠 2

1 ≡ 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 + 𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝑠𝑠 2 + 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 + 𝐶𝐶𝑠𝑠 2
1 ≡ 𝐴𝐴 + (𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵)𝑠𝑠 + (𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 + 𝐶𝐶)𝑠𝑠 2

Comparing coefficients of different powers of ‘𝑠𝑠’

𝐴𝐴 = 1 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵 = 0 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 + 𝐶𝐶 = 0
𝐵𝐵 + 𝜏𝜏 = 0 𝐶𝐶 = 𝜏𝜏 2
𝐵𝐵 = −𝜏𝜏

46
 1 𝜏𝜏 𝜏𝜏 2
𝐶𝐶(𝑠𝑠) = − +
𝑠𝑠 2 𝑠𝑠 𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏 + 1
1 𝜏𝜏 𝜏𝜏
= 2− +
𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 + 1
𝜏𝜏
Applying inverse Laplace transform to above equation

ℒ −1 [𝐶𝐶(𝑠𝑠)] = 𝑡𝑡 − 𝜏𝜏 + 𝜏𝜏𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡/𝜏𝜏

The error of response is given by

𝑒𝑒(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑟𝑟(𝑡𝑡) − 𝑐𝑐(𝑡𝑡)

𝑒𝑒(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑡𝑡 − 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜏𝜏 − 𝜏𝜏𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡/𝜏𝜏
𝑒𝑒(𝑡𝑡) = 𝜏𝜏 − 𝜏𝜏𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡/𝜏𝜏

4.3 2ND ORDER SYSTEMS

Compared to the simplicity of a first-order system, a second-order system exhibits a wide range of
responses that must be analysed and described. Whereas varying a first-order system’s parameter
simply changes the speed of the response, changes in the parameters of a second-order system can
change the form of the response. For example, a second-order system can display characteristics much
like a first-order system, or, depending on component values, display damped or pure oscillations for
its transient response.

In this section, two physically meaningful specifications for second-order systems are defined. These
quantities can be used to describe the characteristics of the second-order transient response just as
time constants describe the first-order system response. The two quantities are called natural
frequency and damping ratio. Let us formally define them.

4.3.1 Natural Frequency, 𝝎𝝎𝒏𝒏

The natural frequency of a second-order system is the frequency of oscillation of the system without
damping. For example, the frequency of oscillation of a series RLC circuit with the resistance shorted
would be the natural frequency.

4.3.2 Damping Ratio, 𝜻𝜻

A viable definition for this quantity is one that compares the exponential decay frequency of the
envelope to the natural frequency. This ratio is constant regardless of the time scale of the response.
Also, the reciprocal, which is proportional to the ratio of the natural period to the exponential time
constant, remains the same regardless of the time base.

The damping ratio is defined to be

Exponential Decay Frequency 1 Natrual Period (sec)

𝜁𝜁 = =
Natural Frequency (rad/sec) 2𝜋𝜋 Exponential Time Constant

With reference to damping ratio, if

𝜁𝜁 = 0, Undamped response
𝜁𝜁 < 1, Underdamped response
𝜁𝜁 = 1, Critically damped response
𝜁𝜁 > 1, Over damped response

47
4.3.3 Response to Unit Step Input in 2nd Order System
The generalized transfer function of second order system is given by

𝐶𝐶(𝑠𝑠) 𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛2
= 2
𝑅𝑅(𝑠𝑠) 𝑠𝑠 + 2𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 𝑠𝑠 + 𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛2

Hence the response is given by

𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛2
𝐶𝐶(𝑠𝑠) = × 𝑅𝑅(𝑠𝑠)
𝑠𝑠 2 + 2𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 𝑠𝑠 + 𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛2

Since the input is a unit step, then 𝑅𝑅(𝑠𝑠) is given by

1
𝑅𝑅(𝑠𝑠) =
𝑠𝑠
Therefore,

𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛2 1
𝐶𝐶(𝑠𝑠) = 2 2 × 𝑠𝑠
𝑠𝑠 + 2𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 𝑠𝑠 + 𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛
𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛2 1
= 2 2 2 2 ×
𝑠𝑠 + 2𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 𝑠𝑠 + 𝜁𝜁 2 𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 − 𝜁𝜁 2 𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 + 𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 𝑠𝑠
𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛2 1
= 2 2 2 2 2 2 × 𝑠𝑠
𝑠𝑠 + 2𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 𝑠𝑠 + 𝜁𝜁 𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 − 𝜁𝜁 𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 + 𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛
𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛2 1
= 2 ×
(𝑠𝑠 + 𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 ) + (1 − 𝜁𝜁 )𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 𝑠𝑠
2 2

𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛2 1
= 2 ×
(𝑠𝑠 + 𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 ) + 𝜔𝜔𝑑𝑑 𝑠𝑠
2

where 𝜔𝜔𝑑𝑑 = 𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 �1 − 𝜁𝜁 2

Decomposition of the above expression with partial fraction yields

1 𝑠𝑠 + 2𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛
𝐶𝐶(𝑠𝑠) = −
𝑠𝑠 (𝑠𝑠 + 𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 )2 + 𝜔𝜔𝑑𝑑2
1 𝑠𝑠 + 𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛
= − −
𝑠𝑠 (𝑠𝑠 + 𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 ) + 𝜔𝜔𝑑𝑑 (𝑠𝑠 + 𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 )2 + 𝜔𝜔𝑑𝑑2
2 2

1 𝑠𝑠 + 𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 𝜔𝜔𝑑𝑑

= − 2 − 2 ×
𝑠𝑠 (𝑠𝑠 + 𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 ) + 𝜔𝜔𝑑𝑑 (𝑠𝑠 + 𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 ) + 𝜔𝜔𝑑𝑑 𝜔𝜔𝑑𝑑
2 2

1 𝑠𝑠 + 𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔𝑑𝑑 𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛

= − 2 − 2 ×
𝑠𝑠 (𝑠𝑠 + 𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 ) + 𝜔𝜔𝑑𝑑 (𝑠𝑠 + 𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 ) + 𝜔𝜔𝑑𝑑 𝜔𝜔𝑑𝑑
2 2

Applying inverse Laplace transformation (refer to transformation 19 and 20 in the “Table of Laplace
Transforms”).

𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 −𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔 𝑡𝑡
ℒ −1 [𝐶𝐶(𝑠𝑠)] = 1 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 𝑡𝑡 cos(𝜔𝜔𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡) − 𝑒𝑒 𝑛𝑛 sin(𝜔𝜔 𝑡𝑡)
𝑑𝑑
𝜔𝜔𝑑𝑑
𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛
= 1 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 𝑡𝑡 �cos(𝜔𝜔𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡) − sin(𝜔𝜔𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡) × �
𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 �1 − 𝜁𝜁 2
𝜁𝜁
𝑐𝑐(𝑡𝑡) = 1 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 𝑡𝑡 �cos(𝜔𝜔𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡) − sin(𝜔𝜔𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡) × �
�1 − 𝜁𝜁 2
48
Using following substitution

sin 𝜙𝜙 = �1 − 𝜁𝜁 2 cos 𝜙𝜙 = 𝜁𝜁

Then

�1 − 𝜁𝜁 2
tan 𝜙𝜙 =
𝜁𝜁

𝜁𝜁
𝑐𝑐(𝑡𝑡) = 1 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 𝑡𝑡 �cos(𝜔𝜔𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡) − sin(𝜔𝜔𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡) × �
�1 − 𝜁𝜁 2
𝑒𝑒 −𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 𝑡𝑡
=1− �cos(𝜔𝜔𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡) �1 − 𝜁𝜁 2 − 𝜁𝜁 sin(𝜔𝜔𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡)�
�1 − 𝜁𝜁 2
𝑒𝑒 −𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 𝑡𝑡
=1− [cos(𝜔𝜔𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡) sin 𝜙𝜙 − sin(𝜔𝜔𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡) cos 𝜙𝜙]
�1 − 𝜁𝜁 2
𝑒𝑒 −𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 𝑡𝑡
=1− [sin(𝜔𝜔𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜙𝜙)]
�1 − 𝜁𝜁 2

The error of the response is given by

𝑒𝑒(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑟𝑟(𝑡𝑡) − 𝑐𝑐(𝑡𝑡)

𝑒𝑒 −𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 𝑡𝑡
=1−1+ [sin(𝜔𝜔𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜙𝜙)]
�1 − 𝜁𝜁 2
𝑒𝑒 −𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 𝑡𝑡
= [sin(𝜔𝜔𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜙𝜙)]
�1 − 𝜁𝜁 2

When the system is undamped, that is, 𝜁𝜁 = 0

𝑒𝑒(𝑡𝑡) = 1 − cos(𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 𝑡𝑡)

And the steady state error is given by

𝑒𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = lim 𝑒𝑒(𝑡𝑡) = 1

𝑡𝑡→∞

4.3.4 Transient Response Parameter of 2nd Order System

The transient response of a 2nd order system is defined by following principled parameter

1. Delay time, 𝒕𝒕𝒅𝒅

The time required for output to achieve fifty percent of its final value for the first time.

2. Peak time, 𝒕𝒕𝒑𝒑

Time required for response to achieve its maximum value for the first time

Derivation of 𝒕𝒕𝒑𝒑

Since 𝑡𝑡𝑝𝑝 is time for maximum value,

𝑑𝑑
𝑐𝑐(𝑡𝑡) = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

49
 𝑒𝑒 −𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 𝑡𝑡
�cos�𝜔𝜔𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡𝑝𝑝 + 𝜙𝜙� 𝜔𝜔𝑑𝑑 − sin�𝜔𝜔𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡𝑝𝑝 + 𝜙𝜙� 𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 � = 0
�1 − 𝜁𝜁 2
cos�𝜔𝜔𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡𝑝𝑝 + 𝜙𝜙� 𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 �1 − 𝜁𝜁 2 − sin�𝜔𝜔𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡𝑝𝑝 + 𝜙𝜙� 𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 = 0

Trigonometric expansion of the above expression yields

sin�𝜔𝜔𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡𝑝𝑝 � = 0 = sin 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛

𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
𝑡𝑡𝑝𝑝 = = 𝑛𝑛 = 1
𝜔𝜔𝑑𝑑 𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 �1 − 𝜁𝜁 2

3. Rise time, 𝒕𝒕𝒓𝒓

Time required for a system to acquire its final value for the first time

Derivation of 𝒕𝒕𝒓𝒓

𝑒𝑒 −𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 𝑡𝑡
𝑐𝑐(𝑡𝑡) = 1 − [sin(𝜔𝜔𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜙𝜙)]
�1 − 𝜁𝜁 2

𝑐𝑐(𝑡𝑡) = 1

𝑒𝑒 −𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 𝑡𝑡𝑟𝑟
[sin(𝜔𝜔𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡𝑟𝑟 + 𝜙𝜙)] = 0
�1 − 𝜁𝜁 2

This implies that

sin(𝜔𝜔𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡𝑟𝑟 + 𝜙𝜙) = 0 = sin 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛 = 0, 1, 2, …

Hence

𝜔𝜔𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡𝑟𝑟 + 𝜙𝜙 = 𝜋𝜋 𝑛𝑛 = 1

𝜋𝜋 − 𝜙𝜙
𝑡𝑡𝑟𝑟 =
𝜔𝜔𝑑𝑑
𝜋𝜋 − 𝜙𝜙
=
𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 �1 − 𝜁𝜁 2

4. Max overshoot, 𝑴𝑴𝒑𝒑

Maximum positive deviation from steady state value.

Derivation of maximum overshoot

𝑀𝑀𝑝𝑝 = 𝑐𝑐(𝑡𝑡) − 𝑐𝑐(∞)

= 𝑐𝑐(𝑡𝑡) − 1

the above relation can be expressed in percentage as follows

𝑐𝑐(𝑡𝑡) − 𝑐𝑐(∞)
𝑀𝑀𝑝𝑝 = × 100%
𝑐𝑐(∞)
𝑐𝑐(𝑡𝑡) − 1
= × 100%
1
= 100 × 𝑐𝑐(𝑡𝑡)%

50
 𝑒𝑒 −𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 𝑡𝑡
=1− [sin(𝜔𝜔𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜙𝜙)]
�1 − 𝜁𝜁 2

Since maximum overshoot is the difference between final value and the first peak, this
point occurs at peak time, therefore

𝑀𝑀𝑝𝑝 = 𝑐𝑐�𝑡𝑡𝑝𝑝 �
𝑒𝑒 −𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 𝑡𝑡𝑝𝑝𝜔𝜔𝑑𝑑 𝜋𝜋
=1− �sin � + 𝜙𝜙��
�1 − 𝜁𝜁 2 𝜔𝜔𝑑𝑑
𝑒𝑒 −𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 𝑡𝑡𝑝𝑝
=1− [sin(𝜋𝜋 + 𝜙𝜙)]
�1 − 𝜁𝜁 2
𝑒𝑒 −𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 𝑡𝑡𝑝𝑝
=1+ sin(𝜙𝜙)
�1 − 𝜁𝜁 2
𝜋𝜋
−𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛
𝑒𝑒 𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 �1−𝜁𝜁 2
=1+ sin(𝜙𝜙)
�1 − 𝜁𝜁 2
−𝜁𝜁𝜁𝜁
�1−𝜁𝜁 2
𝑒𝑒
=1+ �1 − 𝜁𝜁 2 sin 𝜙𝜙 = 𝜁𝜁
�1 − 𝜁𝜁 2

Hence, the value of 𝑀𝑀𝑝𝑝 is

2
1 + 𝑒𝑒 −𝜁𝜁𝜁𝜁/�1−𝜁𝜁

5. Settling time, 𝒕𝒕𝒔𝒔

When the output of the system reaches within 2% or 5% of steady state value. The settling
time can be calculated from the following expressions

1
𝜏𝜏 =
𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛
3
𝑡𝑡𝑠𝑠,5% = 3𝜏𝜏 =
𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛
4
𝑡𝑡𝑠𝑠,2% = 4𝜏𝜏 =
𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛

51
 5 STABILITY OF SYSTEMS
Stability of closed-loop feedback systems is central to control system design. A stable system should
exhibit a bounded output if the corresponding input is bounded. This is known as bounded-input-
bounded-output stability and is one of the main topics of this chapter. The stability of a feedback
system is directly related to the location of the roots of the characteristic equation of the system
transfer function and to the location of the eigenvalues of the system matrix for a system in state
variable format. The Routh-Hurwitz method is introduced as a useful tool for assessing system
stability. The technique allows the determination of the number of roots of the characteristic equation
in the right half plane without actually computing the values of the roots. This provides a design
method for determining values of certain system parameters that will lead to closed-loop stability.

5.1 CONCEPT OF STABILITY

A stable system is defined as a system with a bounded (limited) system response. That is,

A stable system is a dynamic system with a bounded response to a bounded

input.

The concept of stability can be illustrated by considering a right circular cone placed on a plane
horizontal surface. If the cone is resting on its base and is tipped slightly, it returns to its original
equilibrium position. This position and response are said to be stable. If the cone rests on its side and
is displaced slightly, it rolls with no tendency to leave the position on its side. This position is
designated as the neutral stability. On the other hand, if the cone is placed on its tip and released, it
falls onto its side. This position is said to be unstable.

The stability of a dynamic system is defined in a similar manner. The response to a displacement, or
initial condition, will result in either a decreasing, neutral, or increasing response.

The location in the s-plane of the poles of a system indicates the resulting transient response. The
poles in the left-hand portion of the s-plane result in a decreasing response for disturbance inputs.
Similarly, poles on the 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 − axis and in the right-hand plane result in a neutral and an increasing
response, respectively, for a disturbance input.

In terms of linear systems, the stability requirement may be defined in terms of the location of the
poles of the closed-loop transfer function. The closed-loop system’s generalised transfer function in
frequency domain is written as

𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠) 𝑁𝑁(𝑠𝑠) 𝑏𝑏𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑚 + 𝑏𝑏𝑚𝑚−1 𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑏0

= =
𝑈𝑈(𝑠𝑠) 𝐷𝐷(𝑠𝑠) 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑛 + 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛−1 𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑎0
(𝑠𝑠 + 𝑧𝑧1 )(𝑠𝑠 + 𝑧𝑧2 ) … (𝑠𝑠 + 𝑧𝑧𝑛𝑛 )
=
(𝑠𝑠 + 𝑝𝑝1 )(𝑠𝑠 + 𝑝𝑝2 ) … (𝑠𝑠 + 𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛 )

and the generalised response in time domain is of the form

𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡) = 𝐶𝐶1 𝑒𝑒 −𝑝𝑝1 𝑡𝑡 + 𝐶𝐶2 𝑒𝑒 −𝑝𝑝2 𝑡𝑡 + ⋯ + 𝐶𝐶𝑛𝑛 𝑒𝑒 −𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛 𝑡𝑡

To obtain a bounded response, the poles of the closed-loop system must be in the left-hand portion
of the s-plane. Thus,
52
 A necessary and sufficient condition for a feedback system to be stable is that
all the poles of the system transfer function have negative real parts

A system is stable if all the poles of the transfer function are in the left-hand s-plane. A system is not
stable if not all the roots are in the left-hand plane. If the characteristic equation has simple roots on
the imaginary axis (𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 − axis) with all other roots in the left half-plane, the steady-state output will
be sustained oscillations for a bounded input, unless the input is a sinusoid (which is bounded) whose
frequency is equal to the magnitude of the 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 − axis roots. For this case, the output becomes
unbounded. Such a system is called marginally stable, since only certain bounded inputs (sinusoids of
the frequency of the poles) will cause the output to become unbounded. For an unstable system, the
characteristic equation has at least one root in the right half of the s-plane or repeated 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 roots; for
this case, the output will become unbounded for any input.

5.2 ROUTH’S STABILITY CRITERIA

In this section, a method that yields stability information without the need to solve for the closed-loop
system poles is introduced. This method is used to evaluate how many closed-loop system poles are
in the left half-plane, in the right half-plane, and on the 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗-axis. The method is called the Routh-
Hurwitz criterion for stability (Routh, 1905), and comprises of two steps:

1. Generate a data table called a Routh table (also known as Routh’s Array)
2. Interpret the Routh table to tell how many closed-loop system poles are in the left half-plane,
the right half-plane, and on the 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗-axis.

The power of the method lies in design rather than analysis. For example, if there is an unknown
parameter in the denominator of a transfer function, it is difficult to determine via a calculator the
range of this parameter to yield stability, requires tedious trial and error method to answer the
stability question. Meanwhile, Routh-Hurwitz criterion can yield a closed-form expression for the
range of the unknown parameter.

5.2.1 Routh’s Array

If the characteristic equation of a transfer function is such that

𝑎𝑎0 𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑛 + 𝑎𝑎1 𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 = 0

then Routh’s Array is constructed as follows

𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑛 𝑎𝑎0 𝑎𝑎2 𝑎𝑎4 𝑎𝑎6

𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑛−1 𝑎𝑎1 𝑎𝑎3 𝑎𝑎5 𝑎𝑎7
𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑛−2 𝑏𝑏1 𝑏𝑏2 𝑏𝑏3
𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑛−3 𝑐𝑐1 𝑐𝑐2 𝑐𝑐3
⋮
𝑠𝑠 0
where
𝑎𝑎1 𝑎𝑎2𝑛𝑛 − 𝑎𝑎0 𝑎𝑎2𝑛𝑛+1
𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛 =
𝑎𝑎1

53
 𝑏𝑏1 𝑎𝑎2𝑛𝑛+1 − 𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛+1 𝑎𝑎1
𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛 =
𝑏𝑏1

5.2.1.1 Determining Stability from Routh’s Array

During the construction of Routh’s Array of a stable system, all the elements in the first column must
have the same sign.

For a system to be stable, the elements of the first column of Routh’s Array
must have the same sign (either whole column is positive, or the whole column
is negative)

The number instances when the sign change occurs in the first column is equal to number of poles in
the right half of the s – plane.

5.2.1.2 Limiting Cases during construction of Routh’s Array

During construction of Routh’s array, sometimes limitation occurs due to presence of zero in a row.
These limitations can be classified into two special cases:

5.2.1.2.1 Case 1: 1st Element of the Row is Zero

If the first element of any row becomes zero, and the remaining row contains at least one non-zero
element, then this limitation is bypassed by assigning ‘𝜖𝜖’ to replace zero. Afterwards, subsequent
calculations are carried out in the terms of 𝜖𝜖 and then the value of 𝜖𝜖 is allowed to approach zero to
determine the behaviour of the system.

Consider a characteristic equation: 𝑠𝑠 5 + 2𝑠𝑠 4 + 3𝑠𝑠 3 + 6𝑠𝑠 2 + 2𝑠𝑠 + 1 = 0

The Routh’s Array can be constructed as follows

𝑠𝑠 5 1 3 2
𝑠𝑠 4 2 6 1
𝑠𝑠 3 𝜖𝜖 1.5 0
6𝜖𝜖 − 3
𝑠𝑠 2 1 0
𝜖𝜖
6𝜖𝜖 − 3
1.5 � � − 𝜖𝜖
𝜖𝜖
𝑠𝑠1
6𝜖𝜖 − 3
� �
𝜖𝜖
𝑠𝑠 0
Therefore, when 𝜖𝜖 → 0

6𝜖𝜖 − 3 6𝜖𝜖 3 3
lim � � = lim � − � = lim �6 − � = lim (6 − ∞) = −∞
𝜖𝜖→0 𝜖𝜖 𝜖𝜖→0 𝜖𝜖 𝜖𝜖 𝜖𝜖→0 𝜖𝜖 𝜖𝜖→0

Similarly,
6𝜖𝜖 − 3
1.5 � � − 𝜖𝜖 1.5(−∞) − 0
lim � 𝜖𝜖 �= = 1.5
𝜖𝜖→∞ 6𝜖𝜖 − 3 −∞
� �
𝜖𝜖
Hence, the Routh’s Array can be written as

54
 𝑠𝑠 5 1 3 2
𝑠𝑠 4 2 6 1
𝑠𝑠 3 𝜖𝜖 1.5 0
𝑠𝑠 2 −∞ 1 0
𝑠𝑠1 1.5
𝑠𝑠 0

As shown above, there is a sign change in 4th row, therefore the system is unstable.

5.2.1.2.2 Case 2: Whole Row is Zero

Sometimes while making a Routh table, an entire row consists of zeros because there is an even
polynomial that is a factor of the original polynomial. This case must be handled differently from the
case of a zero in only the first column of a row.

This case can be tackled by forming an auxiliary equation from the row above and differentiating to
form the equation for the row below. The following illustrative example will better demonstrate the
process.

Consider a characteristic equation: 𝑠𝑠 5 + 7𝑠𝑠 4 + 6𝑠𝑠 3 + 42𝑠𝑠 2 + 8𝑠𝑠 + 56

𝑠𝑠 5 1 6 8
𝑠𝑠 4 7 42 56
𝑠𝑠 3 0 0 0

The auxiliary equation from the second row is given by: 7𝑠𝑠 4 + 42𝑠𝑠 2 + 56

The derivative of auxiliary equation is: 28𝑠𝑠 3 + 84𝑠𝑠

Therefore, the Routh’s Array is

𝑠𝑠 5 1 6 8
𝑠𝑠 4 7 42 56
0 0 0
𝑠𝑠 3
28 84 0
𝑠𝑠 2 21 56 0

5.3 ROOT LOCUS ANALYSIS

5.3.1 Sketching Root Locus
1. Start with open loop Transfer Function with unity feedback (i.e. 𝐻𝐻(𝑠𝑠) = 1) of the form

KG(𝑠𝑠)𝐻𝐻(𝑠𝑠) = 0

2. Evaluate singularities (poles and zeros) of the transfer function and plot the points

3. On real axis, locus exists on the left side of singularities

• The path of the locus is such that it goes from pole to zero

55
 • Each pole must be pared with a unique zero

 In case of excess of poles, the locus from pole seeks zero at infinity (implied
zero)

 In case of excess of zeros, the locus approaches zero from infinity (implied
pole)

4. As 𝐾𝐾 approaches infinity, locus is asymptotic, and the asymptote parameters are

(2𝑘𝑘 + 1)180°
Asymptote Angle = 𝑘𝑘 = 0, 1, … , (𝑝𝑝 − 𝑧𝑧 − 1)
𝑝𝑝 − 𝑧𝑧
Σ𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑖 − Σ𝑧𝑧𝑖𝑖
Asymptote & Real Axis Intercept = cg =
𝑝𝑝 − 𝑧𝑧

5. Breakaway point (𝜎𝜎𝑏𝑏 ) refers to the intersection of locus from conjugate pole to the real axis
and is given by

either
𝑝𝑝 𝑧𝑧
1
� = �(𝜎𝜎𝑏𝑏 − 𝑧𝑧𝑖𝑖 )
(𝜎𝜎𝑏𝑏 − 𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑖 )
𝑖𝑖=1 𝑖𝑖=1

or

by rewriting the transfer function as

𝐾𝐾 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑠𝑠)

and evaluating

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
=0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
6. Intersection of locus with real axis occurs at ±90°

7. Calculate angle of locus (i.e. angle of departure/arrival) at conjugate pole by

𝜃𝜃𝑑𝑑 = − � 𝜃𝜃 + 180°

Where 𝜃𝜃 for poles is taken positive and 𝜃𝜃 for zeros are taken as negative, that is

𝜃𝜃 = Arg(𝑝𝑝0 − 𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑖 ) for poles

𝜃𝜃 = Arg(𝑝𝑝0 − 𝑧𝑧𝑖𝑖 ) for zeros

8. Locus intersection with imaginary axis can be calculated using Routh’s Array for closed loop
transfer function. Firstly, evaluate the closed loop transfer function from the given open loop
function by using

𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾(𝑠𝑠)
Closed Loop T. F =
1 + 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾(𝑠𝑠)𝐻𝐻(𝑠𝑠)

56
 • Construct the Routh’s Array and look for a row that can be completely zero for a given
value of 𝐾𝐾 such that 𝐾𝐾 > 0, and find the corresponding value of 𝐾𝐾.

• After evaluating value of 𝐾𝐾 , calculate the value of 𝑠𝑠 by using the any row of the
Routh’s Array.

5.3.2 Root Locus Parameter Calculations

𝜔𝜔𝑑𝑑 = Im(𝑝𝑝)
1
= |Re(𝑝𝑝)| = ζωn
𝜏𝜏
𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 = 𝑟𝑟(𝑝𝑝)
𝜁𝜁 = cos[180 − 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴(𝑝𝑝)]

5.3.3 Evaluation of intersection of damping line and Locus

1. Using the rough sketch drawn, estimate the either the real part of required intersection point
or estimate the radius of the intersecting line

• In case of estimation of real part of the intersection point, determine corresponding

imaginary value by

Im(𝑠𝑠0 )
tan 𝜃𝜃 = � �
Re(𝑠𝑠0 )

• Now using the determined Im(𝑠𝑠0 ) and the estimate of Re(𝑠𝑠0 ) , evaluate the
radius/magnitude of the complex number ‘𝑠𝑠’

2. For the correct value of ‘𝑠𝑠’, sum of negative pole angles and positive zero angle will result in
an angle that is an odd multiple of 180°, that is
𝑝𝑝 𝑧𝑧

− � 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴(𝑠𝑠0 − 𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑖 ) + � 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴(𝑠𝑠0 − 𝑧𝑧𝑖𝑖 ) = (2𝑁𝑁 + 1)180 𝑛𝑛 ∈ ℤ

𝑖𝑖=1 𝑖𝑖=1

• Keep varying the value of radius while keeping the angle constant until the above
equation is satisfied.

3. To find the value of gain constant 𝐾𝐾 at the value of ‘𝑠𝑠’ found in previous step, following
equation can be used

∏𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑖=1|𝑠𝑠0 − 𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑖 | |𝑠𝑠0 − 𝑝𝑝1 ||𝑠𝑠0 − 𝑝𝑝2 | … �𝑠𝑠0 − 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 �

|𝐾𝐾| = =
∏𝑧𝑧𝑖𝑖=1|𝑠𝑠0 − 𝑧𝑧𝑖𝑖 | |𝑠𝑠0 − 𝑧𝑧1 ||𝑠𝑠0 − 𝑧𝑧2 | … |𝑠𝑠0 − 𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 |

Alternatively, following equivalent expression may also be used

|𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾(𝑠𝑠)𝐻𝐻(𝑠𝑠)| = 1

57