EEE3411 Electronics

│LECTURE 1│
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Diode and Power Supply Circuits

Learning Objectives

 Understand the characteristics of semiconductor diode

and zener diode.

 Understand the operation of rectifier circuits, zener

regulator and IC regulators.

1. VI characteristics of a diode

A semiconductor diode is a two-terminal device composed a p-type and

n-type semiconductor. The terminal connecting to the p-type region is called
anode and the terminal connecting to the n-type region is called the cathode.
The curve showing the relationship between the voltage across the terminals
and the current flowing through it is known as VI characteristic curve.

Fig 1-1 Diode structure and schematic symbol

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 1.1 Typical VI characteristics of a diode

Fig 1-2 Typical VI characteristics of a diode.

2. Forward and reverse bias

2.1 Forward bias

Forward bias is the condition that allows current through the pn

junction.
Voltage source or bias connections are (+) to the P material and (–) to
the N material.
Bias must be greater than 0.3 V for Germanium or 0.7 V for Silicon
diode.

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Measuring the VI characteristics of a forward bias diode:

Fig 1-3 Measuring the VI characteristics of a diode.

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 2.2 Reverse bias

Reverse biasis the conduction that essentially prevents current through

the pn junction.
Voltage source or bias connections are (–) to the P material and (+) to
the N material.
Bias must be less than the break down voltage

3. Rectifier circuits, filter circuits, voltage clamper,

voltage clipper

3.1 Rectifying circuits

The function of rectifying circuit is to convert an a.c. signal into d.c.

signal.

Half-wave rectifier circuit

A ideal half wave rectifier allows conduction for only 180° or half of a
complete cycle.
The output frequency is the same as the input.
The average VDC = 0.318 Vp

Fig 1-4 Half-wave rectifier circuit.

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Example
What is the average value of the half-wave rectified voltage in the
Figure 1-5?

Fig 1-5 Half-wave rectifier wave.

Solution

VAVG = VDC = 0.318Vp = 0.318 x 100 = 31.8V

Effect of Barrier Potential

If the 0.7 V barrier potential of the diode is taken into account, the
resulted half-wave peak output voltage would be 0.7 V less than the
peak value of the input.

Fig 1-6 Effect of barrier potential.

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 Consideration of Peak Inverse Voltage
Peak inverse voltage (PIV) is the maximum voltage across the diode
when it is in reverse bias.
The diode must be capable of withstanding this amount of voltage.

Fig 1-7 Consideration of PIV.

Transformer-coupled Input
Transformers are often used for voltage change and isolation.
The turn ratio of the primary to secondary determines the output versus
the input.
The primary winding has no direct connection with the secondary
winding and hence prevents shock hazards in the secondary circuit.

Example
Determine the peak value of the output voltage for Figure 1-8 if the
turns ratio (n = N2/N1) is 0.5.

Fig 1-8 Transformer coupled circuit.

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Solution

Vp(pri) = Vp(in) = 156 V

The peak secondary voltage, Vp(sec) = nVp(pri) = 0.5(156) = 78 V
The rectified peak output voltage is
Vp(out) = Vp(sec) − 0.7 V = 78 V − 0.7 V = 77.3 V

Full-wave rectifier circuit

A full-wave rectifier allows current to flow during both the positive and
negative half cycles or the full 360º.
Note that the output frequency is twice the input frequency.
The average VDC = 0.637Vp

Example
What is the average value of the full-wave rectified voltage in
Figure 1-9?

Fig 1-9 Full-wave rectified waveform.

Solution

VAVG = VDC = 0.637Vp = 0.637 x 15 = 9.55V

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 Center-tapped Transformer Full-wave Rectifier
This method of rectification employs two diodes connected to a
center-tapped transformer.
The peak output is only half of the transformer’s peak secondary
voltage.

Fig 1-10 Center-tapped transformer full-wave rectifier

Operation of center-tapped transformer full-wave rectifier is illustrated

in the Figure 1-11 below.

Fig 1-11 Operation of Center-tapped transformer full-wave rectifier

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Current flowing through the load resistor is in the same direction during
both half-cycles.
Since the transformer is center tapped, the peak output voltage across
the load is about half of the secondary windings total voltage.

․Vp(out) = Vp(sec)/2 (ideal diode)

․Vp(out) = Vp(sec)/2 − 0.7V (practical diode)

PIV in center-tapped transformer full-wave rectifier circuit

Each diode is subjected to a PIV of the full secondary winding output
minus one diode voltage drop.
PIV = 2Vp(out) + 0.7V

Fig 1-12 PIV in Center-tapped transformer full-wave rectifier

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 Example
Show the voltage waveform across each half of the secondary winding
and across RL when a 100 V peak sine wave is applied to the primary
winding in Figure 1-13. Also, what minimum PIV rating must the diodes
have?

Fig 1-13 Example of PIV in Center-tapped transformer full-wave rectifier

Solution

Vp(sec) = nVp(pri) = 0.5(100 V) = 50 V

PIV =Vp(sec) − 0.7 V = 50 V − 0.7 V = 49.3 V

Waveforms:

Fig 1-14 Waveforms in Center-tapped transformer full-wave rectifier

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Full-wave Bridge Rectifier Circuit

The full-wave bridge rectifier takes advantage of the full output of the
secondary winding.
It employs four diodes arranged such that current flows in the direction
through the load during each half of the cycle.

Fig 1-15 Full-wave bridge rectifier circuit

PIV in full-wave bridge rectifier circuit

The PIV for a bridge rectifier is approximately half the PIV for a
center-tapped full-wave rectifier.
PIV =Vp(out) + 0.7V

Fig 1-16 Full-wave bridge rectifier circuit

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 Example
Determine the peak output voltage for the bridge rectifier in Figure 1-17.
Assuming the practical model, what PIV rating is required for the
diodes? The transformer is specified to have a 12 Vrms secondary
voltage for the standard 110 V across the primary.

Fig 1-17 Example of a full-wave bridge rectifier circuit

Solution

Vp(sec) = 1.414Vrms = 1.414(12 V) ≅ 17 V

Vp(out) = Vp(sec) − 1.4 V = 17 V − 1.4 V = 15.6 V
PIV = Vp(out) + 0.7 V = 15.6 V + 0.7 V = 16.3 V

3.2 Filter circuits

The output of a rectifier is a pulsating DC. With filtering and regulation,

this pulsating voltage can be smoothed out and kept to a steady value.

Fig 1-18 Filtering of pulsating DC waveform

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Capacitor Input Filter

A capacitor-input filter will charge and discharge such that it fills in the
“gaps”between each peak.
This reduces variations of voltage. This voltage variation is called ripple
voltage.

Fig 1-19 Operation of capacitor input filter

Ripple Voltage
Smaller ripple means more effective filtering.
The larger the capacitor value, the smaller the ripple for the same input
and load.
The smaller the load current, the smaller the ripple for the same filter
capacitor.

Fig 1-20 Ripple voltage waveforms

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 The advantage of a full-wave rectifier over a half-wave is quite clear. The
capacitor can more effectively reduce the ripple when the time between
peaks is shorter.

Fig 1-21 Comparing the ripple voltages between half-wave rectified output

and the full-wave rectified output

Ripple Factor
The Ripple Factor (r) is an indication of the effectiveness of the filter and is
defined as r = Vr(pp)/VDC

Fig 1-22 Ripple factor, r

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Surge Current
The capacitor appears as a short during the initial charging of the capacitor,
the current through the diodes can momentarily be quite high. To reduce risk
of damaging the diodes, a surge current limiting resistor is placed in series
with the filter and load.

Fig 1-23 Surge current in charging the capacitor

3.3 Voltage clamper

Voltage clamper is also known as voltage restorer, it adds a dc level to

an ac voltage.

Fig 1-24 Positive voltage clamper

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 The circuit for a positive clamper is shown in the Figure 1-24. During
the negative half cycle of the input signal, the diode conducts and acts
like a short circuit. The capacitor is charged to the peak value of input
voltage Vm. and it behaves like a battery. During the positive half of the
input signal, the diode does not conduct and acts as an open circuit.
Hence the output voltage VO = Vm + Vm .

Fig 1-25 Negative voltage clamper

Refer to the Figure 1-25, during the positive half cycle the diode
conducts and acts like a short circuit. The capacitor charges to peak
value of input voltage Vm. During this interval the output VO which is
taken across the short circuit will be zero. During the negative half
cycle, the diode is open. The output voltage can be found by applying
KVL. VO = - Vm - Vm = -2 Vm

Fig 1-26 Waveforms of the positive clamper and the negative clamper

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3.4 Voltage clipper

Voltage clipper is also known as voltage limiter. It limits or clips parts

of the input voltage.

For the positive clipper, as the input voltage goes positive, the dioe
becomes forward biased and conducts, hence if ideal diode is assumed
the output voltage during this interval will be zero. While the input
voltage goes negative, the diode is reverse biased and hence cuts off, so
the output voltage follows the input voltage as shown.

Fig 1-27 Positive voltage clipper

Similar operation for the negative voltage clipper, waveform is shown

in Figure 1-28.

Fig 1-28 Negative voltage clipper

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 4. VI characteristics of a Zener diode

The basic function of zener diode is to maintain a specific voltage

across it’s terminals within given limits of line voltage or load change.
Typically it is used for providing a stable reference voltage for use in
power supplies and other equipment.

A zener diode is much like a normal diode. The exception being is that
it is placed in the circuit in reverse bias and operates in reverse
breakdown. This typical characteristic curve illustrates the operating
range for a zener. Note that it’s forward characteristics are just like a
normal diode.

Fig 1-29 VI characteristics of zener diode

Zener Breakdown Voltage

The zener diodes breakdown characteristics are determined by the
doping process
Low voltage zeners less than 5V operate in the zener breakdown range
Those designed to operate more than 5 V operate mostly in avalanche
breakdown range
Zeners are available with voltage breakdowns of 1.8 V to 200 V

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Fig 1-30 Breakdown characteristics of zener diode

Zener Diode Equivalent Circuit

For the purpose of analyzing the zener diode circuit, the following
equivalent circuit model may be used.

Fig 1-31 Zener diode equivalent circuit

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 Zener Diode Power Dissipation
Zener diodes are specified to operate at a maximum power called the
maximum dc power dissipation, PD(max)
The 1N746 zener is rated at a PD(max) of 500mW
The 1N3305A is rated at a PD(max) of 50W
The dc power dissipation, PD = VZIZ

5. Zener diode as a shunt regulator

Zener diode will “adjust” itself based on varying input voltages and
loads (RL) so as to maintain it’s designated zener voltage.
Zener current will increase or decrease directly with voltage input
changes.
The zener current will increase or decrease inversely with varying
loads.
The zener has a finite range of operation.

Fig 1-32 Zener diode voltage regulator

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Exsample
Determine the minimum and the maximum input voltages that can be
regulated by the zener diode in Figure 1-33.
(Assume ideal zener diode)

Fig 1-33 Example of a Zener diode voltage regulator

Solution

From 1N4733 data sheet: VZ = 5.1V at IZT = 49mA

IZK = 1mA and ZZ = 0Ω (ideal zener)
PD(max) = 1W
Vin(min) = VZ + IZKRS = 5.1 + (1mA)(100) = 5.2 V
IZM = PD(max)/VZ = 1/5.1 = 196mA
Vin(max) = VZ + IZM = 5.1 + (196mA)(100) = 24.7 V

This example shows that this zener diode can regulate an input
voltage from 5.2V to 24.7V and maintain the 5.1V output.

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 Example
Determine the minimum and the maximum load currents for which the
zener diode in Figure 1-34 will maintain regulation. What is the
minimum RL that can be used? VZ = 12V, IZK = 1mA, and IZM = 50mA.
Assume ZZ = 0Ω and VZ remains a constant 12V over the range of
current values.

Fig 1-34 Example of a Zener diode voltage regulator

Solution

When IL = 0A (RL = ∞), IZ is maximum and equal to the total circuit

current IT.
IZ(max) = IT = (Vin − VZ)/RS =(24 − 12)/470 = 25.5mA
Since IZ(max) is less than IZM, 0A is an acceptable minimum value for
IL because the zener can handle all of the 25.5mA. This means that RL
can be removed from the circuit and regulation will be maintained.
Hence, IL(min) = 0 A
The maximum value of IL occurs when IZ is minimum (IZ = IZK), so
solve for IL(max).
IL(max) = IT − IZK = 25.5 − 1 = 24.5mA
RL(min) = VZ/IL(max) = 12/24.5mA = 490Ω Ω

If RL < 490Ω, RL will draw more current away from the zener and then
IZ < IZK. This will cause the zener to lose regulation.

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6. IC regulator

Regulation is the last step in eliminating the remaining ripple and

maintaining the output voltage to a specific value. Typically this
regulation is performed by an integrated circuit regulator. There are
many different types used based on the voltage and current
requirements.

7800 Series
The 7800 series of IC regulators is representative of three-terminal
devices that provide a fixed positive output voltage

Fig 1-35 7800 series voltage regulator

7900 Series
The 7900 series of IC regulators is representative of three-terminal
devices that provide a fixed negative output voltage.

Typical elements are 7905, 7912 and 7918.

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 Adjustable Positive Linear Voltage Regulators
The LM317 is an example of a three-terminal positive regulator with an
adjustable output voltage.

Fig 1-36 Adjustable positive voltage regulator

Adjustable Negative Linear Voltage Regulators

The LM337 is an example of a three-terminal negative regulator with an
adjustable output voltage.

Fig 1-37 Adjustable negative voltage regulator

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Variable Output Voltage Power Supply

A basic power supply with a variable output voltage (from 1.25 V to 6.5
V) using IC Regulator LM317.

Fig 1-38 Adjustable negative voltage regulator

Dual-polarity Power Supply

A dual-polarity power supply (+12 V and 12 V) using IC Regulators
7812 and 7912.

Fig 1-39 Dual-polarity power supply

Percent Regulation
How well the regulation is performed by a regulator is measured by it’s
regulation percentage. There are two types of regulation, line and load.
Line and load regulation percentage is simply a ratio of change in
voltage (line) or current (load) stated as a percentage.

Line Regulation = (∆VOUT/∆VIN)100%

Load Regulation = (VNL – VFL)/VFL)100%

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 Example
Assume a certain 7805 regulator has a measured no-load output voltage
of 5.185 V and a full-load output of 5.152 V. What is the load regulation
expressed as a percentage?

Solution

Load Regulation = ((VNL – VFL)/VFL)100%

= (5.185 – 5.152)/5.152)100%
= 0.64%

7. Reading data sheets

The diode data sheet

The data sheet for diodes and other devices gives detailed information
about specific characteristics such as the various maximum current and
voltage ratings, temperature range, and voltage versus current curves. It
is sometimes a very valuable piece of information, even for a technician.
There are cases when you might have to select a replacement diode when
the type of diode needed may no longer be available.

Fig 1-40 Sample data sheet for a diode

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 Revision

Read reference on No. 3 Sections 1-6 to 1-8, . 2-1 to 2-4 and 3-1, 3-2

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