Student Lab Manual Group 5

National University of Sciences & Technology

FULL – WAVE RECTIFIER

Lab 05

EE 212-Basic Electronics

Instructor: Mr Afzal

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & POWER ENGINEERING

EE 212 Basic Electronics 17 PN Engineering College

Student Lab Manual Group 5

Experiment 05

FULL – WAVE RECTIFIER

Objective: -
To find the Ripple factor and regulation of a Full-wave Rectifier with and without filter.

APPARATUS: -
Experimental Board
Transformer (12-0-12v).
P-n Diodes, (lN4007) ---2Nos
Multimeters –2Nos
Filter Capacitor (100μF/25v) -
Connecting Wires
Load resistor, 1KΩ

THEORY: -
The circuit of a center-tapped full wave rectifier uses two diodes D1&D2. During positive
half cycle of secondary voltage (input voltage), the diode D1 is forward biased and D2is reverse
biased.
The diode D1 conducts and current flows through load resistor RL. During negative half cycle,
diode D2 becomes forward biased and D1 reverse biased. Now, D2 conducts and current flows
through the load resistor RL in the same direction. There is a continuous current flow through the
load resistor RL, during both the half cycles and will get unidirectional current as show in the
model graph. The difference between full wave and half wave rectification is that a full wave
rectifier allows unidirectional (one way) current to the load during the entire 360 degrees of the
input signal and half-wave rectifier allows this only during one half cycle (180 degree).

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: -

Without Filter:

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With Filter :

PROCEDURE:

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. Connect the ac mains to the primary side of the transformer and the secondary side to the rectifier.
3. Measure the ac voltage at the input side of the rectifier.
4. Measure both ac and dc voltages at the output side the rectifier.
5. Find the theoretical value of the dc voltage by using the formula Vdc=2Vm/П
6. Connect the filter capacitor across the load resistor and measure the values of Vac and Vdc at the
output.
7. The theoretical values of Ripple factors with and without capacitor are calculated.
8. From the values of Vac and Vdc practical values of Ripple factors are calculated. The practical
values are compared with theoretical values.

THEORITICAL CALCULATIONS: -

Vrms = Vm/ √2
Vm=Vrms√2
Vdc=2Vm/П
(i)Without filter:
Ripple factor, r = √ ( Vrms/ Vdc )2 -1 = 0.482
(ii)With filter:

Ripple factor, r = 1/ (4√3 f C RL) where f =50Hz

C =100µF
RL=1KΩ
PRACTICAL CALCULATIONS:
Without filter:-
Vac=
Vdc=
Ripple factor, r=Vac/Vdc

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With filters:-
Vac=
Vdc=
Ripple factor=Vac/Vdc

Without Filter:
USING Vac(v) Vdc(v) r= Vac/Vdc
DMM
4.2 11.05 0.38

With Filter

USING Vac(v) Vdc(v) r= Vac/Vdc

DMM
0.30 17.46 0.0017

Without Filter

Vrms = Vm/ √2, Vdc=2Vm/П ,Vac=√( Vrms2- Vdc2)

Vm(v) Vac(v) Vdc(v) r= Vac/Vdc

USING 17 5.24 10.82 0.492
CRO

With Filter

V1(V) V2(V) 𝐕𝟏 + 𝐕𝟐 𝐕𝟏 − 𝐕𝟐 𝑽𝒂𝒄

𝑽𝒅𝒄 = 𝑽𝒂𝒄 == 𝒓=
USING 𝟐 𝟐√𝟑 𝑽𝒅𝒄
CRO

17.45 17.5 17.48 0.0144 0.0008

PRECAUTIONS:

1. The primary and secondary side of the transformer should be carefully identified
2. The polarities of all the diodes should be carefully identified.

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QUESTIONS:

1. What is the relationship of Vdc and Vpeak in full wave rectification?

2 𝑉𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘
𝑉𝑑𝑐 =
𝜋

2. Why the AC component is less than the DC component in full wave rectification?

In full wave rectification AC component is less than DC component because output is pulsating
DC and all of the input is shifted on one side in output. This results in high DC component.

3. What is the relationship of Vpeak and Vrms in full wave rectification?

𝑉𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
√2

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Student Lab Manual Group 5

National University of Sciences & Technology

Full – Wave Rectifier using Bridge configuration

Lab 06

EE 212-Basic Electronics

Instructor: Mr Afzal

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & POWER ENGINEERING

EE 212 Basic Electronics 23 PN Engineering College

Student Lab Manual Group 5

EXPERIMENT # 06

Full – Wave Rectifier using Bridge configuration

Objective:

To experimentally analyze a full – wave rectifier circuit using bridge configuration

Equipment’s/Components: Semiconductor diodes
Multi-meter
Transformer
Resistor = 1kΩ
Oscilloscope

Procedure:

1. Connect the transformer to 220V mains supply and observe the voltages across terminals A,
B and C as shown in figure 1, 2 and 3 using oscilloscope and multi-meter.

2. Next, analyze the behaviour of the full – wave rectifier. Connect the circuit as shown in figure
4. Using oscilloscope, observe the voltage across RL.

3. Measure the DC voltage across RL using multi-meter. Theoretically, calculate the DC voltage
using following equation and compare it with your observed reading:

VDC = 0.636 (VP – 2VD) ----------------- (1)

Note: VP is the peak voltage at the secondary of the transformer and VD is the forward
voltage drop of the diode.

4. Disconnect D1 from the circuit and observe VL. Connect D1 back to its respective position
and disconnect D2. Observe VL. Repeat the same procedure for D3 and D4.

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QUESTIONS:

1. What is the relationship of Vdc and Vpeak in full wave rectification?

2
𝑉𝑑𝑐 = 𝑉
𝜋 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘

2. Why the AC component is less than the DC component in full wave rectification?

In full wave rectification AC component is less than DC component because output is pulsating
DC and all of the input is shifted on one side in output. This results in high DC component.

3. What is the relationship of Vpeak and Vrms in full wave rectification?

𝑉𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
2𝜋

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Student Lab Manual Group 5

National University of Sciences & Technology

BJT as a Switch

Lab 07

EE 212-Basic Electronics

Instructor: Mr Afzal

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & POWER ENGINEERING

EE 212 Basic Electronics 26 PN Engineering College

Student Lab Manual Group 5

EXPERIMENT # 07
BJT as a Switch

OBJECTIVE:

To theoretically and experimentally analyze the use of BJT as a switch.

Equipments/Components:
Multimeter
Transistor
Resistors
LED
DC power supplies
Function generator
Oscilloscope

Lab Measurement:

Figure 1 shows a simple BJT switch that is used to drive an LED.

Estimate the DC current gain, βdc of the BJT using DMM.
By forward biasing the LED, estimate the forward voltage drop, VFLED of the LED. Usually this
value is between 1.5V to 3V.
Suppose our design requirement is to operate the BJT as a switch such that a current of 10mA
flows through the LED when the switch is ON, i.e. IC(SAT) =10mA when the BJT is in saturation.
Using (1), we can calculate the value of RC that will enable a current of 10mA to flow through
the LED when the BJT is in saturation, i.e. when VCE = 0V.

𝑉𝑐𝑐 = 𝐼𝑐 𝑅𝑐 + 𝑉𝐹𝐿𝐸𝐷 + 𝑉𝐶𝐸 (1)

The required base current to get 10mA saturation current can be estimated using (2).
𝐼𝑐(𝑆𝐴𝑇)
𝐼𝐵(𝑆𝐴𝑇) = (2)
𝛽𝑑𝑐

Practically it is better to keep the base current a bit high. This is called „hard saturation’. Let
the hard saturation current be represented by IB(SAT-HARD). For example IB(SAT-HARD) can be 2 times
IB(SAT). This ensures that the base current is high enough to keep the transistor in saturation. The
required value of RB to pump IB(SAT-HARD) into the base of the transistor can be calculated using
(3).
𝑉𝐵𝐵 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸
𝑅𝐵 =
𝐼𝐵(𝑆𝐴𝑇−𝐻𝐴𝑅𝐷)

Construct the circuit as shown in Fig. 1 with the calculated values of RC and RB. Now apply a
timer input (0 and 5V level) from function generator at base and observe the blinking of LED.

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Also observe the input and output on oscilloscope at dual mode. We can observe that when Vin
= 0V Vout = Vcc (ON State) and when Vin = 5V, Vout = 0V (OFF State).

Figure 1

Questions:

1. How to find the terminal of BJT by using DMM?

• Keep the Multimeter in the Diode mode.
• Keep the positive probe to the center pin (Base) of the transistor.
• Touch the negative probe to the pin-1 (Emitter). You will see some voltage in the
multimeter.
• Similarly touch the negative probe to the pin-3 (collector) with respect to the pin-2. You
will see some voltage in the multimeter.
• It will ensure that it is a NPN transistor. The logic behind this is, in NPN transistor
Emitter (E) - N type material - Equivalent to cathode of the diode
Base (B) - P type material - Equivalent to anode of the diode
Collector(C) - N type material - Equivalent to cathode of the diode
• If the multimeter positive probe is connected to anode and negative probe is connected to
cathode, then it will show voltage. If the connections are interchanged it will not show any
value.

2. By controlling which parameter we can limit the Ic (collector current)?

By controlling Vbb parameter we can limit the Ic (collector current).

3. What is the gain of BJT?

𝐼𝑐
The gain of BJT is ratio of collector current to base current. 𝛽 =
𝐼𝑏

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Student Lab Manual Group 5

National University of Sciences & Technology

Voltage Divider Bias using BJT

Lab 08

EE 212-Basic Electronics

Instructor: Mr Afzal

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & POWER ENGINEERING

EE 212 Basic Electronics 29 PN Engineering College

Student Lab Manual Group 5

EXPERIMENT # 08

Voltage Divider Bias using BJT

Objective:

▪ To experimentally analyze a BJT Voltage Divider Bias (VDB) circuit

▪ To appreciate the fact that a VDB is quiet insensitive to variation in transistor‟s DC current
gain

Equipments/Components:
▪ Multi-meter
▪ DC supply
▪ Resistors
▪ Transistor (2SC828)

Lab measurements:

1. Refer to the VDB circuit in Figure 1. The circuit parameters are as follows:
a. IE  DC emitter current.
b. VCE  Voltage at collector w.r.t. emitter (DC)
c. VBE  Voltage at base w.r.t. emitter (DC)
d. VB  Voltage at base w.r.t. ground (DC)
e. VE  Voltage at emitter w.r.t. ground (DC)
f. RC ,RL ,RE  Collector resistance, load resistance, emitter resistance
g. βdc DC current gain of the transistor
h. R1 and R2  Resistances of voltage divider network
i. VCC  Power supply

2. Experimentally evaluate the DC current gain, βdc of the BJT.

3. Using equation (1), calculate RE such that RIN (base)> 10 R2 where RIN (base) is the input
impedance of the base.

RIN (base) = βdc RE -------------------- (1)

4. Using equation (2), calculate the value of RC such that the saturation current is around 10mA.

IC (sat) = VCC / (RC + RE) --------------- (2)

5. Suppose our requirement is to set the collector current at 5mA. Using the following equations,
calculate the value of R1 to appropriately bias the circuit:

VE = IE RE ------------------------------ (3)
VB = VBE + VE ------------------------- (4)
VB = (R2 / (R1 + R2)). VCC --------- (5)

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6. Observe the value of IC and compare it with the specified value. Also measure VCE and verify
its observed value using equation (6).
7. Draw the load line of the circuit and locate the Q – point (VCE, IC) on the load line.
8. Replace the 2SC828 used with a few other samples of the same transistor. You will notice
there is no significant change in the Q – point despite the fact that there will be noticeable
variation in βdc of the transistors. This explains the fact that the Q – point of a VDB is immune
to variations in the transistor‟s βdc.

Figure 1

Questions:

1. What‟s the relation between base and collector current?

𝐼𝑐 = 𝛽𝐼𝐵

2. What is meant by saturation collector current?

The amount of current passing through transistor when Vce is at 0V is called saturation
collector current. At this point the relation of base current and collector current is no more in
line.

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Student Lab Manual Group 5

National University of Sciences & Technology

Voltage Divider Bias using BJT

Lab 09

EE 212-Basic Electronics

Instructor: Mr Afzal

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & POWER ENGINEERING

EE 212 Basic Electronics 32 PN Engineering College

Student Lab Manual Group 5

EXPERIMENT # 9
Design and Analysis of a Common Emitter Amplifier

OBJECTIVE:-

To study Common Emitter Amplifier.

EQUIPMENT:-

1. Breadboard
2. Power Supply
3. Digital Multimeter (DMM)
4. Oscilloscope with probes
5. Function Generator with probe
6. Resistors: 2.2kΩ, 10kΩ, 3.3kΩ, 1kΩ, 1.2kΩ
7. Capacitors: 1µF (2), 470µF
8. Transistor: 2N3904

THEORY:-

The CE configuration is the most widely used of all BJT amplifier circuits. To establish a signal
ground at the emitter, a large capacitor CE is connected between emitter and ground. This capacitor
is required to provide a very low impedance to ground ideally zero. CE acts as a bypass capacitor.
The lower the signal frequency the less effective the bypass capacitor becomes. The CE amplifiers
are used for large voltage gain. The CE configuration is the best suited for realizing the bulk of the
gain required in an amplifier. Depending on the magnitude of gain required, either a single stage or
a cascade of two or three stages can be used.

Voltage Gain
The voltage gain is the ratio of ac output voltage to ac input voltage.
Av = υo/υin

Current Gain
The current gain from base to collector is Ic/Ib or β. However, the overall current gain is Ai = ίo/ίin

Power Gain
The power gain is the product of the overall voltage gain and the current
gain. Ap = Av* Ai

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-
VCC
15V
R7
R1 3.3kΩ
100kΩ
C3
Q1
C1
10µF
R3
10µF 10kΩ
2N3904
C2
10mVrms
V1 10kHz R2
0° 10kΩ 10µF
R4
330Ω

Figure 1
FORMULAE: -

DC Analysis:

VBE = 0.7V

VT = 25mV

VB = [RB2 / (RB1+RB2)] * VCC = 0.9 V

VE = VB – VBE = 0.9-0.7= 0.2V

IE = VE / RE ≈ IC = 0.2/330= 0.6mA

IB = IC / β = 0.6/386=1.55µA

VC = VCC – ICRC = 10-0.6mA(3.3k ohm) = 8.02V

VCE = VC - VE = 8.02-0.2= 8V

VCB = VCE - VBE = 8V-0.7V= 7.3V

rπ= βVT / IC = 386(25mV)/ 0.6mA= 16083.3

gm = IC/VT = 0.6mA/25mA=0.024

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Gain without RL:

Av = - gm RC
Av = - (0.024) (3300) = -79.2
Gain with RL:
AV = - gm (RC║RL)
AV = - 0.024 (3300║10,000) =-59.54

Input
Resistance: Ri
= RB║rπ
= 10,000║16,083.3
=6166.12 ohm
Current Gain:
Ai = ίc/ ίb = β
=0.6mA/1.55 µA
=387
Power Gain:
AP = Ai * AV
=23041.98
Output Resistance:
Ro = RC║rO≈ RC
=3300║3300
=1650 ohm

PROCEDURE AND OBSERVATION: -

Construct the circuit as shown in figure 1.
1. Set the power supply voltage to 15V.
2. Perform DC analysis and complete table 1.
3. Apply AC signal from function generator.
4. Calculate and measure the gain to record in observation table 2.
TABLE 1

S. No. PARAMETERS CALCULATED MEASURED

1 Β 386 350
2 VCE 8V 6.1V
3 VCB 7.3V 5.2V
4 IC 0.6mA 0.6mA
5 IB 1.55 µA 1.44 µA
6 IE 0.6mA 0.9mA
7 VC 8.02V 6.4V
8 VB 0.9V 1.2V
9 VE 0.2V 0.3V

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TABLE 2
S.No. Voltage Gain Calculated Measured
Without RL With RL Without RL With RL
1 AV -79.2 -59.54 -90 -50

Questions:

Why the output is 180-degree phase shift?

In a CE amplifier, when base voltage increase, base current increases. It causes an increase in
collector current also. The collector current causes a voltage drop in the collector resistor. Because
the output is situated below the collector resistance (with reference to Vcc) the output voltage will
decrease as voltage drop across collector resistor increase. Thus, it produces a 180-phase shift.
(input positive, output negative and vice versa)
What is the max gain of the common emitter?
The maximum value of CE mode transistor is observed when there is no load RL. In the present
case it was about 90 without load and 50 with load.

What is the role of bypass capacitor and coupling capacitor?

The parallel connected bypass capacitor effectively becomes a short circuit to the Emitter resistor at
high frequency signals due to its reactance. Thus only RL plus a very small internal resistance acts as
the transistors load increasing voltage gain to its maximum. Generally, the value of the bypass
capacitor, CE is chosen to provide a reactance of at most, 1/10th the value of RE at the lowest operating
signal frequency.

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